Principles of

Electronic Materials and Devices

((authored by
y S. O. Kasap)
p)

Prof T.
Prof. T G.
G Kim
 General Information for KEE220
Instructor: Prof. Tae Geun Kim, 213 Engineering Building
Recommended: Solid-State Physics
Text book:
Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, by S.O. Kasap

Reference book:
1. Solid-State Electronic Devices, by Streetman
2. Teaching Materials, by T. G. Kim
Grading: Midterm 30%, Final 30%, Quiz 20%, Task 10% Attitude 10%
- Task: Selected problems will be given to solve at the end of each chapter

KEE220 Websites: http://asl.korea.ac.kr

TA : D
T.A. Dong J
Ju Ch 3290 3664 chaedju@korea.ac.kr
Chae, 3290-3664, h dj @k k
 What to learn ?
Through
Th h th
the course, we llearn about
b t ffundamental
d t l physics
h i forf electrical/
l t i l/
electronic materials and devices, semiconductors, integrated circuits &
processes, and materials characterizations. The course will be
developed to the subject "semiconductor engineering" open every first
semester of the 3rd grade.

Chapter 1. Elementary materials science concepts

Chapter 2. Electrical and thermal conduction in solids
Chapter 3.
3 Elementary quantum physics
Chapter 4. Modern theory of solids
Chapter 5. Semiconductors
Ch t 6
Chapter 6. S
Semiconductor
i d t d devices
i
Chapter 7. Dielectric materials and insulation
Chapter 8. Magnetic properties and superconductivity
Chapter 9. Optical properties of materials
 Lecture Plan
교과
기간 시험 학 습 내 용 숙제
주 서
1 9.1-9 Ch 1. Atomic Structure, Bonding and Types of Solid p.1-25

Ch.1 Kinetic Molecular Theory, Thermally p. 26-

2 10 16
10-16 49
Activated Process
Ch.1
Ch.1 Crystalline State, Crystalline Defects, Single p. 50-
3 17-21 99
Problem
Crystal, Amorphous Semiconductors
solving
1st Quiz Ch.2.Electrical and Thermal Conduction in Solids, p. 113-
4 24-28 (28일) 140
Drude Model
29
29- Ch.2 Matthiessen's
Matthiessen s Rule,
Rule Mixture Rules & Electrical p. 141-
p 141
5 175
10.7 Switches
p. 176-
6 8-13 Ch.2 Skin Effect, Hall Effect, Thermal Conductivity 190
Ch.2
p. 191-
7 14–20 Ch.2 Interconnection, Electro-migration 220
Problem
solving
중간고사 사
8 21 26
21-26 (21일)
 Ch.3
Ch 3 Photons,
Photons Electrons as a Wave,
Wave Infinite p 221
p. 221-
9 27-31 235
Potential Well

Ch.3 Heisenberg's Uncertainty, Tunneling p. 236-

10 11.1-7 252
Phenomenon Potential Box
Phenomenon, Box, Hydrogen Atom

Ch.3
Ch.3 Helium Atom & Periodic Table, Lasers p. 253-
11 8-15 268
Problem
Ch.4 Band Theory of Solids, Semiconductors
solving
2nd Quiz Ch.4 Electron Effective Mass, Energy Bands, p. 316-
12 16.23 (23일) 328
Statistics
p. 329-
p
13 24 29
24-29 Ch 4 Metals,
Ch.4 M t l Fermi
F i Energy,
E Thermionic
Th i i Emission
E i i 339

30- p. 340-
14 Ch.4 Phonons 352
12.9
p. 353- Ch.4
15 10-16 Ch.4 Band Theory of Metals 361 Problem
Solving
Review of Semester and Discussions of Related
16 11-19 기말고사 Review
Topics
This time table may be subject to change depending on the situation.
 Chapter 1.
Elementary Materials
Science Concepts
 Contents

Ch1.1 Atomic Structure and Atomic Number

Ch1.2 Atomic Mass and Mole
Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids
Ch1.4 Kinetic Molecular Theory
Ch1 5
Ch1.5 M
Molecular
l l V Velocity
l it and
dEEnergy Di
Distribution
t ib ti
Ch1.6 Heat, Thermal Fluctuations, and Noise
Ch1.7 Thermally Activated Processes
 Ch1.1 Atomic Structure and Atomic Number
• To understand the atom’s
atom s general behavior
behavior, one should involve QM; however
however, in
this chapter, a “shell model”, based on the “Bohr model” is considered.
• Nucleus: positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons
- strong nucleus force: neutrons + protons
• Atomic number (Z): the number of proton in the nucleus
• Electrons:
El t assumed
d tto be
b orbiting
biti ththe nucleus
l att very llarge di
distances
t

Figure 1.1 The shell model of the carbon atom,

in which the electrons are confined to certain
shells and subshells within shells
 Ch1.1 Atomic Structure and Atomic Number
• shells and subshells are labeled using two integers: principal quantum number (n)
and orbital angular momentum quantum number (l )
- n = 1, 2, 3, ··· n
- l = 0, 1, 2, 3, ··· n-1 l <n
• a rule to filling up the subshells with electrons Æ the number of electrons: 2(2 l + 1)

The number of electrons

in a subshell is indicated
byy a superscript
p p on the
subshell symbol, as shown
In Fig. 1.1
 Ch1.1 Atomic Structure and Atomic Number
Useful terminologies
• valence electron: the outermost electron, determining the valency of the atom.
- the most important role in atomic interactions because these electrons are the first
to interact with outer electrons on neighboring atoms.
• ionization energy: the smallest energy required to remove a single electron from
a neutral
t l atom
t and
d th
thereby
b create
t a positive
iti iion ((cation)
ti ) and
d an iisolated
l t d electron.
l t
• electron affinity: the energy that is needed, or released, when we add an electron
to a neutral atom to cerate a negative
g ion ((anion))
• Virial theorem: Ex) Assume that E of the ‘e’ in H is -13.6eV;
1 It takes 13.6eV to ionize the H atom.
E = KE + PE , KE = - PE
2
KE = average kinetic energy The average PE of the ‘e’ due to its Coulombic
interaction with the + nucleus is -27.4eV by Virial
PE = average potential energy theorem. Its averageg KE turns out to be 13.6eV
E = average total or overall energy
 Ch1.2 Atomic Mass and Mole
• atomic mass number (A): the total number of protons and neutrons
• isotopes: the same number of protons, a different number of neutrons
1
• atomic mass unit (amu) u: equal to of the mass of a neutral carbon atom which
12
-27
has a mass number A = 12 (u = 1.66054 Х 10 kg)
• atomic weight (Mat ): the average atomic mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes
• Avogadro’s number (NA): the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12
23
(NA = 6.022 Х 10 )
• A mole of a substance: amount of the substance which contains exactly Avogadro’s
number of atoms or molecules
• Convert the composition of a substance from weight
weight- to atomic-
atomic percentage or vice
versa (assuming the substance consists of A, B)
wA, wB = weight fractions of A and B (mat. Eng.)
wA / M A
nA = nB = 1 − n A nA, nB = atomic or molar fractions of A and B (chem)
wA / M A + wB / M B
MA, MB = atomic masses of A and B
Æ Example 1.2, p.9
Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids
1 3 1 Molecules and General Bonding Principles
1.3.1
• The general principle of molecule formation: a bond between the two atoms

E required to separate the two atoms

- Net force : FN = FA + FR dE
- Net force and potential energy : FN =
dr
- Net force in boding between atoms : FN = FA + FR = 0
 Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids
1 3 2 Covalently Bonded Solids : Diamond
1.3.2
• covalent bond: the sharing of valence electrons to complete the subshells of
each atom and thereby reducing the overall potential E of the combination.

ii.e.)) fformation
ti off a covalent
l tb bond
d
between two H atoms, leading to the
H2 molecule
Electron spend a majority of their time
between the two nuclei, which results
in a net attraction between the
electrons and the two nuclei, which is
the origin of the covalent bond
 Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids
1 3 2 Covalently Bonded Solids : Diamond
1.3.2
• coordination number (CN): the number of nearest neighbors for a given atom
ex)) coordination
di ti number
b off carbon
b atom
t =4

The diamond crystal is a covalently

bonded network of carbon atoms.
Each carbon atom is bonded
covalently to four neighbors,
forming a regular three-dimensional
pattern
tt off atoms
t that
th t constitutes
tit t the
th
diamond crystal.
 Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids

• Properties :
- due
d tto strong
t C
Coulombic
l bi attraction
tt ti between
b t the
th shared
h d ‘‘e’’ and
d th
the positive
iti
nuclei, the covalent bond E is the highest for all bond type.
→ lead to veryy high
g melting
g temperatures,
p , veryy hard solids ex)) diamond
- insoluble in nearly all solvents
- directional nature and strength makes it nonductile (or nonmalleable)
- poor electrical conductivity because ‘e’ is not free in a crystal.
 Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids
1 3 4 Metallic Bonding : Copper
1.3.4
• Metal atoms have only a few valence electrons; easily lost from individual atoms
and become collectively shared by all the ions when many metal atoms are
brought together to form a solid (delocalized and form an electron gas or cloud)
cloud).
• ions are packed as closely as possible by the gluing effect of the electrons
between the ions, forming a crystal called the face-centered cubic (FCC)

• the nondirectional nature of the bond (collective sharing of electrons) → ductile

• free valence electrons → the high electrical conductivity
good thermal conductivity

In metallic bonding, the valence

electrons from the metal atoms form a
“cloud of electrons” which fills the metal
ions and “glues” the ions together
through Coulmbic attraction between the
electron gas and the positive metal ions.
 Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids
1 3 4 Ionically Bonded Solids : (NaCl)
1.3.4
• frequently found in materials that normally have a metal and a nonmetal as the
constituent elements (i.e., NaCl, LiF, MgO, CsCl, ZnS)
• ionization
i i i energy : the h energy needed d d to remove the
h electron
l f
from the
h atom
• cohesive energy : the energy required to take solid apart into individual atoms
(i.e., NaCl Æ Na, Cl)
transfer
f

Coulombic force balanced

look like Ne w/+, Ar w/-

Fig. 1.8 the formation of an ionic bond between

Na and Cl atoms in NaCl.
 Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids

1.3.3 Ionically Bonded Solids : Salt

• Properties :
- strong, brittle materials with high melting temperatures compared to metals
- most become soluble in polar liquids such as water
- since there are no free or loose electrons → electrical insulators
- since ions cannot readilyy p
pass vibrational kinetic energy
gy to their neighbors
g
→ lower thermal conductivity
 Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids
1 3 5 Secondary Bonding
1.3.5
• Van der Waals-London force : there exists a weak type of attraction (secondary
bonds) between all atoms and molecules due to a net electrostatic attraction
between the ‘e’e distribution of one atom and the positive nucleus of the other
• In many molecules the concentrations of +/- charges do not coincide shown in
Fig. (a), and electric dipole moment is created.

(a) A permanently polarized molecule

‘e’ donate
i called
is ll d an electric
l t i dipole
di l moment.t
(b) Dipoles can attract or repel each
other depending on their relative
orientations.
i t ti
(c) Suitably oriented dipoles attract
each other to form van der Waals
b d
bonds.
 Ch1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids
1 3 5 Secondary Bonding
1.3.5
• Van der Waals force also occurs Induced-dipole-induced-dipole interaction
between neutral atoms and nonpolar molecules

Charge distribution
static Is no more static

At one instant, the center of mass

Can be displaced from the nucleus
due to various motions of the
The center of mass of the ‘e’
individual ‘e’ around the nucleus
in the closed shells, when
averaged over time, coincides
with the location of the +
nucleus
 Ch1 4
Ch1.4 Ki
Kinetic
ti MMolecular
l l ThTheory off G
Gases
pressure of gas, heat capacity of metals, average speed of ‘e’, noise in resistors

1 4 1 Mean Kinetic Energy and Temperature

1.4.1
• Let’s consider a collection of gas molecules in a container & apply classical
equation of motion to understand a gas equation (PV=nRT).
• The change in the momentum of the molecule following its collision with the wall
is Δp = 2mv x ( m = the mass of the molecule) F exerted by the molecule on face A is
2
Δp 2mvx mvx
F= = =
Δt (2a / v x ) a
( △t = the time to traverse twice
g of the box))
the length

Total P by N molecules on face A, of area a2

Total _ force m 2 2 2
P= = ( v x1 + v x2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + v N )
a2 a3
xN

Nmv 2
P= for 3D
3V

( v 2 = v x 2 + v y 2 + v z 2 = 3v x 2 )
 Ch1.4 Kinetic Molecular Theory
1 4 1 Mean Kinetic Energy and Temperature
1.4.1
• the gas equation
byy theory
y vs. by
y experiment
p
Nmv 2 2 1
P= PV = N ( mv 2 ) N
3V PV vs. Ek 3 2 PV = ( ) RT
NA
1 3 NA = Avogadro’s number
KE = mv 2 = kT , k = R / N A R = gas constant
2 2 K = Boltzmann constant

• When heat is added to a gas, its internal E and its temperature both increase.
- the rise in the internal energy per unit temperature Æ heat capacity
- if we consider 1 mole of gas
gas, then the heat capacity Æ molar heat capacity (Cm)

The total internal energy U of 1 mole of monatomic gas is

Something wrong?
1 3 dU 3 3 Cm of metal
U = N A ( mv 2 ) = N A kT and Cm = = N Ak = R
2 2 dT 2 2 Æ 3R
 Ch1.4 Kinetic Molecular Theory
1 4 1 Mean Kinetic Energy and Temperature
1.4.1
• Maxwell’s principle of equipartition of energy is a useful theorem, which assigns
an average of 1KT/2 to each independent energy term in the expression for total E.

1. Total E for a monatomic molecule

1 2 1 2 1 2
E= mv x + mv y + mv z Æ 3R/2
2 2 2

2. Total E for a rigid diatomic molecule (O2)

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
E = mvx + mv y + mvz + I y wy + I z wz
2 2 2 2 2
( I = moments of inertia, w = angular
g velocities )
Æ 5R/2
Ch1.4 Kinetic Molecular Theory
1 4 1 Mean Kinetic Energy and Temperature
1.4.1
3. A atom in a solid
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1
E= mvx + mv y + mv z + K x x 2 + K y y 2 + K z z 2 Æ 6R/2 = 3R
2 2 2 2 2 2
From Kinetic E of vibration + potential E of the spring in all directions

(a) The ball-and-spring model of solids, in which

the springs
p g represent
p the interatomic bonds.
Each ball (atom) is linked to its neighbors by
springs. Atomic vibrations in a solid involve
three dimensions
(b) An atom vibrating about its equilibrium
position. The atom stretches and
compresses its springs to its neighbors and
has both kinetic and potential energy
energy.
 Ch1.4 Kinetic Molecular Theory
1 4 2 Thermal Expansion:
1.4.2
• Since the amplitude of atomic vibrations increases with temperature
→ all materials expand as the temperature increases
PE vs. r (PE is minimum at r=ro)
E = PE + KE
Due to thermal &
vibrational kinetic E

rav = average separation

at equilibrium

• thermal expansion coefficient (λ): the fractional change in length per unit temperature
1 δL
λ= ⋅ L = L0 [1 + λ (T − T0 )]
L0 δT
Material parameter depending on the bond Lo = original length at To
 Ch1.5 Molecular Velocity and Energy Distribution
• From the kinetic theory,
theory we can determine the root mean square velocity of the
gas molecules but cannot say about the distribution of velocities.
Stern-type experiment (see p. 37)

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of
molecular speeds in nitrogen gas at two
temperatures The ordinate is dN/(Ndv)
temperatures. dN/(Ndv),
the fractional number of molecules per
unit speed interval in (s/km)

dN = nvdv

• Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function : describe the statistics of p

particle velocities
in thermal equilibrium 2
m 3/ 2 2 mv
nv = 4πN ( ) v exp(− )
2πkT 2kT
( nv=velocity density function, N=the total number of molecules, m=molecular mass )
 Ch1.5 Molecular Velocity and Energy Distribution
What is the E distribution of molecules in a gas?
• nE = the number of atoms per unit volume per unit energy at an energy E
• nEdE = the number of atoms with energies in the range E to (E + dE)
• These are the atoms with velocities in the range v to v+dv, Æ nE dE = nv dv
b
because an atom
t with
ith a velocity
l it has
h an energy E.
E

Number of atoms pper unit energy, nE

Average KE at T1.

dv 2 1 3 / 2 1/ 2 E
nE = nv ( ) nE = N( ) E exp(− )
T1

dE π 1/ 2 kT kT Average KE at T2
T2 > T1
<E distribution among
n dE N atoms>
• Probability of energy being in E to (E + dE) = E
N
EA Energy, E

• the energy distribution obeys what is called the Boltzmann energy

Energy distribution distribution
of gas molecules at two different temperatures.
The number of molecules that have energies greater than E is the A
shaded area. This area depends strongly on the temperature as
exp(-E
exp( EA/kT).
/kT)

nE E
= C exp(− ) E = the total energy (KE+PE)
N kT
y
N = the total number of molecules in the system
(see Fig. 1.23) C = a constant that relates to the specific system
 Ch1.6 Heat, Thermal Fluctuations, and Noise
• thermal equilibrium
q : the condition where no net transfer of energy
gy is made from one
to the other over a long time (i.e, a solid in a gas atmosphere: ½(MV2) = 3kT/2)
• However, if ½(MV2) > 3kT/2, E will be transferred from solid atoms to gas molecule
until both are equilibrated in temperature
temperature.
• heat : the amount of energy transferred from the hot body to the cold body by virtue
of the random motions and collisions of the atoms and molecules
SOLID
GAS

V
M v
m
Gas Atom

Solid in equilibrium in air. During collisions between the gas and

solid atoms, kinetic energy is exchanged.
 Ch1.6 Heat, Thermal Fluctuations, and Noise

• Although the mean energy transferred from one atom to the other is zero, the
instantaneous value of this energy is not zero and varies randomly about zero
• On example is observed in fluctuations of a mass attached to a spring, due to
random bombardment by air molecules
If the mass m compresses the spring
byy △x,, then at time t,, the energy
gy
stored as potential energy in the
spring is 1
PE (t ) = K (Δx) 2
2
Over a long period, the average value of
PE will be the same as KE, and by Maxwell
equipartition of E theorem
theorem, 1 1
K ( Δx ) 2 = kT
2 2
and finally the rms value of
kT
( Δx ) rms =
the fluctuations of the mass K
 Ch1.6 Heat, Thermal Fluctuations, and Noise
• To understand the origin
g of electrical noise,, let’s consider the thermal fluctuations
in the instantaneous local electron concentration in a conductor.
- the mean energy stored on C due to thermal fluctuations
1 1 kT should be related to R
E (t ) = C v(t ) 2 = kT v(t ) 2 =
2 2 Noise voltage C

- If the bandwidth B of the RC circuit, B = 1/(2πRC) v(t ) 2 = 2πkTRB

- Johnson resistor noise equation (rms noise voltage) vrms = 4kTRB

Fig. 1.26 Random motion of conduction electrons Fig. 1.27 charging and discharging of a capacitor by a conductor,
in a conductor, resulting in electrical noise. due to random thermal motions of the conduction electrons
 Ch1.7 Thermally Activated Processes (TAP)
1 7 1 Arrhenius Rate Equation
1.7.1
• Many physical and chemical processes strongly depend on T and follow an
E
Arrhenius behavior, in which the rate of change is proportional to exp(− A )
• One example of TAP – diffusion of impurity atoms in a solid kT
- the rate of jump of the impurity – diffusion – from A to B depends on :
1. vibrational frequency (v0) : the number of times the atom tries to go over the
potential barrier
2. the probability that the atom has sufficient energy to overcome the PE barrier
Number of impurities with E>EA
Probability (E>EA) =
Total number of impurities
p
∞

=
∫EA
nE dE
= A exp(−
EA
)
N kT
the frequency of jump ϑ from void to void

ϑ = (Frequency of attempt along AB) (Probability of E>EA )

EA
= Av0 exp(− ) E A = U A∗ − U A
kT
Æ Arrhenius Rate Equation
 Ch1.7 Thermally Activated Processes
1 7 2 Atomic Diffusion and the Diffusion Coefficient
1.7.2
• the total displacement from O to O’ after N jumps (L):
N/2 are θ=0, 180

Each jump results in

a displacement along x
which can be a, 0, -a,
or 0,, corresponding
p g to
4 directions. Since the
mean displacement along
x will be close to zero,
1 2
X 2 = a 2 cos 2 θ1 + a 2 cos 2 θ 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a 2 cos 2 θ N X2 = a N we consider the square
q
2 of the displacement

L2 = X 2 + Y 2 = a 2 N 1 2 , a constant depending
By definition, D = aϑ
2 on the diffusion process
• diffusion
diff i coefficient
ffi i t (D) and temperature
EA
time t for N jump = N/ ϑ L2 = a 2ϑt = 2 Dt ϑ = v0 A exp(− )
kT
1 2 E E
D= a A exp(− A ) = D0 exp(− A )
2 kT kT