West

Advisor
Boats & Outboards Cabin And Galley
Electrical Electronics
Engine Systems Fishing
Maintenance Navigation
Plumbing Rope/Chain/Anchor
Safety Sailboat Hardware
Technical Apparel Trailers
Ventilation
Boats & Outboards
Avoiding UV Damage
Inflatable Safety
Cabin And Galley
Eating Well at Sea
Thermoelectric Refrigeration
Electrical
All-Round Lights
Battery Chemistry
Dual-Purpose Batteries
How to Choose Deep-Cycle Batteries
Lightning Protection
On Waterproof Searchlights
Selecting a Starting Battery
Smart Battery Charging
Switches
Windlass Wiring
Electronics
Autopilot Comparison Chart
Depth Transducer Pros and Cons
Fishfinder/Sonar Comparison Chart
GPS and Chartplotter Comparison Chart
High Seas Communications
How to Select a Fixed Mount VHF Radio
How to Select a Radar
Radar Comparison Chart
Selecting an Autopilot
The Latest on Digital Selective Calling
What does "Waterproof" mean, anyway?
Engine Systems
Assembling an Outboard Fuel System
Exhaust System Basics
Fuel System Installation Checklist
Hydraulic Steering
Selecting Mechanical Controls
Spark Plug Speak
Understanding Mechanical Steering
Fishing
Downrigger Fishing
How to Select a Fishfinder
Inflatable Boats
Sizing Oars and Paddles
West Advisor
Safe Propane
West Advisor
Battery Charger Comparison Chart
Creating a reliable battery system
How to Choose Alternators and Regulators
Inverter Comparison Chart
Marine Grounding Systems
Selecting a Power Inverter
Shore Power
Solar Panels
Wind Generators
West Advisor
Coax Cable
Family Radio Service (FRS) Radios
Fixed-Mount VHF Comparison Chart
Handheld VHF Comparison Chart
How to Select a Fishfinder
How to Select a Handheld VHF Radio
New Methods of High Seas Communications
Selecting a GPS Receiver
Testing Radar Reflectors
VHF Antennas
West Advisor
Beyond Speedometers and Fuel Gauges
Fuel Filter Selection Chart
Getting the Right Engine Parts
Measuring Mechanical Steering Cables
Short durations = frequent changes!
Tips on Propeller Selection
West Advisor
Fishfinder/Sonar Comparison Chart
West Advisor
Maintenance
Antifouling Bottom Paints Avoiding UV Damage
Blisters and Barrier Coats Bottom Paint Compatibility Chart
Bottom Painting Tips Epoxy Products
Gelcoat Repairs Get the Right Amount of Paint
Head & Holding Tank Treaments Primers & Undercoats
Sacrificial Anodes and Galvanic Corrosion Sealant Selection Chart
Sealants Topside Painting Tips
Understanding Antifreeze What to look for in Washdown Pumps
Winch Maintenance Winterizing Checklist
Wood Finishes
West Advisor
Navigation
Binoculars Electronic Chart Displays and Formats
GPS and Chartplotter Comparison Chart Hand Bearing Compasses
How to Select a Radar Navigation Light Rules
Night Scopes Quality Optics Onboard
Radar Comparison Chart Selecting a GPS Receiver
Selecting a Steering Compass USCG REQUIREMENTS
West Advisor
Plumbing
A Word About Bilge Pump Ratings Bronze versus Brass Fittings
Centrifugal Bilge Pumps Head & Holding Tank Treaments
Pressurized Freshwater Systems Selecting Among Different Sanitation Systems
Sizing Up Hose Threads
Thru-Hull Sizes Watermakers
What to look for in Washdown Pumps What To Look For When Choosing a Pump
When is it OK to discharge?
West Advisor
Rope/Chain/Anchor
An Anchoring Lesson in Mexico Anchor Rodes
Anchor Rollers Anchor Windlasses
Anchoring Techniques Boarding Ladders
Constructing a Permanent Mooring Dock Lines
Fenders Windlass Wiring
West Advisor
Safety
Beyond the Coast Guard Minimum Requirements Choosing a Personal Flotation Device (pfd)
Crew Overboard Rescues Emergency Beacons (EPIRBs)
EPIRB Comparison Chart Factors Affecting pfd Performance
Fire Extinguishers Fume Detectors and Alarms
Lightning Protection On Medical Sea Paks
Personal Flotation Devices Registering your 406 EPIRB
Safe Propane Safety Equipment Inventories for Sail and Power
Boats
Safety Harnesses and Jacklines Selecting a Life Raft
Testing Radar Reflectors USCG Minimum Safety Requirements
Visual Distress Signals When are SOLAS flares required?
West Advisor
Sailboat Hardware
Headsail Controls Headsail Furling/Reefing Systems
How to Select Running Rigging Mainsheet Traveler Systems
Sailboat Winches Snatch Blocks
Stainless Steel Rigging Tips on Propeller Selection
Understanding Mechanical Steering Understanding Rail Fittings
Whisker Poles Winch Maintenance
West Advisor
Technical Apparel
Foul Weather Gear
West Advisor
Trailers
Trailer Lighting
West Advisor
Ventilation
Air Conditioning Your Boat Boat Ventilation
West Advisor
Boats & Outboards

Inflatable Boats
Inflatable Safety
Avoiding UV Damage
Sizing Oars and Paddles
West Advisor
Inflatable Boats
Boats & Outboards

Extraordinarily Versatile Craft

Inflatable boats provide a variety of functions for boaters. They can link your vessel to the shore,
expand your exploring range, be used for fishing, diving, or “messing about," or they can be pressed
into service as an emergency life boat—though we are quick to caution customers that they are not life
rafts, and for consideration as such they need to be inflated and equipped with extra equipment.

Which Type?
The floor of an inflatable largely determines application for which the boat will be best suited. The
question is one of portability vs. performance. In general, boats with more flexible floors are easy to
assemble, and easy to stow, but the flexibility imparts a performance penalty. If you want to have a
boat that planes, allowing you to exceed 5 mph, then a stiff floor is required.

Sport Dinghies and Soft-stern Dinghies

These boats are the most flexible of all, since either they have no floorboards, or they use slatted
floorboards. They're very easy to set up and stow, but too mushy for larger engines and higher speeds.
The weight that is saved in the floor makes them easy to drag up on a beach, and combined with a
small 2.5 or 3.5hp outboard, you can have a ton of fun without breaking your back (or the bank!) We
suggest these for short-range exploring, as dinghies for smaller boats, or for camping.

Sportboats

By sportboats, we mean boats with a removable floor system, generally made from plywood sections
with aluminum stiffeners on the sides. After the floor is assembled and the hull is inflated, a small
tapered keel is inflated. This stretches the floor fabric and provides a shallow V shape to the bottom,
which makes the boat ride dramatically better than a flat-bottomed boat. Sportboats require a relatively
flat area for assembly, and there are many parts. The floor makes the resulting boats heavier than
dinghies. However, the rigid floor and V-shaped bottom help these boats perform very well with
outboards from 6–20hp, and they provide excellent performance for the dollar.

Rollup (RU) Boats

Think of these as sportboats with floors you don't have to remove to stow the boat. Using either wood
or plastic extrusions for floor sections, Roll-ups can be unrolled, inflated and launched in minutes. Like
the sportboats, they use an inflatable keel to provide a taut bottom (always a nice thing to have) for
performance. The drawback is that these boats tend to be heavy (110lb. for a 10’ boat), and the floor is
slightly more flexible than a pure sportboat. For ease of assembly, with a rugged floor, they are hard to
beat.

High Pressure Inflatable Floor (HPIF) Boats

The proper pressure for inflatable hulls is around 3.5psi, which feels drum hard. To get similar stiffness
out of a thin (3” thick) floor, you need to inflate it to 11psi. But the result is an extremely light, stiff
floor, which marries the portability of a dinghy to the high performance of a sportboat. We were
astounded at how the inflatable floor boats jump on plane and absorb wakes and waves that would
threaten to throw you out of a hard-bottomed boat. Like the Roll-up boats, you never have to remove
the floor to stow the boat: simply deflate it in place, and roll the entire boat up. Without wood or
aluminum, the weight is extremely low, which improves performance with small engines. While
slightly more expensive than conventional sportboats, HPIF boats are worthy of your consideration.

Rigid Inflatable Boats (RIBs)

Actually a misnomer, the boats are still inflatables, but the hulls are made from fiberglass (or
occasionally aluminum). RIBs are the performance champs, due to their inflexible hulls, which carve
turns and cut through chop like normal fiberglass boats. Due to their stable inflatable hulls, RIBs
commonly have more deadrise (more “V”) to their hulls, providing even better handling than
comparable FRP boats. The fiberglass hulls also shrug off abrasion from cruising gear, sand and gravel,
dive tanks, etc.

But portability, or a lack thereof, is the price you pay for performance. The hulls can not be
disassembled, and therefore you can’t stow your RIB in a bag in the lazarette. You can deflate the
tubes, however, and stow the boat on deck in a far less space than the inflated boat, but it still takes up
space. Therefore, we generally recommend RIBs to boats that either intend to stow their dinghies
inflated on deck, on davits, or deflated and lashed on a weather deck. Due to their lightweight, and
rugged bottom, they are a cinch to trailer on a light-duty boat trailer.

The choice is yours!

Inflatable Safety
Boats & Outboards

Due to their buoyancy, stability, and enormous fun potential, it's easy to forget that inflatable dinghies,
especially with engines large enough to reach planing speeds, can raise some seamanship issues. We
have heard of several situations where an inflatable boat operator has been caught in an offshore breeze
with a DOA engine, and has been faced with either rowing like hell, or being blown out to sea.

We recommend you consider packing a small emergency bag that always stays in your inflatable. The
following gear could make a dramatic difference in whether you'll spend a long, cold night wondering
if you're being missed back at the anchorage, and knowing that you'll be located quickly.

Handheld VHF or FRS radio. Someone is bound to be monitoring Channel 16, or listening to the FRS
radio.

Handheld and aerial flares. We'd recommend some Pinpoint handheld flares (tons of light, highly
waterproof, no slag, great value) and a couple of Orion Startracer or Ski-Safe flares.

Bright flashlight. Take along a bright, waterproof flashlight. Good for finding your boat late at night,
and great for signaling that you need help.

A quart of water. You're not going to expire from thirst, necessarily, but a quart of drinking water
would certainly be nice when drifting on a hot day in Paradise.

A small anchor and 300' of line. We mean small, like 2-3 lbs. and use 1/8" cord for anchor rode.
A space blanket for warmth.
Avoiding UV Damage
Boats & Outboards

Talk to most experts and they'll agree, the most common cause of premature inflatable boat failure is
exposure to the sun. Fading, discoloration, fabric breakdown and damage to painted and varnished
components can all be attributed to UV-B exposure.

How do you protect your boat? The best protection against damaging exposure is a quality fitted cover
for your boat. In addition to their ability to block UV radiation, covers such as our Marine Polyester
models also protect your boat from accumulated dirt, bird droppings and sitting water. Their modest
cost is rapidly repaid by extending the life and the increased resale value of your boat.

Specially-formulated inflatable boat cleaners and protectants, like our Model 190454 Cleaner/Pro-
tector, and comparable products from MDR and Star brite make it much easier to maintain your boat in
"like new" condition, by removing dirt and salt, and leaving a gloss on the fabric.
Sizing Oars and Paddles
Boats & Outboards

The length of an oar must be selected carefully. Oars that are too long are hard to pull, and may not
have enough water clearance on the backstroke. In addition, the oar grips can bang into one another
during the middle of the stroke, which can really hurt your hands if you're not careful. Oars that are too
short have trouble reaching the water, and/or don't allow the rower to get enough leverage.
Here's our rule for sizing oars:

1/2 beam (distance between oarlocks) x 3 + 6" = oar length

Note that narrow-beam boats and low-freeboard boats require shorter oars than this formula suggests.
That is why some Avon inflatables like Redstarts have always used 5 1/2' oars, while Redcrests and
Redseals have always used 6' oars.

The length of a paddle is usually dictated by the amount of freeboard on the boat, or the length of the
paddler's arms. For active paddling in a canoe or raft, choose a paddle that is at least as tall as the
paddler's chin (while standing), in order to get appropriate leverage. A T-handle grip shape is most
comfortable for all day paddling. For a paddle that is infrequently used, like an emergency paddle, you
can choose any one that will fit in the space available.
Cabin And Galley

Eating Well at Sea

Safe Propane
Thermoelectric Refrigeration
West Advisor
Eating Well at Sea
Cabin And Galley

Nothing lifts the spirits of a crew and a skipper better than an excellent meal at sea. Just because
you’re racing across the Pacific doesn’t mean that you have to exist on hardtack like a character from a
Herman Melville novel. The following article offers some outstanding advice to sailors about their
second favorite topic when they are at sea. Bon appetit

Eating Well at Sea

In 1990, a group of West Marine associates sailed in the West Marine Pacific Cup on the company’s
Santa Cruz 40 “ProMotion”. Although our race performance was mediocre, we consoled ourselves by
eating well and we enjoyed the trip nonetheless. This was due to a very thorough provisioning job by
Phil, one of our crew. He planned on an 11 day passage with five crew, but you can scale up or down
accordingly. The following hints might be helpful to you as you provision for a moderate length
voyage.

All of the crew prepared two entrιes for dinner prior to departure and froze them in heavy-duty
aluminum baking trays covered with foil. Three of these baking tins were loaded into commercial
quality foam boxes with 20 lbs. of dry ice. The boxes were taped shut and left undisturbed until we
needed them. Every three days, we would open one of the boxes and place one entrιe in an Igloo cooler
to act as ice. The other two entrees were placed in the icebox where our Cold Machine kept them
frozen until needed. Prior to the dinner hour, Phil would light the Force 10 oven and place dinner in it.
In about an hour and a half, we would have a great home-cooked meal, with almost no preparation.

The Force 10 stove is the first sea-going oven we have used that has a usable broiler and a great oven.
English muffins, cheese bread, and nachos – it performed flawlessly. We strongly recommend Force
10 stoves with the broiler option. If you are still struggling with an alcohol or kerosene stove/oven, do
yourself a favor and get a propane system. It is so much easier than lighting liquid fuel burners, and we
are confident in its safety when installed correctly.

Although we filled our water tanks before leaving (the race requires 15 gallons per person), all of our
drinking water came from one and two-gallon spring water jugs purchased at a supermarket. We had a
total of 20 gallons of water in jugs. Water in disposable jugs tastes much better and there is less chance
of contamination due to the safety provided by several small containers. It is also easy to inventory
your water supplies since you can simply count the remaining jugs. Dehydration, especially when
crewmembers are seasick, is a common voyaging malady, so water consumption should be encouraged
for health reasons. We used tank water for clean-up, personal washing, and an occasional shower.

We ate one heavy breakfast every other day, usually consisting of pancakes or scrambled eggs,
followed by a light lunch. On alternate days, we had cereal and fruit for breakfast and a heavier lunch.
Not surprisingly, no one lost weight on the trip due to the variety and quality of the food.

It is important to have available lots of snack foods, especially fruits, which are important for health
and regularity. Bananas, oranges, apples, and other common fruit last a long time, and everyone likes
them.

Most of our meals were served in 16 oz. non-skid bowls. These are high-sided and have a non-skid
rubber bottom, so that the food tends to stay put, even if your helmsperson occasionally loses control.
They clean up easily and are indestructible. For “universal” dishware, these bowls get our strong
endorsement.

Even a small refrigerator is a godsend in the tropics. You get so unbelievably tired of ambient
temperature food when the ice runs out in the icebox without one. Even a small chest-type reefer like
those from Norcold will cool down drinks and make the passage much more uplifting.

Finally, cooking in the tropics really makes you aware of the need for good ventilation. A small hatch
with a dodger over the galley would have been welcome, as would more Nicro Solar Vents. It might
even be worth it to have a small fan and 3” duct to pull heat from the oven area out of the cabin.
Safe Propane Installations
Cabin And Galley

Once you experience the ease of cooking with a propane stove, you’ll never go back to kerosene or
alcohol. The concern with propane is the fact that the gas is heavier than air and will collect in bilge
areas if a leak exists. The diagrams below show two typical recommended installations.

Propane Lockers
All connections between the propane tank, regulator and solenoid valve need to be made in a vapor-
tight compartment separated from the interior of the boat. If your boat does not have a built-in propane
locker, which vents directly overboard, we offer ready-made propane lockers. A vent line (not shown)
from the lowest point of the locker must drain overboard above the waterline.

Tanks
We sell propane tanks that hold from 6 to 20 lb. of Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). A 10-lb. tank lasts for
8 days with eight hungry crew using a three-burner stove for all meals. It would probably sustain a
cruising couple for one-and-a-half months. All propane tanks have a female Prest-O-Lite (POL) fitting
with reverse threads.
Regulators & Pressure Gauges
A pressure gauge, whether a separate unit or built into the regulator, is installed immediately after the
main tank valve and is used to detect leaks in the propane system, not as a fuel gauge. It cannot give
you a precise measurement of the remaining fuel because the pressure remains relatively constant in a
propane system until the fuel runs out. You have to weigh the tank to get an accurate measurement of
remaining fuel.

There are two methods of connecting a regulator to the tank. The Single Stage Regulator with gauge
(Model 320903) screws directly onto the tank at the POL fitting. To mount the regulator remotely from
the tank, use a single or two-stage Wall Mount regulator. These have 1/4" inlets to accept a pigtail
with a 1/4" male flare on one end and a POL fitting on the other.

Solenoid Control Valves

A solenoid is an electrically controlled valve that allows you to shut off the gas supply from a remote
location – ideally from a switch panel located near the appliance. When the switch is on, the valve
opens and gas flows. Flip the switch off and the valve closes to shut off the gas. For safety, the solenoid
closes in the event of a power failure. We offer solenoid valves with either 1/4" or 3/8" NPT ports. For
multiple appliances, the extra flow of gas allowed by the Full Flow 3/8" Solenoid Valve helps prevent
“fuel starvation” downstream. To connect it directly to the regulator, use a 3/8" brass pipe nipple. If
you use one of the many 1/4" NPT solenoid valves, use a Model 553784 adapter on the regulator-
solenoid connection, and a Model 553776 adapter between the solenoid and LP supply hose. All pipe
thread connections must be sealed with a proper thread sealing compound or Teflon® tape.

Supply Hoses
To carry the gas from the regulator to the stove or heater, use LPG supply hose of the correct length. A
Vapor-Tight Straight-Thru fitting should be used where the hose exits your propane locker. Supply
hoses connect to the propane appliance using a 3/8" female flare swivel and connect to the solenoid
with a 3/8" male NPT adapter.
Thermoelectric Refrigeration
Cabin And Galley

Thermoelectric (TE) refrigerators cool electronically without the use of Freon, compressors,
evaporators or any of that complicated stuff. In a thermoelectric refrigerator, direct current is applied to
a semiconductor which makes one side of it hot, and one side cold (which is known as the Peltier
effect.) Since boats and vehicles generally have a ready supply of 12V DC power, TE works well in
these mobile applications. The TE's cold surface is located inside the space to be cooled and absorbs
heat from the inside of the box. The heat is then transferred outside of the box to a heat radiator, where
a fan blows the heat into the environment. The beauty of a TE refrigerator is that the cooling system is
completely sealed and the only moving parts are the fans used to circulate air and blow off heat. The
fans are inexpensive and easy to replace if maintenance is ever required. There are no environmentally
harmful chemicals.

Permanent thermoelectric systems have several advantages. They are much lighter than vapor
compression and absorption systems, generally less expensive, very reliable, quiet, and not affected by
angle of inclination so they can be placed anywhere in the boat. Portable units (using an inexpensive
converter) can be operated on 110V AC or 220V AC. A good thermoelectric system will maintain
refrigerated spaces at a temperature about 46°F below ambient.

TE refrigerators are not as effective as other types of systems at cooling down a warm space or
products that are not pre-cooled, nor are they as efficient, requiring several times the energy to do the
same job as a compressor-based system. However, they do a very nice job of maintaining desired
temperature of pre-refrigerated items. A single module draws about 4.6 amps. If cost is a consideration
(and when isn't it?) and the quantity of food and beverage to be stored is small, then TE refrigeration is
a great option. The smaller, portable units are lightweight and can be transported easily from home to
the boat, plugged into the cigarette lighter during the trip.
Electrical

Creating a reliable battery system

Switches
Battery Chemistry
Selecting a Starting Battery
Dual-Purpose Batteries
How to Choose Deep-Cycle Batteries
Smart Battery Charging
Battery Charger Comparison Chart
How to Choose Alternators and Regulators
Selecting a Power Inverter
Inverter Comparison Chart
Marine Grounding Systems
Lightning Protection
Shore Power
Solar Panels
Wind Generators
Windlass Wiring
All-Round Lights
On Waterproof Searchlights
West Advisor
Creating a reliable battery system
Electrical

Introduction
"Any boat that relies on its engine(s) for propulsion and travels more than a short distance from shore
should have two independent batteries capable of starting the engine(s)." That kind of platitude is so
darned obvious, you probably wonder why we'd waste your time with it. But the fact is, the statement
is insufficient and misleading. This West Advisor will try to explain why.

Due to the scarcity of tow trucks at sea, boaters have to be more self-sufficient than their land-bound
counterparts in RVs and automobiles. Judging from the statistics we see on boat breakdowns, the two
most frequent requests for assistance are because, 1) "I'm out of gas!", and 2) "I can't crank my engine.
" We'd also venture to guess that the reason most boaters can't crank their engines is because their
batteries have been run down by too much use and too little charging, as opposed to starter motor
failure or some other malady.

Assuming the boat is equipped with two adequate batteries, why would they both end up dead at the
same time? There are at least three probable causes:

Poor battery charging by the engine. This may be masked by near-continual battery charging, via
shore power, when the boat is not in use.

Inadequate battery capacity, forcing the boater to use both batteries simultaneously (switch on the
BOTH position) to run DC loads.

Lack of true isolation of the engine starting bank and the house bank, resulting in unintentional
simultaneous discharge.

The latter reason is the least understood by boaters, and it's due to a simple myth: because my boat has
a big red OFF-1-BOTH-2 battery switch, it therefore has isolation between its battery banks. To that,
we say:

Nonsense!
Most single-engine boats produced in the last thirty years are supplied with two nearly identical (and
under-sized) marine batteries. Generally of the Group 27 designation, both batteries could be used
interchangeably for starting and house loads. Prior to starting the engine, the operator would turn the
battery switch to the BOTH position so that he or she had the full cranking power of the batteries. Once
the engine started, the operator would leave the switch in the BOTH position while powering to the
day's destination so that both batteries were charged. Once a sailboat began sailing sans engine, or a
powerboat dropped the hook, the operator would (in theory) turn the battery switch to the 1 or 2
position, so that the other battery would be reserved for starting. When it was time to crank the engine
again, the battery switch would be turned to BOTH, or possibly to the reserved battery, and the engine
would be started.

The problem, of course, is that this requires a lot of thought on the part of the operator, who is trying to
relax in the first place. The inevitable result is that at some point, the boater accidentally leaves the
battery switch in the BOTH position, resulting in two very dead batteries.

We also take issue with using two identical batteries since boats have two distinct types of loads: long
duration, low amperage loads when the engine (charging source) isn't running, and high amperage,
short duration loads while starting. Using a pair of deep-cycle or dual-purpose batteries, or worse yet,
starting batteries, for this application is inefficient.
What's the solution?
We strongly recommend that you select and wire your batteries differently from the way the factory
wired them. Use a stout starting battery to crank your engine, based on your engine's cranking
requirements. Use a larger house battery with triple the capacity of your daily DC requirements. Now
this is where it gets complicated: we DON'T recommend the use of a traditional OFF-1-BOTH-2
battery switch. Instead, consider using three OFF-ON battery switches as follows: one switch to
connect your starting battery to your starter circuit; one switch to connect your house battery to your
boat's distribution panel; and one switch to parallel your battery systems if either battery fails.

With this switch set-up, you simply turn your engine and house switches to the ON position whenever
you are onboard, whether anchored, starting your engine, or sailing. The battery parallel switch remains
OFF unless there is a complete failure of either battery bank or you have run your starting battery down
trying to crank a reluctant engine. When your engine is off, the starting battery is safely isolated from
the house loads. It cannot be discharged, even if you leave your stereo on all night, listening to Jimmy
Buffett and blending margaritas.

How do I charge both banks simultaneously?

By isolating starting and house banks, you face a challenge trying to charge them from a single source
like single-output chargers or alternators. If you violate the "separation" of the two banks, you face the
probability of two dead batteries due to "operator brain-fade". That's why we are great believers in the
West Marine Battery Combiner and Heart Pathmaker, Balmar Dual Output Alternators, and to a lesser
degree, battery isolators. These products sense the voltage of the battery banks and connect the
batteries together whenever one battery's voltage is elevated. Both banks charge simultaneously and
remain combined until the voltage drops, whereupon they are disconnected from one another. It's much
like having a very attentive engineer flip your battery parallel switch on and off at exactly the right
moment. The result is maximum charging performance for two banks, and complete isolation of the
two banks to ensure that you can start your engine.

Do I have to scrap my present switch?

While you don't have to, we strongly recommend the use of simple-to-understand OFF-ON switches.
Shoot, even your brother-in-law can probably figure out how to operate an OFF-ON switch, but might
be completely baffled by a OFF-1-BOTH-2 switch. Alternatively, you can use your current battery
switch, plus a second OFF-ON switch, but we think it becomes complicated to understand what each
switch combination accomplishes. As an added benefit, the fact that the battery switches are seldom, if
ever, operated while underway greatly reduces the chances of damaging your alternator by accidentally
opening its output circuit.
Switches
Electrical

Switches are identified by the number of poles (circuits) they have, and by the number of throws
(ON/OFF/ON, for example) they feature. The most common combinations include:

SPST: Single Pole, Single Throw; turns a single circuit on and off.
SPDT: Single Pole, Double Throw; turns one of two circuits on.
DPST: Double Pole, Single Throw; turns on two circuits at the same time.
DPDT: Double Pole, Double Throw; controls two functions on two circuits.
Battery Chemistry
Electrical

When it comes to batteries, we have turned to three leading manufacturers in the industry for our
selection of starting, dual-purpose, and deep-cycle batteries. This year's catalog features three distinct
battery technologies: flooded lead/acid batteries, gelled electrolyte, and absorbed glass mat (AGM).

While all of our batteries are constructed to levels of quality that are exemplary by marine standards,
each technology has its pros and cons. Based on a collection of manufacturers' reports and independent
tests, we've compiled the following information to help you understand each battery technology.

AGM Batteries
Absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries were originally designed for military aircraft. Concorde Marine
AGM batteries, like their military predecessors, are engineered to meet a number of similar conditions,
including severe vibration and pounding shocks, immersion, and periods of sustained inversion.

AGM batteries feature a dense filling of absorbent glass matting packed tightly between the battery's
positive and negative plates. Once the matting is in place, the battery is 90 percent saturated with acid
electrolyte which, according to Concorde, allows the oxygen to readily migrate to the negative plate
and recombine with the hydrogen gas to replenish the battery's water content. Sealed, positive pressure-
relief valves within the battery re-direct excess hydrogen and oxygen vapors into the microfibrous glass
mat, where it can be reclaimed as liquid and re-utilized, making it unnecessary to replenish water
levels.

In addition to providing equal saturation across the entire surface of the battery's positive and negative
plates, AGM advocates claim that the dense glass mat filling provides greater plate support, and more
shock and vibration protection than conventional batteries. They suggest that this dense packing offers
a lower internal resistance, allowing AGM batteries to recharge faster, discharge longer and generate
greater starting power than deep-cycle batteries using other technologies.

Pros No maintenance (except periodic external cleaning)

Sealed batteries cannot spill
Can be installed at any angle
Shock and vibration resistant
No gas release
Low self discharge (3% per month at 77°F)
Submersible without damage
Long cycle-life
Can be shipped via UPS

Cons High initial cost

New technology-short time in marine market
More weight per Ah than flooded
Water cannot be replaced after overcharge

Gel Batteries
Our SeaGel batteries are made by East Penn Manufacturing, who we believe has the best technology
and quality control in gel battery manufacturing. Originally a licensee of Sonneschein Prevailer
batteries, East Penn now makes their own line of Deka gel batteries as well as the West Marine
SeaGels. When customers ask us if it is worthwhile to upgrade to SeaGel batteries, we are extremely
confident saying "Yes!", based on the low return rate of the batteries, and the field reports from our
customers.

Like AGM batteries, a sealed gelled-cell battery is "recombinant". That is, the oxygen produced by the
battery's positive plates, recombines with the hydrogen gas created by the battery's negative plates,
forming water that's cycled back into the electrolytic gel. East Penn allows recombination to occur by
sealing each cell of the battery with a pressure-relief vent, which holds the gases under pressure (3.4-
4.0 psi), causing natural recombination to occur.

The "gel" is a mixture of sulfuric acid, fumed silica, pure water, and a phosphoric acid which produces
a thixotropic gel that offers several-times the cycle-life of competitors' gel batteries, and three-times
that of flooded-cell batteries.

Once mixed, the gel is drawn into each cell under a vacuum, which totally eliminates voids and pockets
of air that can result in "dead spots" on plate surfaces.

Pros No maintenance (except periodic external cleaning)

Sealed batteries cannot spill
Can be installed on side (with 10% capacity loss)
Low-temperature tolerant
Shock and vibration resistant
No gas release
Long cycle-life
Low self-discharge (3% per month at 68°F)
Can be shipped vai UPS

Cons High initial cost

More weight per Ah than flooded
Water cannot be replaced after overcharge

Flooded Batteries
Though the newer battery technologies are impressive, a number of inherent advantages continue to
make the high-quality traditional flooded-cell battery a serious contender in the deep-cycle battery
marketplace.

Properly charged and maintained, premium wet-cell deep-cycle batteries, like those made for us by
Trojan, are capable of as many as 1,000 cycles, which can translate to many years of dependable
service-at an initial cost that's substantially less than comparable capacity AGM or Gel batteries.

Like the other battery technologies, flooded batteries depend on the chemical reaction of lead and
sulfuric acid to create electrical energy. Unlike the others, flooded (or wet cell) batteries rely on liquid
sulfuric acid to act as an electrolyte pathway between positive and negative plates. These plates
produce hydrogen and oxygen when charging like the others but, rather than recombining the gases and
re-introducing them to the system, vented wet cell batteries allow the gases to escape into the
atmosphere. As such, they require periodic inspection and topping off cells with distilled water.

This is something of a double-edged sword: the occurrence of venting into the atmosphere increases the
level of hydrogen gas around the battery which demands that the batteries be ventilated (since
hydrogen accumulations greater than 4% are flammable). At the same time, only wet cell batteries
allow water replenishment if batteries are overcharged.

Pros Lower initial cost

Accepts higher recharging voltages
Less vulnerable to overcharging
Good deep-cycle performance with proper care
Less weight per Ah than gel or AGM

Cons Must be installed upright

Requires periodic maintenance
Requires ventilation
Higher rate of self-discharge (6% to7% per month)
More fragile in high vibration environments
Corrosive battery acid can be spilled if battery case is ruptured or overturned.
No matter what battery you choose, we have some recommendations that will keep you from
experiencing disappointment when you install a battery or multi-battery system in your boat:

• Stay with one battery technology.

• Never mix old batteries with new batteries in the same bank
• Stay with one vendor if possible, and upgrade to either Trojan, East Penn, or Concorde over
time.
• Regulate your chargers (alternator, shore power, and environmental) according to the
chemistry of the battery, and the temperature. This is especially important for Gel and AGM
batteries, which can be damaged by overcharging.
• Keep batteries clean, cool and dry. Check terminal connedtors at least annually to ensure a
tight fit. Add distilled water regularly to flooded batteries.
Selecting a Starting Battery
Electrical

What they do
When you crank an engine, the starter motor demands from 75 to 400 or more amperes for 5-15
seconds. This usage demands batteries that can supply lots of current for short periods of time. While
chemically and visually similar to deep-cycle batteries, starting batteries are made differently and
perform a completely different task.

How They Work

By changing sulfuric acid and lead into water and lead sulfate, batteries create electricity chemically.
When electricity is forced back into batteries, the chemical reaction is reversed and electricity is stored
chemically. Starting batteries contain a large number of thin lead plates and separators, which allow a
large surface area to come into contact with battery acid, making it possible to create the short bursts of
great energy needed for cranking duties.

How are starting batteries measured?

Two common measurements: CCA (Cold Cranking Amps) and MCA (Marine Cranking Amps) are
used to determine battery power. CCA records the number of amps a battery can deliver for 30 seconds
at 0°F without having the battery voltage drop below 7.2 volts. MCA is similar, but is measured at
32°F instead of 0°F. Since warmer temperatures make batteries work better, MCA measurements are
generally 20-25% greater than CCA.

Battery capacity can also be measured in reserve minutes. This is the number of minutes that a battery
can sustain a moderate load of 25 amps. A battery rated at 150 minutes can operate a 25A load for 2
1/2 hours before it drops to 10.5 volts. Most starting batteries aren't used to operate loads for long
periods, so reserve minutes are less critical.

How big a battery do I need?

Engine size, type, and ambient temperature determine what size cranking battery you need. In general,
cranking loads are greatest for:

• Cold temperatures
• Diesel engines
• High compression gas engines
• High horsepower engines

In most cases you can judge your battery needs on what has worked (or not worked) for you in the past.
For example, if your Group 24, 600 CCA battery worked well for 5 years, we'd be inclined to replace it
with a similar battery. If, however, it cranked too slowly, or failed over a season or two, we'd suggest
that you go "one size up". Generally this means that, while you would still get a Group 24 battery, you
want one rated for more CCA or MCA.

Can I use my deep-cycle or dual purpose battery to crank my engine?

Sure! While your Group 24, 27, or 30 deep cycle battery may actually have fewer cranking amps, due
to its thicker plates and high antimony content, it will not be damaged by starting loads. Those who
want to have two identical battery banks, and who need deep-cycle batteries, would be well served by a
pair of Group 30s for starting and cycling.
Dual-Purpose Batteries
Electrical

After spending the last few years convincing our customers that the world of marine batteries consisted
of starting batteries or deep-cycle batteries, we have a rather startling bit of news: the world is a little
bit more analog than digital in this particular area. That is to say, battery construction and the resulting
characteristics are more of a continuum rather than two distinct poles.

Witness Dual-Purpose batteries. While they have very good cranking performance, due to the large
number of plates in each cell and the active nature of the lead paste, they are built more like deep-cycle
batteries, with thicker plates and enough antimony in the lead grids. This construction allows them to
shrug off the stresses of frequent deep-cycles, which would destroy a normal starting battery.

Will a dual-purpose battery work for you? If your motor is running frequently, and your electrical
demands at anchor are light, the medium-duty Dual Purpose battery will provide plenty of starting
power and a reasonable life. If your house loads are more substantial, the investment in a larger-
capacity deep-cycle battery, or a multi-bank system may prove to save more than enough money over
time to justify the incremental cost.
How to Choose Deep-Cycle Batteries
Electrical

What they do
Deep-cycle marine batteries store energy so that sources of electrical power, like alternators, and
loads, like pumps and lights, can be run simultaneously. In other words, a battery serves as a savings
account into which energy can be put in or taken out according to supply and demand.

As soon as you anchor and turn off the engine(s), boats without generators begin to tap into energy
stored in their batteries. Overnight, this use might deplete 50-70% of the energy in one bank of
batteries, using a relatively small but continuous amount of current. As soon as the engine or other
charger is started, the batteries are recharged and the process can start over. To maximize battery life,
you need batteries that can be deeply discharged repeatedly without damage. That is why most boating
batteries are deep-cycle batteries, not starting batteries.

How are deep cycle batteries measured?

Capacity Ratings

When you light a bulb or run a pump for an extended period of time, you need a battery that stores the
greatest amount of energy. These measurements are expressed as the number of amps that can be
delivered over a period of time, measured in minutes or hours, before the battery runs out of energy.
Amp-hours and reserve minutes are commonly used measures.

Amp-hours measure the total amount of energy that a battery can deliver over 20 hours, at a constant
rate of discharge, before the battery drops to 10.5 volts. This means that a 200 amp-hour battery can
run a 10 amp load for 20 hours, at which point the battery is dead. Reserve minutes is the number of
minutes that a battery can run a 25-amp load until dropping to 10.5 volts. A Group 27 deep-cycle
battery may have a reserve minutes rating of 160, meaning that it will run a 25-amp load for 2 hours
and 40 minutes. On most boats, an average load of 5 or 8 amps is more realistic, but the reserve minute
rating still allows a valid comparison.

Longevity Measurements

While the other measurements are helpful when sizing batteries to their tasks, boaters need batteries
that last a long time, too. This is measured in how many cycles a battery can be discharged and
charged. It is the ability to cycle repeatedly that differentiates deep cycle batteries from automotive
starting batteries, which cannot withstand more than a few deep discharges before failure.

Battery manufacturers measure battery cycles by discharging fully-charged batteries at 25 amps until
their battery voltage drops to 10.5 volts. Then the batteries are charged under controlled conditions, and
the process is repeated until the battery has half of its claimed reserve minutes left. At this point, the
test is stopped and the cycles are tallied.

Which battery costs the least?

Battery prices vary widely. What you, as a consumer, want is the greatest number of amp-hours
delivered over a battery's life, at the lowest possible cost. As a simple example, let's say you
completely discharge and recharge a 100-amp-hour battery on a daily basis, and that it will operate for
200 "cycles" before having to be discarded. Let's also assume that it cost $80.00 when new. Over the
life of the battery, you'll get 20,000 amp-hours (200 cycles x 100 Ah). Each amp-hour over the lifetime
of the battery costs you $0.004, or 4/10 of a penny. There are a few caveats we need to bring up at this
point:

We don't recommend fully discharging batteries since it will reduce the battery's useful life.
Very few 100 Ah batteries put out 100 Ah for more than 20% of their life. Most cycles will be less,
depending on the honesty of the manufacturer. We think it is more realistic to discount the average
number of amp-hours delivered by a 20% "honesty" factor. The following chart compares 10 popular
battery types, based on the data we have been able to unearth. ($ per Ah x 100/cycles = $ per 100 Ah).

Battery Type # of Cycles $ per Ah $ per 100 Ah

Cheap Cranking 25 $0.80 $3.20

Cheap Gel 12V 100 $1.35 $1.35
SeaVolt Cranking 100 $1.00 $1.00
Cheap Deep Cycle 150 $0.80 $0.53
SeaGel 12V 500 $1.86 $0.37
SeaVolt Dual Purp. 200 $0.67 $0.34
SeaVolt Deep Cycle 350 $0.86 $0.25
SeaGel 6V 1,000 $2.22 $0.22
Lifeline AGM 1,000 $2.10 $0.21
Industrial (L-16) 1,000 $1.20 $0.12
SeaVolt 6V 700 $0.79 $0.11

While the temptation to buy cheaper batteries is a strong one, smart consumers should look at the cost
of the energy provided by the battery over its life when making their choice.

Which technology offers the best value?

Our Advisor on battery technologies takes a more in-depth look at the batteries we offer, and many of
the advantages and disadvantages that go along with each.

Whatever battery type you choose, we suggest you select a system that provides a capacity three to four
times your daily DC requirements. If you use 150 amp-hours a day, you'll need a 450 to 600 amp-hour
house bank. (See our Advisor on building a better battery bank in this section for additional thoughts
on battery usage.)

Finally, we are undertaking a cycle life test which will include all of the battery types we sell, plus a
few that we don't, and we will report the results in a future catalog. Stay tuned!
Smart Battery Charging
Electrical

What do batteries want?

As crucial as battery power is to the operation of most modern vessels, it remains one of the most
baffling subjects most boaters have to contend with. Ensuring that you have adequate electrical energy
really isn't terribly complicated, and it doesn't require a degree in electrical engineering. But if you
don't happen to have an abundance of "smarts" when it comes to managing your charging needs, it
helps to have a system with the "smarts" built-in. Fortunately, there are a variety of modern "smart"
charging options available that make proper care of batteries almost idiot-proof.

Marine deep-cycle batteries will last the longest and charge the fastest if they are charged in distinct
phases, rather than in a single phase as with archaic charging systems and simple regulators. The
method of charging described below is recommended by virtually all marine battery manufacturers. In
the description that follows, remember that recommending precise voltages for batteries is subject to at
least two caveats: 1) Gel batteries charge at different voltages than flooded-type and AGM batteries,
and 2) the voltages stated are temperature-dependent. This makes it difficult to recommend precise
charging voltages, since they vary according to the temperature of the battery. Most of us generally
operate our boats in temperatures between 50°F and 90°F, and the values used in our Advisors reflect
that. Higher temperatures require lower voltages, and lower temperatures require higher voltages. Note:
In the following section, we define the capacity of the battery bank (in amp-hours) as C.

The "Ideal Charge Curve"

Rick Proctor, founder of Cruising Equipment Co., is one of the leading innovators in the field of
marine electrical systems. He coined the term "Ideal Charge Curve" to describe the best way to restore
energy to your batteries. Here's how each phase of the process works:

• Bulk Phase: Charge at a rate up to 20%-40% of C to a voltage of about 14.4 volts (gel:
14.1V). For example, a 200 amp-hour battery would be charged at 40-80 amperes. This will
bring the battery to about 75% of full charge, and is efficient since the battery accepts more
current when it is discharged. AGM batteries, while requiring slightly different voltages,
should be charged using lead-acid settings.

• Acceptance Phase: Maintain battery at 14.4 volts (Gel: 14.1V) while the amperage is steadily
reduced. This will restore the next 25% of capacity at a declining rate. Your battery can be
considered fully charged if it will accept current equal to 2% of C at 14.4 volts; e.g. a 200
amp-hour battery will only accept 4 amps.

• Float Phase: When the battery's acceptance declines to 2-4% of C, the voltage is reduced to
13.3 volts (Gel: 13.7V) to maintain the battery without losing electrolyte from the cells. This
is a maintenance phase, not a charging phase.

• Equalization: An optional (and frequently omitted) stage is equalization. It is used to prevent

flooded lead acid batteries from aging prematurely. After the battery reaches the end of
acceptance phase, the battery continues to be charged at 4% of C until the voltage stops rising-
usually around 15.5-16.2 volts. This forces the battery to its highest possible state of charge,
and dissolves the crystals of lead sulfate that have collected on the battery's plates. In
applications where maximum energy storage is important, this phase is done every charge
cycle. In the marine environment, it is more likely to be done every 20-50 cycles to extend the
life and capacity of wet batteries. Gel batteries should not be equalized. Since electrical
equipment and light-bulb filaments can be damaged by high voltage, the battery should be
disconnected from all loads during equalization.

This type of battery charging, consisting of multiple stages, is not possible with automotive-type
regulators, unregulated solar panels, ferroresonant chargers, or taffrail generators. We strongly
encourage the use of efficient charge devices that use modern multiple-step regulation, such as
BALMAR and Heart Regulators, Statpower and Heart inverter/chargers, or Statpower or Guest battery
chargers.

How long does it take to charge?

If you have to replace lots of amp-hours, it may be tempting to use a massive charger or alternator and
really pour on the current. This works up to a point, but batteries cannot accept unlimited amounts of
current without getting hot or gassing excessively (when the electrolyte disassociates into hydrogen and
oxygen), which shortens battery life. Plus, you'll soon confront the voltage limits mentioned above,
where charge rates must be reduced. In fact, adding battery capacity may actually decrease the time
needed to recharge to levels adequate to meet your energy needs more than any other change you can
make to your system. Battery banks with greater acceptance can use more of the available charging
current before reaching a voltage where the regulator begins to reduce the current.

If you operate your house bank between 50% and 85% state of charge, as many experts recommend,
and charge once per day, it should be possible to return the necessary 35% of battery capacity by
operating a properly-sized alternator for slightly over an hour. More deeply discharged batteries, or
smaller alternators, will require more time.

When should you stop charging?

Most cruisers would like to have fully charged batteries but settle for something more practical-perhaps
85% charged-to reduce engine running time. There are several ways to decide when to stop charging,
but we feel that the following methods are the best:

You can use an amp-hour meter, and stop charging when it reads a certain value. You might select 30
amp-hours on a 200 amp-hour bank, corresponding to 85% charged.

You can do what many sophisticated cruisers do, and stop charging when the acceptance of the
batteries reaches a predetermined level. Assume that you've run your batteries down 50% before you
start charging. When the alternator kicks in, the charge current jumps to 100 amps, and the system
voltage begins to climb. Assuming that you have a multi-step regulator, this amperage should remain
constant until the voltage limit is reached, when it should start to be reduced. The question becomes
"How little current am I willing to accept?" If you turn off your engine as the voltage peaks and the
current is about to drop, then you will get the greatest number of amp-hours returned per engine hour,
but your batteries will be only 75% charged or so, since they will not have undergone an acceptance
stage. If you allow the current to taper off to 5 measly amps, you will have fully-charged your batteries,
but you'll spend a long time doing it. We think that letting the amperage decline to 10% of C is a
reasonable rule for long trips.
Battery Charger Comparison Chart
Electrical

Input
Mfr.. Amps # of Float Temperature Battery Typical
Mfr. Model Type V
Model @14VDC1 Banks? Voltage2 Compensation3 Size4 Application
Range?
Guest 2602 597138 2-stage 0.6 100-132 1 13.5±0.2 No 100Ah Float charger only
Guest 2603 343400 3-stage 3 100-132 1 13.5±0.2 No 200Ah Portable use, float chgr
Guest 2612 191890 3-stage 8.2 90-140 1 13.5±0.2 No 150Ah Portable use, waterproof
Guest 2610 379117 3-stage 8.2 90-140 2 13.5±0.2 No 150Ah Two banks, power/sail
Guest 2611 307530 3-stage 8.2 90-140 2 13.5±0.2 No 150Ah Bass boats, trolling motors
Guest 2620 343436 3-stage 16.4 90-140 2 13.5±0.2 No 300Ah Bass boats, trolling motors
Guest 2613 343428 3-stage 10.6 90-140 3 13.5±0.2 No 200Ah 12/24V Trolling+ start bat.
Guest 2614 1237023 3-stage 15.0 90-140 2 13.5±0.2 No 150Ah Powerboat charging, 2-bank
Guest 2623 343410 3-stage 18.9 90-140 3 13.5±0.2 No 350Ah 12/24V Trolling+ start bat.
Guest 2631 343444 3-stage 24.6 90-140 3 13.5±0.2 No 450Ah 12/24/36V trolling
Guest 2632 1237213 3-stage 16.4 90-140 3 13.5±0.2 No 300Ah Hvy Duty trolling motors
13.3 or
Statpower TC-10 333396 3-stage 10 90-135 1 Manual 200Ah Permanent mount, 2-bank
13.8
13.1 to
Statpower TC-10HW 333388 3-stage 10 90-135 2 No 150Ah Portable, 1-bank
14.2
13.1 to
Statpower TC-20 333404 4-stage5 20 90-135 3 Manual or Auto 300Ah Permanent mount, 3-bank
14.2
13.1 to
Statpower TC-40 333412 4-stage5 40 90-135 3 Manual or Auto 600Ah Permanent mount, 3-bank
14.2
• 1. Tapering-type (ferroresonant) chargers may advertise high outputs, but output declines above 12 volts. Not comparable to 3-stage
chargers @ 14 volts.
• 2. Float voltage at room temperature should be 13.3V DC with flooded batteries and 13.7V DC with gel batteries. Voltages should be
higher in colder temperatures.
• 3. Manual temperature compensation is user-settable, with the number of choices shown. Automatic compensation senses battery
temperature and adjusts voltage accordingly.
• 4. Design rule based on 6.6% of your total battery capacity. Lots of latitude on this recommendation!
• 5. Four-stage chargers have an equalization setting for flooded batteries.
How to Choose Alternators and Regulators
Electrical

What They Do
Alternators use rotational energy from your boat's engine or genset to provide electrical power that can
be used to charge batteries and run DC loads on board. They are generally the most potent source of
charging current on board, producing up to 200 amperes of current.

How They Work

Alternators generate electrical current by rotating an electromagnetic rotor inside a cocoon of wire
(which is stationary, and therefore called the stator). Since the rotor requires electricity to make it
magnetic, alternator outputs can be regulated by varying the voltage passing through the rotor. Thus, an
alternator can be made to put out the right amount of electrical energy, depending on the batteries'
requirements.

Alternators are standard equipment on all inboard engines, and most outboards over 20HP. But most
engines come from the factory with alternators in the 35- to 55-amp range, inadequate for the loads
most boats require. Furthermore, stock alternators are equipped with simple, automotive-type
regulators that are not optimized for marine service.

Alternators in automotive applications are seldom called upon to replace large amounts of energy in a
short period, this is exactly what marine alternators need to do. The goal, therefore is to return the
greatest number of amp-hours as quickly as possible, without damaging the batteries. This usually
requires high-output alternators combined with modern multi-step regulators.

What to Look For

Ignition-Proof Design
For use on boats, especially those with gasoline engines, marine alternators must be ignition-proof.
Those from BALMAR are, but some non-marine models are not.

Heavy-Duty Construction
While this is always desirable, marine alternators operate at full output for much of their lives (or
should). This requires high-temperature grease, large cooling passages, large fans, heavy-duty bearings,
conservatively-rated diodes, etc. Since high-performance regulators will demand the maximum output
that the alternator can deliver, less robust alternators will commonly fail using these regulators.

High Output
Your alternator should be roughly 25-40% as large as your battery capacity for effective charging. If
you regularly operate large DC loads underway, it could be even larger. Small-frame alternators range
from 75 to 150 amperes, while large-frame alternators produce 130 to 275 amps.

It's a waste of money to buy a large alternator to charge a small battery bank, unless you have large DC
loads operating. Batteries need to have sufficient acceptance to utilize the alternator's capabilities.

It Has to Fit!
This is the tough one. There are dozens of alternator/engine variations, and it is hard to guarantee that a
new alternator will replace the original without a custom bracket. Here's where a marine electrician can
be a big help.

Most U.S. and European inboards use a single-foot mounting arrangement. These engines will use the
BALMAR 91 series, or the Delco-replacement 912 series. Japanese engines use a dual-foot mounting
arrangement with a distance of 3.15" between mounting feet, and the BALMAR 90 series should fit.
New Volvo engines require models available by special order.
High-output alternators use a lot of engine horsepower, which is transferred via belts. Small alternators
(<100A) can use one belt, but larger alternators require two. This may necessitate a second pulley on
your engine, available from the engine distributor in most cases.

Regulation
None of the alternators we sell are internally regulated. As such, they require external regulators.
Both Heart and BALMAR make excellent multi-step requlators, and we encourage you to compare
them.

Number of Outputs
BALMAR makes patented dual-output alternators, which allow two batteries to be charged without
mutual discharge. One output can be connected to the starting bank, while the other can charge the
house bank. This is a simple, relatively robust system that costs about $100 more than a single-output
model.

Glossary
Temperature Ratings vary depending on the application. We measure our alternators at 122°F, (50°C).
This is the temperature used by the military to rate alternators, and it strikes a balance between the too-
cool 80°F and too-hot 200°F ratings. The temperature refers to the ambient air temperature in the
vicinity of the alternator. If your engine room is hotter than 122°F, our alternators might put out
slightly less.

Whether you have an N-type or P-type alternator depends on where the regulator is placed in the
circuit. Most aftermarket regulators (BALMAR, Heart) only work with P-type alternators, although N-
type alternators can be converted by experienced electricians. All BALMAR alternators are P-type.
Hitachi alternators, which are very common on Yanmar marine engines, are internally regulated N-type
alternators and must be modified at a cost of about $40.00.

Rotor RPM is the speed at which the alternator turns, not the engine. Since most engines have a larger
pulley than the alternator, the alternator will turn faster than the engine. Alternators are not damaged by
speeds up to 10,000 rpm, and must turn at least 5,000 rotor rpm to produce their rated amperage.

Large-frame and small-frame refer to the diameter of the alternator housing. Small-frame alternators
measure about 7" from their mounting bolts to the adjustment bolt on the opposite side. They are
roughly 7" from front to back, and weigh about 13 lb.

Large-frame models measure about 8" from mounting bolt to adjustment bolt, and are about 7" deep.
Large-frame models are generally more efficient and run cooler than small-frame alternators.
Selecting a Power Inverter
Electrical

What They Do
Inverters convert the 12- or 24-volt energy stored in your batteries into household 120V AC power to
run normal household appliances, stereos, televisions, computers, motors, etc.

How They Work

Inverters convert the DC energy by electronically increasing the voltage tenfold, and by changing
direct current into alternating current. So why not use a generator to do this instead?

While both inverters and gensets (generators) create 120V AC electricity, inverters are better for
variable demand and loads up to 2,000 to 3,000 watts. Inverters are silent, require virtually no
maintenance, and are easy to install. On the other hand, their effectiveness is limited by the size of your
battery capacity, Gensets are better for large, continuous loads like air conditioning, heating, and
refrigeration. While many of our customers would love to run air conditioning off of an inverter, it is
pretty impractical unless you are cooling a small area for a relatively short period of time. If your 120V
energy requirements exceed 2,000 watt-hours per day, a genset is probably indicated.

Another option is to use an inverter/charger with a genset. The genset is perated during meal times, and
other high-load times, during which it recharges the house batteries using the inverter's battery charger.
During off-peak times, the inverter takes over, silently supplying power for smaller loads.

How big should my inverter be?

Inverters range from tiny 50-watt models for computers and rechargeable batteries, to 3,000-watt
models that can run big tools, electric galleys, and refrigeration systems. The size you select is
governed by the maximum amount of power you need at one time. There is no particular advantage to
having a larger than necessary inverter, except that it allows for increased future demand.

In general, inverters fall into four size ranges. Pocket Inverters range from 50 to 300 watts and
generally connect to your electrical system using a ineptly-designed, but very common "cigarette
lighter plug". We say ineptly-designed since we can think of few connectors which have a spring-
loaded connection which is constantly trying to disconnect the circuit, but we digress. Pocket Inverters
are instant gratification products: just plug 'em in, and start using their modest AC outputs. Ideal for
most AC-only computers, small lights and tools, etc.

Next are the semi-portables, which run from 300-800 watts or so. Weighing less than 10 lb., these
models are eminently useful for an AC load or two onboard. Frequently, semi-portables will be
matched to a specific load which the boat owner cannot live without (microwaves being a prime
example). They are generally not wired into an AC system permanently, and AC appliances are simply
plugged into the front of the inverter.

Small permanent-mount inverters become an inherent part of the electrical system of the boat.
Connected permanently to the battery and the AC distribution system, these inverters generally include
transfer switches to automate the selection betwen shore power and onboard (inverter) power.

Finally, larger permanently-installed inverters (2,000 to 3,000 watts) rival small generators in their
power, yet unlike a generator, are completely silent when operating. All have powerful battery chargers
which can rapidly replenish battery banks in the 400-800Ah range when shore power is available. We
find that many trawler owners are opting away from a large diesel generator, and are instead installing
a large inverter for their AC loads complemented by propane ranges and DC refrigeration systems.
Battery Capacity
The number of watt-hours per day divided by 10 will approximate the number of amp-hours you will
consume from your batteries. For example, if you operate a 500-watt microwave for an hour, you will
consume 500 watt-hours. 500/10 is 50 amp-hours of battery power. Inverters must be supported by
sufficient battery capacity to make them useful without constantly having to recharge. We recommend
that you have at least 20% of your inverter's rating in amp-hours of battery capacity (a 1,000-watt
inverter should have at least 200 amp-hours of batteries to draw upon). This rule will allow you to run
your inverter for two hours at half power while consuming 50% of the battery's energy.

What to Look For

Quality

The growing popularity of inverters has drawn many companies into the market. Sadly, many of the
lesser-known brands are poor copies of products from established companies (Heart, Statpower, Trace),
and are really marginal in their performance and durability. For example, one 1000-watt inverter we've
seen actually put out a scant 762 watts at 11.5 volts. Voltage regulation may be poor, as well. The same
inverter only produced 99VAC instead of 120V. Efficiency is generally lower with the cheapies too.
We have routinely found that higher-quality inverters, like those made by our vendors, will ensure
greater satisfaction than so-called "bargain" models.

Wave form

Modified sine-wave inverters are the most common type, and they work well for 90+% of the loads
you are likely to encounter. Certain items do not work well with modified sine-wave: some battery
chargers, light dimmers, variable speed tools, laser printers, and sensitive audio equipment. Your
choice of sine-wave vs. modified sine-wave should take this into consideration.

StatPower has introduced a pure-sine-wave inverter/charger, a giant leap forward in inverter

technology. Sine-wave inverters will run all AC loads, and are especially important for stereos,
computers and other highly-sensitive electronics that can be adversely affected by modified sine wave
inverters.

Electrical interference

High-frequency inverters frequently produce some EMI, or electromagnetic interference. This can
cause problems with SSB and Ham reception, and weather fax reception. However, many of the newer
designs, especially true sine-wave inverters, are meeting FCC Class A requirements, so there is great
improvement in this area. Of course, a simple solution to the problem of radio interference is to turn off
your inverter.
Inverter Comparison Chart
Electrical

Wave Continuous Surge Maximum Idle Battery Transfer Remote Weight

Model Type Voltage
form Output Output Efficiency Current Charger? Switch? Panel? Lb.
Portawattz Hi 115V
327645 MSW 140W 200W 90% <0.07A No No No 1.3
140 Freq. AC
Portawattz Hi 115V
327650 MSW 300W 500W 90% <0.07A No No No 1.8
300 Freq. AC
Portawattz Hi 115V
141932 MSW 400W 1000W 90% <.0.20A No No No 3
600 Freq. AC
Portawattz Hi 115V
343360 MSW 800W 2,000W 90% <0.30A No No Opt. 5
1000 Freq. AC
Portawattz Hi 115V
343378 MSW 1,350W 3,000W 90% <0.60A No No Opt. 8
1750 Freq. AC
Portawattz Hi 115V
297580 MSW 2,400W 4,000W 90% <0.60A No No Opt. 8.25
3000 Freq. AC
Freedom Line 120V
147996 MSW 1,000W 3,000W 92% 0.12A 50A+15A Yes Opt. 38
Marine 10 Freq. AC
Freedom Line 120V
148002 MSW 1,500W 3,500W 92% 0.12A 75A+15A Yes Opt. 52
Marine 15 Freq. AC
Freedom Line 120V
148028 MSW 2,000W 4,500W 93% 0.12A 100A+(2)15A Yes Opt. 59
Marine 20 Freq. AC
Freedom Line 120V
148036 MSW 2,500W 5,200W 94% 0.12A 130A+(2)15A Yes Opt. 65
Marine 25 Freq. AC
Freedom Line 120V
148044 MSW 3,000W 5,500W 92% 0.12A 140A+(2)15A Yes Opt. 65
Marine 30 Freq. AC
No,
Prosine Hi 120V
328990 Sine 1,000W 1,500W 90% <1.5A No GFCI Yes* 16.5
1000 Freq. AC
Outlet
Prosine Hi 120V
328974 Sine 1,000W 1,500W 90% <1.5A No Yes Yes* 16.5
1000 Freq. AC
No,
Prosine Hi 120V
329030 Sine 1,800W 2,900W 90% <1.5A No GFCI Yes* 17.5
1800 Freq. AC
Outlet
Prosine Hi 120V
328982 Sine 1,800W 2,900W 90% <1.5A No Yes Yes* 17.5
1800 Freq. AC
Hi 120V
Prosine 2.5 343394 Sine 2,500W 4,000W 88% <.25A 100A Yes Yes* 37
Freq. AC
Hi 120V
Prosine 3.0 328930 Sine 3,000W 4,000W 88% <.25A 120A Yes Yes* 39
Freq. AC

* Requires low cost remote interface panel to use included panel remotely.
Due to the variations in AC voltages around the world, and the different boat electrical system voltages, many of our inverters are
offered in various configurations. Please see the Master Catalog pages for these products for more information.
Marine Grounding Systems
Electrical
This article was originally published in the October 15, 1996 issue of Practical Sailor. The author,
Stan Honey, is a renowned sailor, navigator and electrical engineer.

Marine Grounding Systems

ground n. 12. Electricity A. A large conducting body, such as the earth or an electric circuit connected
to the earth, used as an arbitrary zero of potential.

In a normal house on land, the problem of grounding is simple. It consists of the green grounding wire
in the AC wiring system and serves the purpose of preventing shocks or electrocution. The ground
connection is usually made by clamping to a metal water pipe or by driving a long copper stake into the
ground.

On a boat, things are considerably more complicated. In addition to the AC ground, we need a DC
ground or return line, a lightning ground, and a RF ground plane for the radio systems. Our first
thought might be to simply make the ground connection to a metal thru-hull, propeller shaft or other
underwater metal. This underwater metal will be grounded by connection to the seawater will serve as
our “water pipe”. Unfortunately, a connection between any of these systems and underwater metal can,
and probably will, give rise to serious electrolytic corrosion problems. This article will discuss the
particular requirements of each system, resolve the contradictions between the systems and present a
consistent and correct solution for a complete, integrated, marine grounding system.

Figure 1. The boats electrical system should be connected to seawater at one point only, via the
engine negative terminal or its bus.

DC Ground
Every light or appliance should be wired with its own DC return wire. Never use the mast, engine, or
other metal object as part of the return circuit. The DC load returns of all branch circuits should be tied
to the negative bus of the DC distribution panel. In turn, the negative bus of the DC distribution panel
should be connected to the engine negative terminal or its bus. The battery negative is also connected
to the engine negative terminal or its bus. The key factor here is that the yacht's electrical system is
connected to seawater ground at one point only, via the engine negative terminal or its bus. See figure
one.

AC Ground
See Practical Sailor August 15, 1995 for a detailed treatment of the green wire. The best solution is a
heavy and expensive isolation transformer. The acceptable solution (for the rest of us) is to install a
light and inexpensive Galvanic Isolator in the green wire, between the shorepower cord socket on your
boat, and the connection to the boat's AC panel. Then, connect the grounding conductor (green) of the
AC panel directly to the engine negative terminal or its bus. Note that this meets the ABYC
recommendation. In choosing Galvanic Isolators, make sure that you select one that has a continuous
current rating that is at least 135% the current rating on the circuit breaker on your dock box. Certain
Galvanic Isolators (e.g. Quicksilver) include large capacitors in parallel with the isolation diodes,
which in certain situations theoretically provide better galvanic protection. Unfortunately, these units
cost substantially more than conventional Galvanic Isolators. If you feel like spending real money on
galvanic isolation, you might as well do it right and buy an isolation transformer.

It is also a good idea to use a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) in your AC wiring. GFCI's will
occasionally "nuisance trip" due to the humidity surrounding the wiring on boats, but the additional
safety that they offer (particularly to nearby swimmers) in disconnecting power in the presence of
ground currents is worth the nuisance. If your GFCI starts to nuisance trip, it is probably a very good
idea to track down and clean up your damp wiring in any event.

Figure 2. Ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI) should be installed in each AC circuit. A
GFCI will disconnect power in the presence of ground currents, helping prevent an electrocution.

Lightning Grounds
Connect a 4 AWG battery cable from the base of your aluminum mast to the nearest keel bolt from
external ballast. If you have internal ballast, you should install a lightning ground plate. One square
foot is recommended for use in salt water; fresh water requires much more. Do not rely on a thru-hull
or a sintered bronze radio ground (e.g. Dynaplate) for use as a lightning ground.

For additional comfort, also run a 6 AWG wire from your keel bolt or ground plate to the upper shroud
chainplates, and to your headstay chainplate. Don't bother with the backstay if it is interrupted with
antenna insulators. Have each of the cables that are used for lightning ground wires lead as directly as
possible to the same keel bolt, with any necessary bends being smooth and gradual.

Given that you have grounded your mast solidly to the ocean, your mast will be at exactly the same
electric potential as the ocean. There is no chance that you can dissipate the charge between the ocean
and the atmosphere, so don't bother with a static dissipater at the masthead. Wire "bottle brush" static
dissipaters may be useful to dissipate seagulls, however, but that is beyond the scope of this article.

RF Ground
Your VHF doesn't need to use the ocean as a counterpoise, so here we are dealing only with the ground
needed for your HF/SSB radio.

Mount your automatic tuner as close to the backstay as possible, preferably just under the after deck.
Run copper ground tape from the tuner to the stern pulpit/lifelines, to the engine, and to a keel bolt. It is
good practice to include the HF/SSB radio itself in this network of ground tapes. If the builder of your
yacht had the foresight to bond into the hull a length of copper tape or an area of copper mesh, be sure
to run a copper ground tape to this as well, and say a blessing for builders such as these. Sintered
bronze ground plates (e.g. Dynaplates) can be used as radio grounds in situations where the ballast or
engine is unavailable or awkward to connect. If the ballast, engine, and lifelines are available, however,
they generally make a high performance ground.

Bonding and Electrolytic Corrosion Due to Hot Marinas

Do not bond any thru-hulls or other immersed metal that can be electrically isolated. Specifically, keep
your metal keel/ballast, your metal rudder shaft, your engine/prop, and all thru-hulls electrically
isolated, from each other, and from the engine.

It's worth understanding the reason. In an increasing number of marinas, there are substantial DC
electric currents running through the water. If your bits of immersed metal are bonded, the electric
current will take the lower resistance path offered by your boat in preference to the water near your
boat, and the current will flow into one of your bits of metal, through your bonding wires, and then out
another bit of metal. The anodic bit of metal or thru-hull that has the misfortune to be on the "out
current" side of the current running through your bonding system will also become "out metal" and will
disappear, sometimes rapidly.

Your zinc is only intended to protect against the modest galvanic potentials and therefore currents that
are caused by the dissimilar metals that are immersed and electrically connected together on your own
boat. Your zinc is incapable of supplying enough galvanic potential to protect against substantial DC
currents that may be flowing in the water. These DC currents in the water will cause electrolytic
corrosion to your bonded thru-hulls or metal parts.

Zincs and Protection from Galvanic Corrosion

Use zincs to protect against the galvanic currents that are set up by dissimilar metals on your boat that
are immersed and that are in electric contact with one another. The best example is your bronze
propeller on a stainless shaft. The best protection is to put a zinc right on the shaft next to the propeller,
or a zinc on the propeller nut. An isolated bronze thru-hull doesn't need protection because it is not in
electrical contact with another immersed dissimilar metal. If electrically isolated, high quality marine
bronze, is electrochemically stable in seawater; nothing good can come from connecting wires to it.
Figure 1. Conductors running from the external keel or ground plate to the mast, stays and to the
metal fuel tank will protect against a lighting strike, and there will be no DC connections to the
engine or to the electrical system.

Stainless steel is a special case. Generally, it is a bad idea to use stainless steel underwater, because it
can pit. When it pits the "nobility" of the metal changes locally, and you end up with tiny galvanic
couples that are made up of different parts of the same piece of metal and the pits grow deeper. One
school of thought suggests that if you must use stainless steel underwater (e.g. you need its strength),
then you should connect a nearby, immersed zinc to it; this protects the stainless steel from itself,
reducing the rate of pitting. The electrochemistry of this assertion is compelling enough to recommend
that you protect a stainless steel rudder shaft with a zinc. This may be done by mounting a zinc on the
hull near the rudder shaft, and electrically connect it (inside the hull) to the stainless rudder shaft. For
the reasons described above, ensure that your metal rudder shaft is not electrically connected to
anything else. Your stainless steel propeller shaft will be protected from itself, by the same shaft zinc
that protects the propeller from the stainless steel shaft. In both cases the pits, if they appear, will
appear where the stainless steel is not exposed to the water. Trouble areas are in the cutlass bearing,
inside the rudder bearing, and just inside the top of the rudder.

Keep your metal keel/ballast electrically isolated from all other bits of metal. If you have the
misfortune to have an external iron or steel keel, however, mount a zinc directly on it to reduce the rate
of corrosion. Leave lead keels/ballast isolated.

Inconsistencies in the Ground Rules

So now, you are annoyed with the inconsistencies. We said to leave all bits of immersed metal
electrically isolated when we described electrolytic corrosion and hot marinas, but then we said to
connect wires and copper tape to your keel and engine for lightning and RF grounds. So what to do?
Figure 1. To avoid making another DC ground to the engine via the HF/SSB radio copper ground
strip, fasten the copper tape securely to an insulating piece of phenolic or to a terminal strip, cut a
1/10" gap across the tape, and solder several 10.15 uF ceramic capacitors across the gap.

RF ground. The RF ground needs to be a ground for RF signals only. It does not need to conduct DC,
and as described in "Bonding and Electrolytic Corrosion..." above, you do not want to connect another
DC ground to your engine and to your keel etc.

The solution is to find a dry secure place along each of the copper RF ground tapes that are running to
your engine and keel. Fasten the tape securely to an insulating piece of phenolic or to a terminal strip,
cut a 1/10-inch gap across the tape, and solder several 0.15uF ceramic capacitors across the gap. These
capacitors will be transparent to the RF, which will be happily grounded by the ground tape system, but
they will block any DC currents from running through the RF ground system, and will avoid any
resulting susceptibility to hot marina electrolytic corrosion. It is worth selecting the capacitors
carefully, because they may carry a significant amount of RF current. An acceptable choice of
capacitors and vendor are listed at the end of this article.

Lightning Ground. The lightning ground needs to be a direct DC connection to the keel or to a ground
plate to handle currents due to lightning strikes. So how do we keep the keel or ground plate
electrically isolated as required in "Bonding and Electrolytic Corrosion..." above?

The solution is to connect the keel or ground plate directly to the mast, but make sure the mast is not
electrically connected to the boats DC ground system. If your steaming light, masthead light, tricolor,
Windex light etc. are wired carefully and correctly, they each will have their own DC return wire; there
should be no ground connection between their wiring and the mast itself. Make sure that this is the
case. This should also be true of your masthead instruments. The unintended DC connection between
mast and DC ground is typically made by the masthead VHF whip, which connects the shield of the
coax to the bracket connected to the mast. That shield also connects to the VHF radio which is DC
grounded by its power connection. The easiest solution is to insert what is called a "inner-outer DC
block" into the coax. This RF device puts a capacitor in series with the center conductor, and another
capacitor in series with the shield. This device is transparent to the VHF RF signals in the center
conductor and shield, but blocks any DC current in either the center conductor or shield. This device
can be made by a good radio technician, or purchased from radio supply houses, pre-fitted with any
kind of coax connection on both ends. The commercial units look like a coax "barrel" connector. A
vendor is listed at the end of the article.

Once the DC connection from the mast to the VHF is broken, check for any other connections with an
ohmmeter, and straighten out any other wiring errors or unintended connections. If your metal fuel tank
is also bonded to the lightning ground system (per ABYC) then make sure that it does not have DC
connections either to the engine via the fuel line or to the electrical system via the fuel level sensor. A
piece of approved rubber fuel hose in the fuel lines to the engine solves that connection, and a well
designed fuel level sensor will not make electrical contact with the tank.
When you're done, there will be heavy conductors running from the external keel or lightning ground
plate to the mast, stays, and to the metal fuel tank, but there will be no DC connections to the engine or
to the yacht's electrical system. See figure 3.

Summary
By using capacitors to block DC connections in a few key areas, it is possible to have perfect ground
systems for AC, DC, RF, lightning, and corrosion, and have a boat that is immune to stray DC currents
that are traveling through the water in "hot marinas."

In the old days, the technique of bonding everything together worked okay. In its defense, the "bond
everything together" approach makes your boat less sensitive to electrolytic corrosion that can result
from faulty wiring on your own boat. The problem is, the "bond everything" approach leaves your boat
totally defenseless to wiring errors in nearby boats and nearby industry, that cause stray DC currents to
run through the water.

Today the technique of bonding everything together would still work fine if your boat spent all of its
time on the high seas, in remote anchorages, or in marinas that were wired perfectly and in which all of
the nearby yachts were wired perfectly. Having underwater metal bonded together in crowded marina's
today, however, is asking for expensive trouble. As outlined above, it is avoidable trouble. It is
possible, with careful wiring and a few capacitors, to have the best of all worlds, good RF and lightning
grounds, ABYC approved DC and AC grounds, and security against electrolytic corrosion caused by
hot marinas.

Sources:

Inner-Outer DC Blocks: PolyPhaser, (800) 325-7170. Model IS-IE50LU-C1, 50MHz to 500MHz,

375W.
Capacitors for use to block DC in SSB grounding tape: Digi-Key, (800) 344 4539. Type X7R
Monolithic Ceramic capacitor, 0.15uF, $0.91 each, Digi-Key part number P4911-ND.
Lightning Protection
Electrical

It has been known for a long time that high objects are more prone to be struck by lightning. Some
2400 years ago Artabanis, advisor to Xerxes, gave this advise to his master: "See how God with his
lightning always smites the bigger animals and will not suffer them to wax insolent, while these of a
lesser bulk chafe him not. How likewise his bolts fall ever on the highest houses and tallest trees." And
he explains the reason: "So, plainly, doth he love to bring down everything that exalts itself".

In an electrical storm, the tall mast of a sailboat presents a likely target for a lightning strike. Likewise,
a fishing outrigger or the elevated bridge on a fishing boat has an increased probability of being struck.
Due to the unpredictability of lightning, there is little that we can do to avoid a lighting strike except to
refrain from boating during conditions or in areas where electrical storms are likely. Nevertheless,
while we cannot always avoid a lightning strike, we can use some known facts and theories about
lightning to minimize the damage if our boat should receive a strike.

Facts
A typical lightning stroke will have a current of about 20,000 amperes and some strokes will be more
than 100,000 amps!

Each stroke lasts for about 20 millionths of a second.

There are about 250 kW-hours of energy released in one stroke of lightning. This is enough energy to
lift a 2000 pound car 62 miles high!

Lightning is always occurring somewhere on earth and the rate of strikes is about 150 per second.

The phenomenon of lightning begins with a charge separation that occurs in thunderstorm clouds with
the top of the cloud becoming positively charged and the bottom becoming negatively charged.

The negative charge at the bottom of the cloud causes the formation of a positive image charge on the
surface of the earth below the cloud.

Strikes can occur within the cloud, between clouds or between the cloud and the surface.

Now for the Theory

There are a couple of theories that attempt to explain the mechanism by which the charges are
separated within the cloud. Unfortunately, each theory has its problems and scientists do not agree
about the exact mechanism at work here. For our discussion, it will be sufficient to assume that it is
similar to what happens when we shuffle our feet on a carpet on a dry day and that the result is an
accumulation of negative charge at the bottom of the cloud.

There is also a theory, or belief, held by some, that the use of static dissipaters will reduce the charge
build up to the point where a lightning strike will not occur. We have seen no documented evidence
that these devices actually reduce the likelihood of a strike and the descriptions of how they are
supposed to work contain many erroneous assumptions and indicate a general ignorance of the physics
of the phenomena.
Given that there is little that we can do to prevent lightning from striking, there is still much that we
can do to reduce the damage that results from a strike to our boat.
Recommended system

The purpose of a lightning protection system is to reduce the damage to the boat and the possibility of
injury or death to the passengers from a lightning strike by leading the strike to ground without using
the rest of the vessel as a conductor. The main components of a lightning protection system are a
lightning protective mast, a primary lightning conductor and a ground plate or strip.

Lightning Protective Mast - The purpose of the lightning protective mast is to provide a zone of
protection wherein the risk of a direct lightning strike is substantially reduced. This zone of protection
can be visualized as a cone with the same height as the mast, and a radius at its base roughly equal to
the height of the mast. Sailboats with an aluminum mast can use this mast for lightning protection, but
powerboats will generally need to install a mast of sufficient height to provide the necessary zone of
protection. Sailboats with nonconductive (wood or carbon fiber) masts should extend the primary
lightning conductor to the top of the mast.

Primary Lightning Conductor - This should be a heavy conductor run vertically as straight and as
directly as possible from the mast to the ground plate. ABYC (American Boat and Yacht Council, a
standards organization for the marine industry) recommends #4 AWG copper and specifies that any
bends should be less than 90° and have a radius of not less than 8 inches. Care must be used in making
the connection between the aluminum mast and the copper conductor. We supply a special Bi-Metal
connector, WM #193468, as an excellent solution to the corrosion problems presented when bonding to
aluminum structures.

Lightning Ground - ABYC specifies the lightning ground to be a submerged metal surface with an
area of at least one square foot (0.1 m²). It is important to remember that this dimension is the
MINIMUM recommended. In freshwater substantially more area will be required due to the lower
conductivity. The ground should be as close to the base of the lightning protective mast as possible. If
the boat has an external ballast keel, it can be used as an ideal ground. Alternatively, an external plate
or strip can be mounted on the hull. Of course, if the hull is metal, the ground connection can be simply
made directly to the hull.

Once a direct, low resistance, primary circuit is established, attention must be given to preventing side
flashes. The extremely high current of a lightning stroke, being discharged through the Primary
Lightning Conductor, will generate very high voltages due to the resistance and inductive reactance of
the system. These high voltages will attempt to find the lowest path of resistance to the water, which
may be an arc or flash to nearby metal objects or crewmembers.

To reduce the chance of side flashes we recommend connecting all large metal objects, shrouds,
headstay, backstay, lifelines, stanchions, etc. to the Lightning Ground with #6 AWG copper wire. It is
also important to try to stay as far away as possible from, and to avoid touching these during an
electrical storm. (By touching two metal objects, your body might just be the easiest path for the
current!)

In designing a lightning ground system, care must be taken not to create a system that accelerates
galvanic corrosion. For this reason we do not recommend that connections be made to through-hulls,
engines or other immersed metal. Special care must also be taken with masthead VHF antenna
installations to isolate the DC ground on the coax from the mast. A comprehensive discussion of
Grounding Systems, DC, AC, RF and lightning, is forthcoming in another West Advisor.
Shore Power
Electrical

Troubleshooting Shorepower Connections

The majority of dock power troubles can be linked to two simple problems - overheating and saltwater
immersion.

If you suspect a bad connection, turn off the dock power at the
outlet and remove the dock cord couplings at the outlet and boat.
Inspect the male and female plugs ends for signs of melting or
corrosion. Inspect the outlet and the boat's inlet for heat and
corrosion damage.

If signs of overheating are evident, the connector should be replaced

immediately. Be sure to inspect wire ends, when replacing
connectors, for signs of corrosion or overheating.

Marinco suggests that many dock cord connectors are replaced

unnecessarily because inlet and outlet connectors are at fault. Be
sure to inspect all terminals with equal care.

Should your dock cord connection be immersed in salt water,

disconnect quickly and rinse well in fresh water. Allow plenty of
time to dry before use.
Solar Panels
Electrical

What they do
Solar panels convert the sun's radiation (light) directly into electricity, which can be used to charge
batteries and operate DC loads. There are several applications for solar energy on boats.

• Maintenance charging for boats on moorings.

• Augmenting engine-based charging on cruising boats.
• Sole-source charging for boats without auxiliary engines.

How they work

Energy from the sun's light strikes the solar panel crystals knocking some electrons loose and creating
electricity. (OK, that is a little brief, but to the point.) Each solar cell in a panel creates a potential of
about 0.45 volts. To create sufficient voltage to charge a 12-volt battery, 30-36 cells are connected in
series to produce from 14 to 17 volts. Amperage (current) is proportional to the area of each cell:
larger cells produce more current. 3" cells = 2 amps, 4" cells = 3.1 amps, 5" cells = 5 amps.

There are three main types of solar panels: Monocrystalline (Siemens), Polycrystalline, and Thin
Film (United Solar). Monocrystalline panels have uniform dark grey or black cells and have the
highest output per area. They tend to be the most expensive as well. Polycrystalline cells look
somewhat like shattered black glass, and are less expensive as well as less efficient. Both types are
inflexible. Thin Film panels are flexible and about 50% as efficient as monocrystalline.

How much output can I expect?

Our design rule is that a solar panel will contribute as much as half of its wattage, in amp-hours, each
day if aimed at the sun and perhaps 25% if randomly oriented. This means that a 48-watt panel will
contribute as much as 24 amp-hours per day if aimed at the sun and perhaps 12 amp-hours if randomly
oriented.

Do solar panels require regulation?

As a general design rule, panels that produce less than 1%-2% of the battery's capacity in Ah don't
require regulation. This means that a 2-amp panel is the largest you should use without a regulator on a
100-amp-hour battery. Regulators should be used almost anytime you have two or more large panels
connected to your batteries. The regulator will shut off the panels when the battery's charge exceeds
14.3 volts.

If you are operating your boat with batteries that are seldom fully charged, as is the case when cruising,
the chance of over-charging them is much less. Remember, your solar panels will "turn off" every night
and during cloudy days. This ensures your batteries are not held continuously at an elevated voltage,
but they may exceed a healthy voltage in the afternoon sun.

Self-regulating panels produce less voltage (fewer cells), and theoretically will not overcharge your
batteries. Frankly, we don't think this is the right solution. We would rather use higher voltage panels
with regulators, or smaller panels which are incapable of overcharging. Self-regulating panels are much
less effective in high temperatures, since their voltage can drop too low to be effective in charging.
Wind Generators
Electrical

The energy available from the wind varies by the cube of the wind velocity. This means that every time
the wind speed doubles, the actual energy in the wind increases by eight times. That is why the AIR
Marine's output increases from a tiny 0.2A at six knots, to 2.6A at 10 knots, and to a very respectable
7.6A at 15 knots (all values at 13.5V). By the time wind speeds reach 25-30 knots, the AIR Marine is
producing as much as 30A to replenish your energy supply. Under trade-wind conditions, it is not
unreasonable to expect the AIR Marine to produce all of the energy you consume on a normal cruising
sailboat.

But it is this "cubic" power generation that causes most other wind generators to operate inefficiently.
The problem is that conventional wind turbines use standard off-the-shelf generators that only double
their output each time the rpm doubles. Generators are too hard to turn at low speeds, causing their
blades to operate at an inefficient angle of attack. At higher wind speeds, the generators loaf along,
unable to take advantage of the wind energy that is passing them by (over-speeding). The AIR Marine
is different, since it uses a proprietary "cubic curve" alternator, which extracts the maximum amount of
energy possible at wind speeds from 5 to 30 knots by matching the wind's cubic energy effect.

As winds reach 30 knots or higher, most wind generators risk damage from over-speeding or excessive
heat generation. Sustained winds over 35 knots can overheat alternator components and produce
dangerous levels of unregulated voltage to battery systems. Because of this, you will find that most
other wind turbines either require you to turn the turbine out of the wind and set the brake, or they
come equipped with manual tethers that turn the turbine out of the wind and stop propeller movement,
internal friction devices, centrifugal air brakes or feathering propellers that slow drag or stall the
blades. The AIR Marine has traditionally used the feathering method because it is safe and effective.
However, many cruisers complained about the noise the blades produce at high wind speeds.

A new advancement in the AIR Marine Wind Turbines is the use of an exclusive Auto-Brake circuit,
which automatically slows the blades to a slow, silent spin when the regulator senses the batteries are
charged. This reduces noise, and eliminates any chance of overcharging.

In addition to speed controls, the AIR Marine features an adjustable internal regulator which limits
voltage output to safe levels, and which can be negated by setting it to a high voltage if you would
prefer to regulate the turbine using an external regulator.
Though it is unlikely that wind power will completely eliminate the need for engine-driven charging on
cruising boats, the combination of wind and solar charging can greatly reduce the need for periodic
charging from the ship's main engine. At the very least, you'll be able to operate for incremental days
without cranking up the engine for charging.
Windlass Wiring
Electrical

While many new windlasses are sold complete with switching gear and circuit protection, we
frequently get questions about installing new windlasses, as well as proper wiring and additional
components.

Three Installation Questions

Proper windlass installation depends on three factors. First, determine whether you have a series-
wound or permanent-magnet motor in your windlass. Permanent-magnet motors have two wire
terminals on the motor. You change direction on the motor by reversing the polarity on the terminals.
Series-wound motors have three terminals on the motor-two positive and one negative. Which direction
the motor runs depends on which positive terminal is energized. The motor-type dictates which type of
switching mechanism can be used to operate the windlass.

Second, determine whether you want single-direction (up-only) or dual-direction (up/down)

operation. Many windlasses give you no choice-they are power-up/power-down by design. Others
have a manual clutch that allows you to control the down direction, while some simply have free-fall.
Since most boaters prefer the convenience of power-up/power-down operation, single-direction
windlasses are becoming less common.

Finally, determine whether or not you want to be able to operate the windlass from a remote
location. Sailors commonly weigh anchor from the bow, but on many powerboats it may be
inconvenient to operate the windlass from the bow. On any boat it may be unsafe to stand on the deck
in rough weather. Deck-mounted foot switches, located near the windlass, are used if remote operation
is not desired. Panel switches at the helm are popular on powerboats, and hand remotes can be used on
sail or powerboats when remote operation is desired.

Electrical Components
At the very least, every electric windlass circuit must have some sort of appropriately-sized circuit
protection, either a fuse or a circuit breaker, as close as possible to the battery bank. The fuse or circuit
breaker must be sized to handle the expected operating load, yet protect the wiring from a very high
current draw and/or a short circuit. Remember that circuit protection will not protect the motor from
sustained high load usage, which can cause heat build-up in the motor without tripping a breaker or
blowing a fuse. Windlasses are designed to operate for short periods of time only.

Switches turn the circuit on or off, and differ in their current-carrying ability and their style. Current-
carrying switches, like a foot switch or toggle switch, must handle the full current of the windlass.
Non-current-carrying switches, like a panel switch or a hand-remote, turn a solenoid on or off, and
must simply handle the solenoid current. A solenoid is an electric relay switch that opens or closes a
main circuit when activated by a remote switch. Because windlasses draw large amounts of current, a
solenoid allows the circuit to be "energized" from a remote location, without having to pass full current
through the remote switch. A dual-direction switch box is made up of two solenoids and special
switching gear capable of directing the current to make the windlass go up or down.

Installation Options
Because we don't have the space to draw wiring diagrams for every conceivable set-up, we'll simply
list the basic options. Many variations exist, depending on the configuration of the boat. Use our
guidelines to determine what components you'll need, then consult the windlass manufacturer or a
marine electrician to determine the specifics of your installation.

For a permanent-magnet motor, there are three basic installation options. For up-only operation, use
a foot switch. Remote operation, while possible, is not usually used in this situation. For up/down
operation, use a double-pole/double-throw switch capable of handling full current. For up/down remote
operation, use a dual-direction switch box designed for permanent-magnet motors plus remote
switches, either foot switches, a panel switch, a hand remote, or a combination.

Series-wound motors also have three basic options. For up-only operation, use a foot switch capable
of handling full current. For up/down operation from the windlass location, use two foot switches-one
for up and one for down. For up/down remote operation, use a dual-direction switch box designed for
series-wound motors in conjunction with any combination of foot switches, a panel switch, or a hand
remote.

Wire Sizing
Because windlass current draw can be 300 amps or greater at near-stalling load, wiring must be
appropriately sized to avoid excessive voltage drop, overheating, or failure. Any way you slice it,
windlasses require large diameter cables. Even small windlasses will require 2 ga. or 1 ga. cables, and
most larger windlasses will require 2/0 or 4/0 ga. The actual diameter is based upon the distance of the
cable run and the maximum load. Use your windlass' owner's manual or our wire-sizing guide (in the
Electrical section) to determine the right size for your installation. Remember to include the cost of
large diameter cables in the overall cost of the installation.

Power Considerations
Though some experts may disagree, we believe that the best way to power a windlass is from the
existing house battery bank, rather than from a separate battery in the bow. Not only does a dedicated
battery add to the already appreciable weight of the windlass, anchor and rode, it presents charging and
maintenance difficulties. The weight and cost savings of using short cables between the battery and the
windlass, instead of long ones from the windlass to the house battery bank (which is presumably far
away), is offset by the weight and cost of cables necessary to charge a bow battery. Charging cables
must be sized to handle any potential charging load. This is liable to be less than the maximum
windlass draw, but could still be 50-100 amps, so the cable size would be almost as large as those
required to power the windlass from the house bank. In addition, charging a battery over a long
distance can involve large amounts of current flow for an extended period of time (assuming a heavily
discharged battery), which in turn could lead to a voltage drop, heat build-up, and/or a large
electromagnetic field. In contrast, a windlass draws current in short bursts, so the cables supplying it
will not be under continuous use.
All-Round Lights
Electrical

You'll note that we offer an awful lot of all-round lights which have two distinguishing characteristics:
they have low-glare lenses, and they are really tall compared to what you may be used to seeing. Not
surprisingly, there are two good reasons for this.

Low-glare lights make sense since most small powerboats mount their all-round lights where they can
illuminate the driver's location in the boat. Nothing is more damaging to night vision that to have a
bright white light reflecting off the instrument panel and windshield. By focusing the light in a flat arc
away from the boat, the driver is much less likely to be blinded by it. Note that larger boats generally
show a masthead light (20 pt. white, shining foward), and a stern light (12 pt. white, shining aft) which
are generally shielded from the vision of the driver. Runabouts have no such shielding.

But what about the 42" and 48" pole light heights? The reason is simple: Federal Regulations (CFR33,
Part 84.03d) require that "The masthead or all-round light described in 23(c) of a power-driven vessel
of less than 12 meters in length shall be carried at least one meter higher than the sidelights." Having
the white light high above the colored sidelights makes it easier for other boaters to see what their
position is relative to yours, and where you are headed. Besides, shorter lights tend to be obscured by
structures, people, windshields, etc. Therefore, we'd recommend that you consider replacing your old
light with a new, tall one with a focused lens.
On Waterproof Searchlights
Electrical

Whether they're handheld, fixed on the bow, or remotely-controlled from the bridge, high-intensity
lights are an essential part of safe boating. Unlike older marine searchlights, which were little more
than automotive headlamps in marine housings, today's halogen lamps deliver intense white light that's
highly directable and quite efficient, compared to traditional bulbs. We recommend one of these three
types, based on your specific needs:

Spotlights concentrate light into a tight, intense beam that allows the illumination of a small area at a
great distance - making them the best choice for long-range work and emergency situations.

Floodlights offer a broader span of light over a shorter distance, which we find to be preferential
during night navigation and anchoring.

Combination Floodlight/Searchlights typically utilize a dual "high-beam low-beam" arrangement,

which allows the boater to tailor high-intensity lighting to his or her needs.

The majority of mounted searchlights are available with wired or wireless remote controls. We're
impressed by the convenience of wireless remote controls, which provide directional adjustment from
any location on the boat.
Electronics

How to Select a Fixed Mount VHF Radio

Fixed-Mount VHF Comparison Chart
How to Select a Handheld VHF Radio
Handheld VHF Comparison Chart
Family Radio Service (FRS) Radios
The Latest on Digital Selective Calling
VHF Antennas
Coax Cable
New Methods of High Seas Communications
High Seas Communications
Selecting a GPS Receiver
GPS and Chartplotter Comparison Chart
Depth Transducer Pros and Cons
How to Select a Fishfinder
Fishfinder/Sonar Comparison Chart
Selecting an Autopilot
Autopilot Comparison Chart
How to Select a Radar
Radar Comparison Chart
Testing Radar Reflectors
What does "Waterproof" mean, anyway?
West Advisor
How to Select a Fixed Mount VHF Radio
Electronics

What They Do
VHF (Very High Frequency) radios provide two-way communications with a range of 5 to 25 miles.
They are, arguably, the most important safety item on board a boat. In coastal or inland waters, a VHF
radio is generally the fastest link to rescuing agencies like the Coast Guard, a towing service, or the
harbormaster. Other uses include: conversation with other boaters, weather information, harbor
communications, lock and bridge tenders, and race committees.

How They Work

Unlike Single Sideband or shortwave radios, VHF radios transmit and receive line of sight signals.
That is, mountains, land masses, the curvature of the Earth, or anything else that limits your ability to
see in a straight line will also block VHF signals. VHF radios only listen to the strongest signal they
receive. If several boaters are transmitting simultaneously on the same frequency, you will only hear
the one with the strongest signal.

Fixed-mount radios are legally limited to 25 watts of transmit power. All radios have the option of
transmitting at 1 watt of power so that short-range conversations are less likely to interfere with large
numbers of boaters. It is an excellent idea to try to reach your party on 1 watt before switching to 25
watts.

Your antenna installation is the most important variable affecting the operating range of your VHF.
Mount your antenna as high as possible: on the mast of a sailboat, or on the superstructure of a
powerboat. Use an antenna with 6 or 9 dB gain on powerboats and 3 dB gain on sailboats (see the West
Advisor Selecting a VHF Antenna). Use large-diameter, low-loss coax cable with properly installed
connectors and run it as directly as possible to the radio.

It used to be that radios varied in the number of channels that they offered. This has now changed, and
every fixed-mount VHF radio we sell has all the operational U.S., International and weather channels
pre-programmed. Likewise, the receiver sensitivity and selectivity of all the VHFs we offer are so close
that they simply aren't an important differentiating factor.

What to Look For

Channel Selection

Two systems are used in modern VHF radios:

• Rotary Knob-A dial is twisted until the desired channel is reached. We generally prefer this
type for fastest access.
• Keypad-Two keys, one for UP and one for DOWN, enable you to select the channel you
want. Some radios now have channel selector buttons on the microphone as well as on the
radio itself. We like the convenience of this feature. All VHF sets have a special button that
immediately selects emergency Channel 16.

Scanning Modes

Scanners make it easier to keep track of radio traffic by automatically listening to a number of channels
in quick succession. They generally hesitate on an active channel until the conversation stops, then
move on to the next channel. The most useful scanners are those that can be programmed to listen only
to the channels that matter to you. Some scanners forget the scanned channel list when the power is
turned off, so you must reprogram it every time you use the radio-this is pretty inconvenient. Here's a
list of the most common scanning modes.
 • All-Channel Scan listens to every available channel in succession. This forces you to spend
time listening to channels in which you have no interest. We think this scanning mode is
completely worthless, unless we were floating in the middle of a large ocean and were really
desperate to see if someone was talking.

• Seek (Timed Scan) differs from normal scanning in that it only "listens" to an active channel
for a predetermined length of time (4 to 7 seconds) before moving on to the next active
channel.

• Priority Scan places priority on Channel 16 so emergency communications and hailing calls
will over-ride other traffic on other channels. This works if the congestion on Channel 16 is
light, but can cause the radio to "listen" to Channel 16 most of the time in high-traffic areas.

• Dual Watch scans Channel 16 and one other channel of your choice. It is handy when you
want to monitor 16 for incoming calls to your vessel, but also want to listen to fishing chatter,
vessel traffic or a race committee on another channel.

• Tri Watch-Monitors Channel 16 and two other channels. Now that the Coast Guard is
changing the hailing frequency to Channel 9 in some areas, and has reserved Channel 16 for
emergency traffic, Tri-Watch allows boaters to monitor Channel 9 for hailing, Channel 16 for
emergency broadcasts, and one additional working channel.

• Programmable Scanning and Tag Scan-Almost all radios now program their scanners using
a system we first saw years ago on a Standard Horizon radio. By selecting the desired
scanning channel with the up-down keys, and pressing MEM, the channel was stored in
memory. To delete the channel from memory, press MEM a second time. This simple system
is now used by virtually all VHF manufacturers.

Weather Alert
Also known as Weather Watch, this function enables the radio to signal you when there is an urgent
NOAA weather broadcast. When the radio detects a special warning signal from NOAA, it sounds a
special tone. On some radios (Raytheon, West Marine) the radio automatically tunes itself to the active
weather channel so you can hear the broadcast. On Standard Communications and Shakespeare radios,
you must manually tune the radio to the weather channel.

Audio Output
This number indicates the loudness with which you can hear incoming broadcasts. This is especially
important if you need to hear over lots of engine noise. We strongly urge you to consider the use of an
auxiliary speaker. The fidelity is considerably better than the silver dollar-size speakers built into most
radios.

PA (Public Address)/Hailers/Listen-Back/Foghorn
Included in many high-end products. All require an external waterproof speaker. PAs are less than 10
watts output, while hailers are 10 watts or greater. Broadcasts your voice to line handlers, other vessels,
or your first mate on the foredeck. Listen-Back turns any speaker into a microphone and amplifies faint
sounds. This enables you to communicate with that foredeck hand or listen for fog signals. Fog horns
broadcast legally required signals for operating in reduced visibility.

Weather Resistance
If your radio will be mounted in an exposed location, its ability to withstand water, extreme
temperatures, and UV rays are critical. Our best advice is to base your selection on the reputation of the
radio for waterproofness, and to have a handheld in reserve.
Other Features
We've expanded our discussion of DSC, or Digital Selective Calling to the point where it justifies its
own Advisor, which you'll find on the following pages. But here are some important other features:

• Power Down automatically reduces the transmit power to one watt on Channels 13 and 67. It
is intended to let more boaters use these channels without interfering with each other. Power
Down Override is a function using a button on the mike which increases the transmit power
on these two channels, in case you have to get someone's attention and one watt isn't
sufficient.

• Microphones are continuing to get more complex, with some offering all the functions that
are found on the base radio. Standard's Intrepid, for example, can use the RAM Microphone,
which provides full function remote capability. Change channels, change volume levels, add
or delete channels from the scanner's memory: all are possible from the keypad included with
the RAM Microphone. This is obviously more than a complicated microphone-it's actually a
entirely separate station for your radio which is ideally suited for the flying bridge, tuna tower,
navigation station, cockpit, or wherever you could use VHF communications.

• Other radios' microphones offer channel up/down selection, or the ability to Step through
memory channels, as on our Aurora Plus. The Step function was our suggestion to Uniden,
manufacturer of the Aurora Plus, since we find it very clumsy to run up or down through 25
channels when you generally restrict your use to four or five channels. If they are in your
scanner's memory, you can easily step to them with this feature.

There seems to be a tendency for VHF radios to drop in size, as evidenced by the many radios
with short (5 1/2" deep) chassis. While this was uncommon as little as five years ago, now
every manufacturer seems to be making their radios fit where it used to be impossible. If you
have limited mounting space, the new Icom IC-M45 is only 5 3/4" wide, and fits almost any
instrument panel.

• Scramblers keep other boaters from eavesdropping on your communications. Primarily used
by commercial fishermen who want to keep their fishing location and success a secret, they
are of limited use to pleasure boaters. Both sets must be equipped with scrambler circuitry,
and each operator must know the code that is being used. Scrambler options vary from 128 to
4096 codes, depending on the degree of privacy desired.
Fixed-Mount VHF Comparison Chart
Electronics

Channel Warranty Weather Program

Manufacturer Style PA? Comments Model Price
Selection Yrs/FR* Alert? Scanner?
Uniden MC-535 Buttons 3+FR no no no An inexpensive, quality radio 253874 $119.99
West Marine Aurora Buttons 3+FR no no yes Low Price, scanner, great quality 179567 $139.99
Auto squelch, channel changing
Shakespeare SE2001EX Buttons 3+FR no no no 158829 $159.99
mic
Backlit keypad, STEP mic function,
West Marine Aurora+ Buttons 3+FR 4W yes yes 179468 $159.99
WX alert
The smallest waterproof unit, on-
Raytheon Ray 45 Buttons 3 year no yes no 161872 $169.99
mic controls
Short Chassis, includes scanner,
Standard Eclipse+ Buttons 3+FR no yes yes 253635 $169.99
very popular
Flush-mount design, die-cast
Icom IC-M45 Buttons 3+FR no yes yes 393580 $189.99
chassis
Like above with a scanner, clean
Shakespeare SE2510 Buttons 3+FR no yes yes 307035 $189.99
look
Submersible, DSC-D, Clear Voice
Standard Intrepid Buttons 3+FR no yes yes 158928 $219.99
noise cancelling
Rotary
Icom IC-M59 3+FR no yes yes Multifunction mic, die-cast chassis 357160 $219.99
Knob
Rotary Full Keyboard. five programmable
Raytheon Ray 210 3 year no yes yes 360158 $299.99
Knob buttons
Rotary Submersible, DSC-D, intercom,
Standard Spectrum 3+FR 20W yes yes 1193424 $449.00
Knob Clear Voice, hailer
Rotary Commercial quality, intercom, fog
Icom IC-M127 3 year 10W yes yes 360513 $479.00
Knob horn
Rotary
Raytheon Ray 220 3 year 10W yes yes Hailer, scrambler, DSC-D, intercom 360166 $499.00
Knob
How to Select a Handheld VHF Radio
Electronics

What They Do
Handheld VHF radios provide short range, portable communications between boats without depending
on the ship's power or antenna systems.

How They Work

With nearly all of the features of a larger fixed-mount radio, handhelds offer superior convenience in
conditions where a fixed-mount might be unavailable. They're ideal for applications such as:

• Dinghies, that need to keep in touch with the "mother ship"

• Small boats that don't have electrical systems, or don't have room for a fixed-mount radio
• Large boats that require the operator to be away from the primary helm position, such as
sportfishers with towers or flybridges
• Backup to the ship's primary radio

Handhelds are limited to a transmit power of 6 watts, compared to 25 watts for fixed-mount radios.
Remember, VHF range is more dependent on antenna height and antenna length than on transmit
power, so you can add significantly to your range by connecting an external antenna or by transmitting
from the highest location available to you. For normal handheld use, figure on a 3-5 mile range from a
small boat.

How much difference does increased transmit power have? Very little on the range of the
communications. Icom states that by switching from 1 watt to 3 watts of output you may gain 10% in
range. The main impact is that your battery life is dramatically reduced when you transmit at high
power. The batteries in handhelds vary in capacity from about 500 mAh to 1200 mAh, and the current
draw on high power transmit can be in the 2 amp range. This quickly depletes a battery if there is lots
of conversation. Note: Most radio manufacturers measure their battery life on a 90/5/5 basis: 90%
standby, 5% receive, and 5% transmit at high power.

Should I buy Family Radio Service radios or Marine VHF?

One change in the communications world which may affect whether you buy a handheld VHF radio is
the introduction of Family Radio Service (FRS) radios, which are intended for personal two-way
communications. While similar to handheld VHF radios, FRS radios are not limited to marine use, and
can be used while hiking, boating, walking around town, or for communication from the stern to bow
of a large vessel.

On the other hand, FRS radios will not be able to summon the Coast Guard when you are on the water,
will not signal the tender of the bridge that you need to pass through, and will not connect you to the
marine operator for a phone patch. They should be thought of as sophisticated, clear-reception CB
radios, and not as a replacement for marine VHF handhelds.

Which would we buy? Frankly, many of the uses that VHF marine handhelds are pressed into service
for are 100% illegal, according to FCC rules. You can't talk ship-to-shore, for example, even if the
shore crew took a dinghy to get there. You also can't (legally) talk from the bow of your yacht to the
stern or to the main saloon with handheld VHF radios. FRS radios are fantastic for these applications,
and you can take them on your next hiking or hunting trip as well, without breaking the law. We think
of them as augmenting your VHF radio, not replacing it.

What to Look For

While features and channels are desirable in VHF radios, we think environmental protection and
ruggedness are paramount when selecting a handheld. They inevitably have a tough life: water is a
constant threat, drops onto hard surfaces are common, and environmental conditions change constantly.
There are two ways to improve your handheld's chances of surviving more than one season: buy a
ruggedly-built model in the first place, and use a waterproof "bag" when operating the radio in wet
places. And if you have to depend on a handheld VHF for emergency communications, we suggest a
spare radio.

Battery Life

This varies with the size of the battery pack included with the radio. Many models offer optional
battery packs with longer operating times, greater transmit power, or both. The Icom M1, for example,
can operate more than twice as long when equipped with its optional long life battery (also available as
the M1+). Each manufacturer tries to extend battery life using a variety of tricks: battery saver circuits,
which turn off the receiver momentarily, seem to work well.

But how much battery life is enough? One thing is for sure: it is a false economy to have a radio you
feel compelled to turn on and off during the day to conserve power. We encourage you to consider
radios that have 8 hours of battery life so that it can last throughout a long day on the water. You
should also consider radios that can use an alkaline battery pack, due to the excellent longevity, and the
ability to quickly "re-load" with fresh batteries. Remember, most radios have far longer battery life at
one-watt transmit.

Waterproofness

This is sort of a defensive buying feature, but what good is a handheld that is damaged by water and
not covered by a warranty? The "waterproofness" of a handheld is important, and to the degree that
manufacturers indicate it, we have passed on this information. You'll see that there are more and more
models which claim to be submersible, which is a very tough standard. If you plan to carry a radio in
an inflatable sportboat, PWC, or on a daysailer or racer, we highly recommend choosing a submersible
model.

Ease of Operation

Something as potentially lifesaving as a portable radio should be easy to use. Functions should be
clearly labeled, and scanning functions should be easy to program and use. Also, stored channels
should be maintained in memory when the unit is turned off. Most radios now operate similarly, which
is a welcome change from five years ago, when it took a lengthy manual and a three-unit junior college
course to feel confident operating a handheld.

Features

What about channels, scanners, and other features? Nearly all handhelds have all US and International
channels. Most have Dual Watch, at a minimum, and a user-programmable scanner. One feature we
can do without is an "all channel scan" function, which spends an inordinate amount of time listening
to traffic of no interest to you. One small feature we really like, however, is a
US/Canadian/International channel switch that is difficult to switch accidentally, so you are less likely
to switch to the wrong bank of channels.

Recommended Accessories

Manufacturers are in an apparent race to include as much cool stuff with their radios as possible this
year, which reduces the need for you to spend money on accessories. Standard Communications, for
example, provides NiCad and alkaline battery packs, and 12V DC and 110V AC chargers with two of
their models. And while drop-in chargers used to be sort of a "commercial use" option, they are now
usually standard equipment with radios over $150.00.

Optional Equipment varies by manufacturer, with Standard and Icom offering more ways to modify
your radio than Interlux has paint colors. Popular options include 12V DC power cords, drop-in
chargers, microphones, antenna adapters, spare battery packs, and waterproof pouches.

Drop-in chargers make it easier to keep the radio charged, so it is more likely it will be ready when
you need it. There are two types of chargers: slow (10 to 15 hours) chargers and rapid chargers (90
minutes or less). Rapid chargers generally have voltage regulation and sensing circuitry to turn
themselves off. This is not true of most slow chargers. The best solution, in our opinion, consists of a
drop-in charger base with interchangeable 12V DC and 120V AC power cords.

Lapel microphones let you keep the radio on your hip, while speaking and listening to a small
speaker/mike on your lapel. This frees your hands for other tasks and allows you to keep the radio in a
pocket or more protected location.

Antenna adapters allow your handheld to use the ship's antenna. This greatly extends the range of the
handheld, and is an important safety feature should your fixed radio fail. The type of adapter varies
with the brand of radio: most use a BNC connector, while others use a special connector. All provide
male "PL-259" threads for connection to the antenna coax cable.

Alkaline battery packs let you use inexpensive, long-storage-life disposable batteries in your radio.
One of the shortcomings of rechargeable batteries is that they self-discharge when stored. Disposable
alkaline batteries, on the other hand, retain their capacity for much longer (at 20°C [68°F], they retain
90% of their capacity for three years). For emergency use, as in a life raft, a battery pack of alkaline
batteries will have a long storage life, and long operating life, too. They also allow you to rapidly
change from having a depleted battery to a full capacity battery, simply by replacing the cells.

You should also consider the financial impact of using a radio that depends on alkalines vs. NiCads.
One popular handheld VHF offers a "NiCad kit" which has the battery pack and charger for around
$100. Since each set of alkaline batteries costs about $1.50, and lasts for six hours, you'd have to use
the radio for 400 hours to break-even on the NiCad kit upgrade. You would, however, be tossing 400
fewer batteries into the local landfill...

Waterproof pouches are an excellent way to prolong the life of your handheld. Unfortunately, the
small knobs and buttons on ever-shrinking handhelds don't lend themselves to baggie operation. Keep
this in mind when selecting a radio. Despite the drawbacks, we recommend them for all handhelds that
are not warranted to be "submersible."
Handheld VHF Comparison Chart
Electronics

Battery Life Warranty Antenna

Manufacturer Style Outstanding Features Model Price
Nicad Alkaline Yrs/FR* Conn.
Humminbird VHF5 8 hrs ----- 1 TNC Inexpensive 5W; lots of accessories 275698 $99.99
Inexpensive; nicad or alkaline
West Marine Mistral 8 hrs 20 hrs 3+FR TNC 179450 $89.99
batteries
Affordable; scanner, nicad or
Standard HX150 6 hrs 19 hrs 3+FR Stud 360687 $129.99
alkaline batteries
Inexpensive 3W; nicad or alkaline
Garmin VHF720 9 hrs 19 hrs 3 SMA 158449 $169.99
batteries
Waterproof; nicad or alkaline
Raytheon Ray 100 8 hrs 15 hrs 3+FR TNC 161864 $189.99
batteries
Compact, water resistant, nicad or
Icom M3 7 hrs 15 hrs 3+FR Stud 393630 $139.99
alkaline
1300mA NiMH, plus 12v/110v
Shakespeare SE700 18 hrs** 12 hrs 3*** SMA 1248830 $189.99
combo charger
Very popular; lots of standard
Standard HX255S 8 hrs 19 hrs 3+FR SMA 360750 $229.99
equipment
Submersible; nicad or alkaline
Raytheon Ray 102 6 hrs 12 hrs 3+FR TNC 1185354 $229.99
batteries
Garmin VHF725 5 hrs 10 hrs 3+FR SMA 5W version of 720, with accessories 272091 $239.99
Standard HX350S 10 hrs 19 hrs 3+FR Stud Submersible; huge LCD & numerals 125000 $279.99
1 New Li-ion batteries recharge
Icom M1V 12 hrs --- 3+FR 1199645 $289.99
anytime
*Flat Rate (FR) limits repair costs to a fixed dollar amount after warranty expires
**Uses NiMH batteries, not nicad
***Guaranteed 48 hour turnaround on repair or you get a loaner free
1
Uses a lithium-ion battery, not nicad
Family Radio Service (FRS) Radios
Electronics

A new class of personal two-way radios has been recognized by the FCC. Called Family Radio
Service, or FRS, radios, they are intended for personal, non-commercial use in much the same way that
CB radios are used. However, they have substantial advantages over CBs since they use much higher
frequencies and frequency modulation, just like marine VHF radios. This ensures clear, quiet
communications.

Of particular interest to boaters is that you can use FRS radios where it has been illegal, albeit handy, to
use conventional VHF portable radios. Examples include ship-to-shore use (what do you do when you
take the dinghy to shore?), bow-to-stern use, and relaxed conversations from boat -to-boat. The use of
FRS radios will undoubtedly free up some of the congestion on VHF channels, since they provide an
additional 14 channels for this type of communication.

But they are not limited to marine use. FRS radios are the ideal way to keep tabs on hikers, mountain
bikers or hunters. Clip one to your kid's belt, and use it to page him/her for dinner. Give one to a
travelling companion in a nearby car, and keep in touch while on the road. They're great for most short-
range communications, since no license is required and there are no per-minute charges as with cellular
phones.

As with VHF marine radios, communications are sharp and clear, with no aggravating static. The
ingenious squelch design of FRS radios allows you to set your radios to one of 14 channels, then select
a squelch code from 38 subaudible tones. This practically guarantees that the only conversations you'll
hear are intended for you alone. (Note: not all FRS radios work on all frequencies, or include all
codes.)

FRS radios transmit at 1/2 watt, and operate in the 460 MHz UHF band, which is between marine
VHF-FM radios and cellular telephones. The range varies due to land masses and buildings, but
distances of 1-2 miles are common, with much greater distances possible if there are no intervening
land masses. As with VHF radios, range is largely line-of-sight, although the signals tend to bounce off
objects, which increases their range.
The Latest on Digital Selective Calling
Electronics

Readers of the West Advisor undoubtedly remember our lukewarm treatment of DSC, or Digital
Selective Calling. In past Advisors, we lamented the way in which this "feature" was introduced to both
manufacturers and consumers. Manufacturers have been trying to hit a moving target for several years,
since the specification for what constitutes a DSC radio has changed repeatedly. And as this
specification has been changing, there has been the spectre of failing Type Acceptance at the FCC
unless the radio being submitted met the standard!

For consumers, there have been virtually no benefits from DSC, although it has caused tons of
confusion. Many customers purchased DSC radios, mistakenly believing that their boating would
somehow improve. And West Marine has been a unwitting contributor, since we have tried, as always,
to bring you the most advanced products with the greatest value.

Luckily, the situation has changed dramatically in the past year, and we are beginning to see a time
when the benefits of DSC radios will be realized. But first, a brief reminder of what DSC is (and isn't):

Digital Selective Calling is a technology in which a VHF radio can (selectively) call another radio
using digital messages, much like the modem on a computer. You call the DSC code of the specific
vessel you are calling, and only the radio on the vessel called receives the message. All other radios are
unaffected. The key advantage is that VHF messages are more like "direct dial" and less like a "party
line.

Furthermore, when a DSC VHF is connected to the data output of a GPS receiver, it is possible to
transmit your ID code, the fact that you are having a Mayday emergency, and your position to rescue
agencies (generally the Coast Guard).

The problem is that the Coast Guard does not have the infrastructure to listen for DSC distress calls.
So, while you may be able to transmit, no one is listening. So, we have argued, there is practically no
advantage to having a DSC radio for recreational boaters, unless they're betting on the future.

How has the outlook changed?

We understand that one of two solutions will evolve to make DSC useful and practical as a means of
distress communications. One, which is only a rumor at this point, is to have a national private
company undertake the role of monitoring distress calls and forwarding them to the Coast Guard. This
private company would do no interpretation, but merely serve as the ears of the Coast Guard on coastal
waters, major rivers and lakes. This could happen, apparently, as soon as mid-1999.

The other solution is to have the Coast Guard take on this duty, which is apparently mandated if no
other solution exists by the end of 2000. This means that in the next 6-24 months (from the date of this
writing, Dec. 1998), there is likely to be someone monitoring DSC distress messages.

The second major change is the introduction of the Standard Horizon Intrepid, which is the first type-
accepted DSC SC-101 radio that we know of. While other radios have fallen short of the mark in one
way or another, we believe the Intrepid is the first in a series of compliant radios which actually offer
benefits to boaters. Two features of particular importance: the Intrepid can be programmed from the
front panel, so you can enter your vessel's identification code without a visit to the electronics repair
shop, and the Intrepid is affordable.

What other benefits will arise from the use of DSC radios? We understand there is a move toward
using digital information to access public correspondence stations on shore. This would theoretically
allow you to dial your party's phone number from your VHF radio without having to go through a
marine operator. At ranges that will far exceed cellular telephones, and prices dramatically less than
current ship-to-shore rates, this is an exciting extension to VHF service. And, finally, if you want to tell
your fishing buddy where you are, but you don't want to tell anyone else, a DSC radio may soon make
it possible to simply dial in your buddy's radio ID code, and send him your position secretly!
VHF Antennas
Electronics

VHF radios are one of the most cost-effective pieces of safety gear that you can put on your boat.
Using relatively inexpensive transceivers, and one of many styles of antennas, a VHF radio enables you
to contact the Coast Guard or other vessels when you’re in trouble. Of course, most VHF use is for
more enjoyable pursuits, like chatting about the day’s fishing, or letting a bridge tender know that you
would like to pass.

To maximize the range of your VHF, there are a few rules that you should be aware of:

Marine VHF radios for recreational boats are limited to 25 watts of output so, unlike Single Sideband
or Ham radios, you cannot boost your range with a more powerful transmitter. A quality installation
always helps, though. That includes a good 12V DC power connection, and quality coax connections.

Even if you could increase your power, it wouldn’t help much. VHF radios operate on a “line of sight”
principle between stations, meaning that the signals do not bend around obstructions or over the
horizon (Okay, they do a little, but think of them as traveling about as straight as a light beam.)

This means that antenna height, more than any other factor, is responsible for determining how far you
can transmit. An antenna mounted up high can “see” farther over the horizon.

Under the right conditions, a very small transmitter can communicate over vast distances. For example,
the signal from an EPIRB (emergency beacon) is less than one tenth of a watt, yet they can be heard by
satellites orbiting 528 miles above the earth.

So, the wattage of the radio is much less important than antenna height in determining range. Antenna
gain is important, however. This is a measure of how much the antenna focuses the radio’s energy in
the horizontal direction. If several otherwise equal radios try to contact a single receiving radio, the
higher gain antenna is the one the receiving radio will hear.

It is also extremely important to have good, solid, low resistance connections between the cable and
antenna and between the radio and the cable. Splices in the cable are not recommended! We are
dealing with RF power here, and any discontinuity will cause power to be reflected back to the
transmitter and lost.

So how far can one VHF installation talk to another VHF installation? The following table, taken from
a special section on VHF radios in Motorboating & Sailing, gives typical reception distances for
selected antenna heights. The antenna heights are given for a handheld in a small boat, a typical
powerboat antenna height of 10 ft., and sailboat installations with 30 ft. and 60 ft. heights. Distances
are in nautical miles.

Transmit Antenna Height Receiving Antenna Height

5' 10' 25' 100' 250'
5' 5 mi. 7 mi. 9 mi. 15 mi. 23 mi.
10' 9 mi. 10 mi. 11 m. 18 mi. 25 mi.
30' 10 mi. 12 mi. 13 mi. 20 mi. 28 mi.
60' 12 mi. 14 mi. 15 mi. 21 mi. 30 mi.

Coast Guard shore stations are commonly located on the highest mountains along the coast or mounted
on tall towers, which gives them tremendous range. They also maintain a network of repeaters so that
even if a station or vessel is not located nearby, they can still communicate with you.

Selecting a VHF Antenna

dB Rating
An antenna’s dB rating indicates the apparent increase in transmitting power due to its ability to
“focus” energy. Antennas with a high dB rating concentrate energy perpendicular to the antenna shaft
in a relatively flat disk. This makes your radio signal appear stronger in receiving stations around you.
It also reduces the amount of energy transmitted above or below the antenna, which can be a problem if
your boat is pitching or rolling in seas. A concentrated signal can actually fade in and fade out as the
boat rolls. Antennas with high dB ratings are taller than those with low dB ratings. For example, a six
dB antenna is 8' tall, while a nine dB antenna is 18'-23' tall. Shorter, 3dB antennas transmit available
energy in a less concentrated, more “spherical” pattern. The “broad” radiation pattern from a low dB
antenna allows a sailboat to heel over and still send signals towards the horizon. Sailboats should use a
3dB antenna mounted at the top of the mast whenever possible.

Construction

VHF antennas are made of stainless steel or fiberglass. For masthead mounting, short stainless
“whip” antennas create less windage and provide the appropriate wide radiation pattern required by a
heeling sailboat. Small powerboats may also use stainless whip antennas because they are rugged.
Fiberglass tube antennas vary in quality. The best are Galaxy, which are coated with smooth white
polyurethane and will last 5-10 years. Polyurethane-coated antennas don’t have Galaxy's attractive
mirror-finish, but they are durable. Standard fiberglass antennas last a few years, especially when used
on covered boats. When the fiberglass begins to discolor and sliver, it should be replaced. One major
difference in antenna construction is in the ferrule used to attach an antenna to its mount. Less
expensive antennas use nylon, which is not as strong as the chromed-brass or stainless steel found on
quality antennas. It is a good idea, especially when using metallic mounts, to match the ferrule
material to the mount material to reduce electrolytic corrosion problems.

Elements inside the Antenna

There are three main styles of electrical elements: those using cut lengths of coax cable, those using a
simple brass radiator, and those using a more complicated copper and brass radiator. While all provide
acceptable performance, better antennas use brass or copper inside the fiberglass for maximum strength
and durability.

Do antenna extensions increase gain?

A few years ago, we were surprised to see a marine publication suggest that adding an extension to
your VHF antenna to get it higher off the water resulted in an increase in antenna “gain.” The gain of
the antenna is primarily determined by how many stacked elements, or radiators, it has. This results in
longer antennas for higher gain levels. The addition of an extension does not affect the construction or
electrical properties of the antenna, and therefore has no impact on gain. However, an extension does
get your antenna higher off the water, which results in greater range. Make sure that you brace your
antenna/extension (and brace antennas over 8' in two places) to prevent damage at high speeds or in
rough seas.
Coax Cable
Electronics

Coax cable is designed to transfer your radio transmitter's energy to your antenna with as little loss as
possible. It is precisely made, with the correct impedance for VHF installations.

We offer three kinds of coax cable for VHF radio installations: RG-58, RG-8X, and RG-8U. As a rule
of thumb, use the largest coax you can fit to reduce signal loss. Here is the reason: Almost all VHF
radios start with about 25 watts of transmit power. As soon as the signal starts down the coax cable, it
begins to lose some strength. This loss is measured in dB. High gain antennas cannot recover this lost
energy, but they can focus the remaining energy across the water so you come through with as much
punch as possible.

Bigger coax reduces signal losses between the radio and the antenna, which increases the power at the
antenna. This chart shows the effect of using different sizes of coax:

Coax Size vs. Signal Loss in dB

Cable: 20' 40' 60' 80' 100'

RG-58 -1.2 -2.4 -3.6 -4.9 -6.1
RG-8X -0.9 -1.8 -2.7 -3.6 -4.5
RG-8U -0.5 -1.0 -1.6 -2.1 -2.7

We strongly recommend that you use Ancor coax cable and coax connectors unless your antenna is
supplied with cable. Ancor cable has a very tightly woven shield braid and uses tinned wire for greater
corrosion resistance.

One of the best ways to reduce your radio's performance is with a poor splice to your antenna cable.
Splices made without the correct connectors can reduce your transmit power by a factor of ten or more.
When it is necessary to splice a coax cable, like at the base of a mast, use PL-259 connectors and a PL-
258 double male connector. This method will reduce losses compared to simply soldering or crimping
the conductors together.

One drawback of connectors is that they can allow water to get into the cable. Water tends to "wick"
inside the braided shield on the cable, which quickly corrodes the copper into a green crust. You must
protect all coax connections from water intrusion, especially in the bilge area, or where exposed to
water.

For connections that are open to the elements, we recommend Ancor heat shrink tubing, after coating
the connection with silicone grease. Many turns of waterproof tape is an acceptable, but less preferable,
alternative.
High Seas Communications
Electronics

The Options

This advisor is not intended to be a complete review of all of the developments in high seas
communications over the past 30 years (there have been some great articles in Ocean Navigator and
Practical Sailor if you are interested). However, we would like to bring you up to date on some exciting
new products and technologies which have made it easier than ever to communicate worldwide.

Forces behind the changes

We think there are three key forces that have brought about the increasing options available to boaters:

• Computers on boats. Many of the technologies discussed below require that you have a PC
on board. This is becoming practically mandatory, whether to navigate, communicate, or write
the next Moby Dick while en route to the Azores.

• E-mail. E-mail, once exceptional, is now used by everyone from Fortune 500 companies to
your Aunt Betty. For many of us, friends without e-mail addresses are now in the minority.

• LEOS (Low Earth Orbiting Satellites). By using many small low earth-orbiting satellites,
which are far less expensive than geostationary satellites, it has become possible to have
worldwide communications coverage using low power transmitters on land. LEOS
constellations have dramatically higher numbers of satellites in their constellations than
geostationary satellite systems.

So, what are the neat new technologies?

SAILMAIL and other SSB and Ham e-mail programs

It's now convenient and affordable to send e-mail via your single sideband radio and laptop computer,
using a system like SAILMAIL or a Ham station. While slow, this method has the advantage of using
two expensive items that you are likely to have on board already (SSB and computer), and only
requires the addition of a Terminal Node Controller (or TNC, sort of a glorified modem for your SSB)
and a relationship with a communications site on land.

So how "slow" is slow? The TNC which we recommend (SCS PTC-II E, about $650) transmits and
receives about 40 characters per second. Note: West Marine does not sell this item, but you can find
out about it at the website mentioned below.

Prior to the 1998 summer ocean races on the West Coast, a new nonprofit land station was created near
our first store in Palo Alto, CA. SAILMAIL is a collaborative effort of longtime customers Stan Honey
and Jim Corenman and several West Marine vendors including Icom. Now this station has been joined
by a station located at West Marine's Rock Hill, SC distribution center, and our Honolulu, HI store.
There's also a site in Australia, and we anticipate more stations as the service grows in popularity. With
its modest annual cost (currently $200 for unlimited use), SAILMAIL provides reliable, cost-effective
marine e-mail. Please visit the website at www.sailmail.com for more information.

Three caveats on the use of SAILMAIL: because of the "volunteer" aspect of the service, the
SAILMAIL Association is unable to offer individual customer support. However, many local marine
electronics professionals are adept and willing to help boaters install the necessary connections to get
on the air, and the web site is an excellent source of information.

Second, due to the small number of stations, and the possibility of lots of traffic, SAILMAIL requests
that you don't use the service for more than 10 minutes per day, which allows other subscribers to
access the site. Users that exceed this limit regularly will be sent a warning e-mail, and will ultimately
be cut off from service.

Third, West Marine supports SAILMAIL because it helps our customers with the vexing problem of
staying in touch while offshore. We anticipate hosting SAILMAIL stations at other West Marine
stores. However, SAILMAIL is an independent, nonprofit organization, and West Marine has no
financial interest in it, nor does West Marine receive compensation from SAILMAIL.

Inmarsat C and Mini-M Satellite Systems

These are the Big Dogs in the marine satellite communications world. Using four big geostationary
satellites, Inmarsat provides extremely reliable text, fax, data, and voice communications virtually
worldwide. Not surprisingly, you pay dearly for both the equipment and its use, but it's the best that is
available and our customers are loyal to it.

Inmarsat C (or Standard C)

This is a text service for sending and receiving e-mail. Cost is $0.25 per 32 characters of a message.
Note that this Advisor is approximately 9,000 characters (including spaces) and it would cost $70 to
send it to your friends (not to imply for a moment that it wouldn't be worth it!) So brevity is not only
the soul of wit, but also critical to extending your cruising kitty.

An infrequently touted feature of Inmarsat C is its ability to send a distress e-mail to rescue agencies
around the world. By simultaneously pressing two buttons, the terminal will send a coded distress
message with your position and vessel ID, which can summon help virtually worldwide. While this
does not replace a 406MHz EPIRB, it provides much the same capability.

Cruisers we know are 100% sold on this service, despite its high cost. They rely on it to keep in touch
and to run their businesses when offshore.

Inmarsat Mini-M

Mini-M provides voice, data, and faxing capability nearly worldwide. It is a form of Inmarsat M, which
uses "spot beam" antennas on the satellites, and therefore requires a much smaller antenna on the vessel
(roughly a cubic foot). Our experience is limited, but does indicate how well this system works. While
sailing trans-Atlantic this summer on the racing catamaran PlayStation, we elected to call home amidst
an angry ocean filled with icebergs. Within 10 seconds of dialing the U.S. phone number, the
connection was made and it was like talking from one home to another across town. Fast, with no
static, and at affordable rates (OK, it's expensive, but worth it), Mini-M simply works to keep you in
touch by voice.

It also works to keep you in touch by fax, data, and e-mail, but it still costs about $2.50 per minute, and
the transmission speed is very slow. Despite the cost, we are big fans of both Inmarsat C and Mini-M
for those who venture offshore and who desire to keep in touch.

Iridium

Sadly, Iridium has come and gone. This promising system of handheld phones and low earth orbiting
satellites ceased operations in the spring of 2000. Due to an excessive debt load and far fewer
subscribers than necessary to ensure solvency, this multi-billion dollar system survived for about a year
before declaring bankruptcy. We anticipate that Iridium will be studied for years in business schools as
a case study in the risks of investing in a giant infrastructure in a world of changing technologies.

In 2000, we guessed that the probable demise of Iridium would be due to the following factors:

• Greatly expanded cellular phone coverage around the world, which negated the need for a
worldwide satellite phone
 • Very high pricing of both the hardware ($3,500 phones) and operating charges ($7.00 per
minute in many cases)

• An almost incomprehensible rate plan which made the selection of a cellular phone contract
almost seem simple by comparison

• The lack of accessories (especially mounts and antennas which allowed the portable phones to
be used below decks on boats) and the inability to send e-mail

We won't dwell on the hardships that the system suffered, and we do think there is a market for a
worldwide telephone. Nevertheless, we also think that someone had a grossly inflated idea of how
much it was reasonable to charge for a portable telephone.

Globalstar

This could be Iridium's replacement, although the system does not do everything that Iridium tried to
do. It is a coastal satellite voice system, using large handheld phones, which are made by Qualcomm.
The range extends out about 200 miles from shore, so it is perfect for the coastal cruiser, and includes
most of the countries around the globe. Open ocean areas are omitted, due to the "bent pipe" method of
relaying calls

Cost is about $1,200 for a portable phone, and $2.00 per minute for calls. Prices in non-US countries
may be higher. Please refer to the Globalstar web site, www.globalstar.com for more information.

Magellan's GSC 100 Personal Satellite Communicator

The GCS 100 is intended for brief text messages to e-mail addresses. The unit is self-contained and the
size of a very large handheld VHF. While potential coverage is worldwide, not all countries have
agreements with ORBCOMM to allow the device to be used. See the web site above for a coverage
map

The pricing scheme is simpler than Iridium, but still challenging. The GSC 100 costs $1,000, and
activation costs $50. Monthly fees are $30, which includes 10 messages of up to 500 characters and 30
free message checks per month. After the first 2,000, each character costs $0.01. Each message check
over 30 per month costs $0.20.

The distribution rights to the Magellan GSC 100 have been sold to Dynasty Components, Inc. They are
continuing to sell the GSC 100, but West Marine has elected to not continue selling it. See
www.mysatmail.com for more information. See also www.orbcomm.com for information about the
system.
New Methods of High Seas Communications
Electronics

The Options
This advisor is not intended to be a complete review of all of the developments in high seas
communications over the past 30 years (there have been some great articles in Ocean Navigator and
Practical Sailor if you are interested). But we would like to bring you up to date on some exciting new
products and technologies which have made it easier than ever to communicate worldwide.

Forces behind the changes

We think there are three key forces which have brought about the increasing options available to
boaters:

• Computers on boats. Many of the technologies discussed below require that you have a PC
on board. This is becoming practically mandatory, whether to navigate, communicate, or write
the new Moby Dick while en route to the Azores.

• Reliance on e-mail. E-mail, once exceptional, is now the norm. For many of us, friends
without e-mail addresses are now in the minority, as are friends without cellular phones.

• LEOS (Low Earth Orbiting Satellites). By using many small low earth orbiting satellites,
which are far less expensive than geostationary satellites, it has become possible to have
worldwide communications coverage using low power transmitters on land.

So what are the neat new technologies?

SAILMAIL and other SSB e-mail programs.

Companies like Pin Oak Digital and Globe Wireless pioneered systems which allow cruisers to send
and receive e-mail via their single sideband radios and laptop computers. While slow, this technology
has the advantage of using two expensive items which you are likely to have on board already, and
only requires the addition of a Terminal Node Controller (or TNC, sort of a glorified modem for your
SSB) and a relationship with a communications company on land.

So how "slow" is slow? There are two popular TNCs. The first costs $350 and has a maximum
throughput of 18 characters per second, and a realistic rate of 6-7 characters per second. The second is
much more sophisticated, costs $1100, and has a maximum rate of 140 characters per second and a
realistic rate of 30-40 characters per second. Both work fine; the difference is the speed, and faster
costs more.

Prior to the 1998 summer ocean races on the West Coast, West Marine, in association with Icom,
Shakespeare, and customers Stan Honey and Jim Corenman, brought up SAILMAIL, our own land
station for SSB e-mail. Located at our first store in Palo Alto, California, our SAILMAIL station has
been sending and receiving e-mail from racers and cruisers all over the Pacific Ocean at the rate of
1,000 messages per week. With its modest annual cost (currently $100 for unlimited use), SAILMAIL
is our contribution to reliable, cost-effective marine communications. We plan to add additional
stations on both coasts to provide extensive Pacific, Atlantic, Caribbean and Alaskan coverage. Please
visit our web site at www.sailmail.com for more information.

One caveat on the use of SAILMAIL: because of the "volunteer" aspect of the service, we are unable to
offer individual customer support. However, we have found local marine electronics professionals to be
adept and willing to help boaters install the necessary connections to get on the air.

Iridium.
No discussion of worldwide communications would be complete without discussing Iridium. This is
the first example of a worldwide voice communications system which can be accessed using a small
handheld telephone. Whether you are in the middle of the Indian Ocean, the Chesapeake, or the
Appalachian Trail, you can phone anyone in the world. And best of all, you'll never be alone thanks to
the extensive around-the-clock customer care of Stratos, our satellite service provider.

The 66 low-earth orbit Iridium satellites (485 miles above the earth) have the ability to forward voice
phone calls from one to another and then relay the conversations to ground stations, where they are
connected to the Iridium backbone, and then to whatever number you have called. It's a two-way
system, of course, so anyone in the world can call your personal phone number and contact you, no
matter where you are located.

Since there are many times when you may be within reach of the cellular network (GSM, analog, PCS,
etc.), many Iridium satellite phones have the ability to convert into a cell phone and use the local
cellular standard. This is accomplished through the use of cellular "cassettes", which route your phone
calls through the local network, and allow others to contact you using your Iridium phone number. The
reason for this "convertible" option is simply cost: local cellular connections are less expensive per
minute than Iridium calls.

So what is the cost of a worldwide satellite phone? This system has only recently become operational,
and some of the pricing details were fuzzy at the time this was written. Here is how the costs break out:
The portable phones cost between $3,000 and $3,400. Additional cellular modules cost between $600
and $700, depending on the service needed. There is a one-time activation charge of about $100.
Monthly charges are in the $60 to $70 range.

Phone call costs vary based on where you are when you call, and where you are calling. There is a
large matrix of FROM/TO combinations which appears complicated, but it boils down to the
following:

• From inside North America to North America costs about $2.50 per minute, including all
charges (phone call, satellite time). This would be the case if you were in a remote area not
served by cellular service, or if you were in coastal waters.
• For domestic use in other countries the costs really vary from about $2.25 per minute
(Scandinavia) to $10.00 per minute (Africa, Middle East). If we were to come up with a
general rule, it seems that countries which are more hospitable tend to have lower rates. North
Korea is the highest.
• From the High Seas to North America costs about $7.00 per minute. We figure that this is
the most common situation for our customers. This compares to a per minute charge of about
$5.35 using SSB voice via WOO, WOM, or KMI.
• From Everywhere Else to Some Other Place costs $4.00 to $10.00.

By comparison, Inmarsat phone calls are currently in the $3.00 per minute range, and ship-to-shore
SSB is $5.35 per minute (three minute minimum).

One other service you should be familiar with is Iridium World Page Service. This uses a small satellite
alphanumeric pager which costs around $700, and provides unlimited paging services for $195 per
month. It is also possible to have your pager and phone integrated into one product, which allows you
to leave the phone off most of the time, while still being in touch via pages. You can select to call back
those who have paged you using your Iridium phone. The incremental charge for paging in this case is
$40 per month.

Magellan's GSC 100 Personal Satellite Communicator

For those who need worldwide e-mail capabilities, but who don't require the luxury of voice
communications, the GSC 100 may be the answer. Using up to 36 tiny ORBCOMM satellites
(weighing only 95 lb.), the constellation allows real time data communications worldwide, with low
per-message costs and low hardware costs.

Key to the success of the system is the GSC 100, a compact handheld transmitter/receiver which allows
brief messages to be entered into its keypad, and then sends the messages to the satellites overhead. At
the same time, it can notify message recipients of your position, since it has a Magellan GPS buried
inside. While communicating with the ORBCOMM satellite, it also downloads any messages waiting
for you.

The costs are based on the number of characters transmitted and received, and therefore vary wildly
depending on how wordy you are. And, as with Iridium, prices are subject to change, but here is the
most recent information:

The GSC 100 costs $1,000. Activation costs $50. Monthly fees are $30, which includes 2,000 free
characters and 30 free message checks per month. After the first 2,000, each character costs $0.01. This
translates to about $60 for the number of characters in this Advisor, but it's unlikely that you'd need to
give this much detail about anything from the middle of the ocean. Each message check over 30 per
month costs $0.20.

One caveat when using the GSC 100: not all countries have signed agreements with Magellan and
ORBCOMM to allow the use of the GSC 100 within their boundaries. While we cannot imagine
getting busted for using one on board your boat in some lovely anchorage, it is still possible, and more
likely if you use it on land. To be conservative, we recommend using the GSC 100 only in those
countries where it is specifically allowed, and on the high seas. We are confident that more countries
will be "onboard" shortly. For an up-to-date list of countries that allow GSC 100s, visit
www.orbcom.com or www.magellangps.com.
Selecting a GPS Receiver
Electronics

What they do
GPS receivers provide highly accurate worldwide position fixes, 24 hours a day, in all weather. For
many navigators, simply knowing position is sufficient. But the real power of GPS receivers is their
ability to direct you to a destination. After you enter a waypoint, your GPS will tell you the distance
and direction to it, your off-course error, and the time left until you reach the waypoint. Unlike Loran
C, GPS provides very accurate speed and course information with short averaging times.

How they work

GPS receivers receive signals from high-altitude satellites operated by the U.S. Air Force. By timing
the signals sent by the satellites, and by knowing the orbital parameters of the satellites, a GPS receiver
can determine your location to an accuracy within 6 meters, 95% of the time, and your altitude within
approximately 10 meters. (More on accuracy later in this Advisor.)

Unlike Loran C, which has an unsettling tendency to provide "bad fixes" under certain conditions, the
GPS system is highly resistant to giving false information. In fact, the majority of GPS receivers
indicate the accuracy of their fixes in feet or meters, which varies as satellite positions change.

What to Look for

Receiver Type

Virtually all of the GPS models we sell have 12 channel receivers, which have largely eliminated the
need to specify the type of receiver you are looking for. Even sub-$200 models provide excellent time
to first fix, and work well in areas with obstructions, such as forests and canyons (urban as well as
geographic.) What is probably of greater interest is the antenna to which the receiver is connected.
While it is generally possible to get a fix while operating a GPS on your lap while driving (not
recommended!) or while below decks on a fiberglass boat, your best results will be had when the
antenna has an uninterrupted view of the sky. A small external antenna or an extension cable on a
handheld's antenna, can make a dramatic difference in fix quality.
Time for our annual cautionary statement

We caution you not to concentrate on any one aspect of GPS performance or features, including the
number of channels. A GPS receiver blends many aspects of design, software, features, etc. There are
models with good and not-so-good displays; models with excellent as well as indecipherable software;
models that do an excellent job for $150, and some we'd avoid at $1000 or more. Look at your priority
list of GPS features and evaluate the models you are considering with that list in mind. There are many
good products, so don't be stuck with a lemon that doesn't meet your needs.

Display

All but a few GPS receivers have graphic LCD displays. While alphanumeric displays still provide
useful data, graphics are a real plus. They can display steering information, plot where you have been,
create more legible characters, and show cartographic information. Display legibility is a key variable
among GPS models. LCDs vary greatly in contrast, and the use of polarized screens causes sunglass
wearers to have to remove them when viewing. The "blackness" of the characters is important. Some
high-resolution displays have very thin characters (we refer to them as the Wedding Invitation Font)
that wash out in normal lighting conditions. Bottom line: poor legibility negates any clever features a
GPS may have.

There are several technologies used for creating color displays. Color, especially when displaying
charts, aids in the interpretation of the information being presented. However, many color display
technologies have been limited in their application due to the narrow range of light conditions where
they are visible. TFT displays have traditionally been "washed out" in high ambient light and are only
useful in subdued light. Transflective displays, on the other hand, require substantial sunlight or
artificial light to make them visible.

The latest generation of TFT color displays claim to be "daylight viewable", and they are. We are
extremely impressed with these new displays, from companies like Raytheon and Lowrance. Other
vendors have models in development that will also use this new, brighter display. While more
expensive (isn't that always the case?), the new breed of TFT color displays work in all light
conditions, and look great.

Cartographic Displays

We like GPS displays that show your position superimposed on an electronic chart or map. While
traditionalists may scoff at trusting a digital map, we think that seeing your GPS position on a high-
quality electronic chart is a giant convenience and provides dramatically increased safety. Waypoint
and route storage is fast and relatively error-free, since data entry errors are practically eliminated.

For fixed-mount GPS, we find it difficult to recommend a GPS that doesn't have the ability to display
charts, since prices begin in the $400 range and they are so much more useful than plotter-only models.
Even if you don't plan to use digital charts right now, or you are traveling to areas for which charts
aren't available, they still have great displays, user-interfaces and increased capabilities.

The newest cartographic GPS have excellent built-in map databases, so you may not have to buy
additional (expensive) chart cartridges. While the maps are land-oriented, and have less detail than
those found on chart cartridges, we find the data to be extremely useful and the products an excellent
value

Some of these newer units allow you to dramatically increase the level of detail on your screen, either
by downloading detailed data from a CD-ROM or by inserting cartographic cartridges, like the
MetroGuide cartridges designed exclusively for the Garmin StreetPilots, that give street-level detail
and points of interest for food, lodging, and exit ramp services, for example. Favorite models include
the Garmin GPSMAP 162, 168, 185, 215, 230, Raytheon 530/620+, and the Lowrance Globalmap
3000 MT.

For those who need the portability of a handheld GPS, but don't want to give up having a cartographic
receiver, there are now several excellent handhelds. Best, in our opinion, are the Garmin GPS III Plus
and eTrex Legend, and we look forward to learning more about the new Magellan 330 and Lowrance
iFinder. We like them for their detailed displays and great user-interfaces. The GPS III Plus and the
eMap can accept additional data from CD-ROMs, as can the Magellan and Lowrance models. A single
CD-ROM database holds the equivalent of hundreds of paper maps. This information can be
downloaded to your GPS's memory or onto memory cartridges, depending on the unit. When you no
longer need the data you've downloaded, simply write over it by downloading data for a new area.

Garmin's GPS III Plus and eTrex Legend/Vista have internal flash memory, while the eMap and
StreetPilots use a flash memory cartridge which stores data from the CD-ROM. For the type of map
data you need, choose from five Garmin MapSource CD-ROM titles. They are US Metroguide, US
Waterways, US Roads and Recreation, US Topographic and WorldMap. Unfortunately for boaters,
none of these CDs has what we would consider a navigation-quality marine database, although the new
US Waterways is pretty complete.

Ease of Use

We think that a single screen should display all the information you need to fetch a destination, without
requiring you to toggle between multiple screens. The best approach is a user-modifiable navigation
screen that can display whatever functions you find helpful. We like range/bearing, heading error, and
time-to-go, but you will have your own preferences. If you navigate in channels, for example, you
might prefer a graphic steering indicator, crosstrack error and course-to-steer to help you stay in the
center of the channel. Each screen or page should have a purpose. Don't be misled by the number of
screens-it is the utility and clarity of the presentation that matters.

Accuracy, WAAS, Differential, and Selective Availability

A tremendous amount occurred in 2000 to change the accuracy of GPS. Prior to May, 2000, GPS
signals were degraded (Selective Availability or S/A) from their inherent accuracy of 15m 95% of the
time, to 100m 95% of the time, ostensibly to deprive terrorists and other bad guys from the advantages
of having a really accurate positioning system for launching missiles and other hostile acts. However,
in May of 2000, President Clinton lifted S/A, which increased GPS accuracy to 15m (most users
reported that it was actually 10 meters or better). Suddenly, every GPS in the world became
dramatically more accurate and useful.

Differential GPS was developed to counteract the errors imposed by S/A by utilizing a low frequency
signal containing GPS error correction messages. DGPS results in accuracies of about 6m, whenever
the user is located within about 200 miles of a station. To achieve this accuracy you must usually
connect a separate Differential Beacon Receiver (DBR) to the GPS, though some units now have a
DBR built in. This receiver decodes low-frequency signals in the 300kHz range sent from Coast Guard
and Army Corps of Engineers beacon transmitters.

However, the real news occurred in the fourth quarter of 2000 when the first WAAS-capable GPS
receivers became available from Raytheon. WAAS is a system that uses satellites to transmit GPS
corrections virtually worldwide, using Inmarsat geostationary satellites. Since WAAS corrections are
based on many land station measurements, it results in ionospheric corrections that increase the
ultimate accuracy to less than 3m (10'). In addition, the WAAS corrections occur within the GPS using
sophisticated software, so there is no secondary receiver or antenna to buy.

Because of the impending introduction of WAAS-capable GPS receivers, we are cutting all of our
Differential Beacon Receivers from our assortment, since we feel that it is a fleeting solution to
improved GPS accuracy. Nevertheless, note that WAAS is in its infancy, with only a few models
claiming to use the signals, and the location of the transmitting satellites may preclude reception
especially in high latitudes and canyons.

Many recreational boaters will ask (and rightly so) whether they need any incremental accuracy over
the current non-S/A signals. We feel that the vast majority of users are well served by 10m accuracy,
and will not gain obvious advantages from DGPS or WAAS. Remember that speed and heading
accuracy are also improved when positional accuracy is improved (and so is altitude measurement.)

However, if we could purchase a WAAS capable receiver at a modest up charge compared to a non-
WAAS receiver, we'd buy it in a heartbeat.
Weather Resistance

The term "waterproof" means different things to different GPS makers. Almost all GPS models can
withstand intense spray, rain, wet hands and other normal sources of moisture. For ultimate reliability,
completely sealed cases work best, since not even humidity can enter the case. Make sure that the
manufacturer covers water intrusion in the warranty-if not, keep your GPS well protected in a
waterproof bag (or below decks). Moreover, obviously, don't depend on one little GPS that costs $150
as the sole means of navigation for a $100,000 yacht! Navigators use a variety of methods to ensure the
safety of their crew and craft.

Form Factor

Handhelds are conveniently portable and can use a power source separate from the vessel's, which
provides some incremental safety since, even if the vessel's electrical system is kaput, you can navigate
for as long as your battery supply holds out. Fixed-mount units generally have larger displays, larger
keypads, and are easier to use on a bouncing boat. Fixed-mount units have an external antenna, which
will generally have a better view of the sky.

Data Sharing Capability

A GPS's ability to share information with an autopilot, radar, or plotter adds immeasurably to the utility
and power of these devices. Imagine being able to feed your autopilot a multi-leg route to a fishing
destination and having your boat guide itself safely there, leaving you free to ready the tackle, monitor
the radar and stand watch. Virtually all models have a NMEA 0183 output for this purpose.

Waypoint and Route Storage Capabilities

The GPS units we offer can store from 100 to 1,000 locations, or waypoints. Most receivers allow you
to name a waypoint with a 4-16 character (alphanumeric) name. We really like this feature and would
not consider a GPS with number-only waypoint designations

The ability to store several routes, or strings of waypoints, is also a very useful feature. Most GPS
model store 10-20 routes, with 10-30 waypoints in each route. Reversible routes can be traversed in
either direction, which effectively doubles the number of routes in a GPS.

Alarms

Alarms can be a valuable safety feature to alert you to a hazardous condition or position-when you are
seriously off course, when you pass within a certain distance of a waypoint, or when you travel more
than a preset distance away from a waypoint or spot where you anchored. All alarms have their uses;
none are critical.

Special Functions
There are a few features that not all models have. Here is our opinion on how useful they are:

Course to Steer suggests what direction to head to rejoin your course line efficiently. While it takes
some getting used to, we like CTS for channel navigation.

Turn or Steer means the number of degrees you should turn, left or right, so that you are aiming at
your destination. Shoot, that is exactly what the person at the helm wants to know-"Turn left 12°". We
love this function and wish all vendors would include it, but some vendors seem oblivious to it.

Velocity Made Good (VMG) is primarily a sailboat racing function. It is the rate, at which you are
closing in on your destination. Very few users actually use it to improve their navigation or make
decisions. However, any time (ETE, ETA) function, which predicts your time of arrival, must use
VMG instead of ground speed for a more accurate estimate, although this is generally hidden to the
user.
Conclusions
In our opinion, GPS receivers are one of the best examples of high-value consumer products. For as
little as $100, you can know your position in any weather, anywhere on earth, with great accuracy.
Boaters can find destinations with greater safety, fishermen can catch more fish, hikers can find their
way in forests, and UPS and Fed Ex trucks can find obscure addresses in rural areas. Like the
revolution in personal computers, which began in the early 1980s, the GPS revolution is a great
example of increasing functionality, increasing ease of use, and decreasing costs. Okay, it did cost $14
billion to create the system and launch the satellites, but now we get to use the satellites essentially
free.

At safety seminars we are always quick to point out that one of the most critical elements of marine
safety is to know where you are. With GPS, and local charts, knowing where you are is only a few
keystrokes away. And that, is a tremendous safety advantage.
GPS and Chartplotter Comparison Chart
Electronics
Manufacturer Mfr. Model # of Receiver # Waypoints/ # DGPS Display Comments
Model Sats Type Labels Routes/ Ready? (W x H)
tracked Legs
Handheld GPS, Non Mapping
12 64 x 100 Pivoting display, great
Garmin GPS II+ 105192 12 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD receiver
12 64 x 100 Simple, competent,
Garmin GPS 12 137760 12 250/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD FilmTwist display
12 64 x 100 Position averaging,
Garmin GPS 12XL 105184 12 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD super compact
12 64 x 100 4-color display in a
Garmin GPS 12CX 161732 12 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel color compact unit
12 64 x 100 City and navigational
Garmin GPS 48 403850 12 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD aid database
12 100 x 160 Compact cellular
Garmin NavTalk 169631 12 250/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD phone/GPS w/map
GlobalNav 12 64 x 100 Low cost, waterproof
Lowrance2 159207 12 250/8 char 20/2501 Yes
12 channel LCD 12-channel
12 Segmented Least expensive GPS
Magellan Blazer 12 115118 12 100/4 char 1/10 Yes
channel LCD we carry
12 104 x 160 Cities database,
Magellan GPS 315 161716 12 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD downloadable
12 104 x 160 Worldwide database,
Magellan GPS 320 194618 12 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD downloadable
Fixed Mount GPS, Non Mapping
120 x 64 Furuno quality at a
Furuno GP-30 159270 8 8 channel 350/6 char 30/30 Yes
LCD very low price
120 x 64 Same as above,
Furuno GP-35 557275 8 8 channel 350/6 char 30/30 Yes
LCD w/DGPS receiver
GPS 125 64 x 100 40 Watt rms fishfinder
Garmin 137300 8 1 channel 250/6 char 20/29 Yes
Sounder LCD as well
12 64 x 100 Internal antenna for
Garmin GPS 126 403330 12 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD open boats
12 64 x 100 External antenna, zoom
Garmin GPS 128 403280 12 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
channel LCD keys
GPS Track 12 64 x 100 Trackplotter w/optional
Standard 158944 12 200/8 char 50/25 Yes
240F channel LCD fuel monitor
Handheld GPS, Mapping Chart Data/Cart.
100 x 160 Internal and
Garmin GPS III+ 158787 G 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
LCD downloadable maps
GPSMAP 160 x 240 Super software, 12
Garmin 357444 N 250/6 char 20/29 Yes
175 LCD channel rec.
160 x 240 Designed for vehicle
Garmin StreetPilot 511360 G 100/10 char 20/29 Yes
LCD navigation
StreetPilot 128 x 240 Basemap, CDs &
Garmin 158456 G 100/10 char 20/29 Yes
ColorMap color Metroguide cart.
GlobalMap 104 x 160 Downloadable, w/IMS
Lowrance2 574957 L 750/8 char 99/7501 Yes
100 LCD CD-ROM
240 x 1200 Cities database,
Magellan GPS 410 158803 C 500/6 char 20/29 Yes
LCD CMAPNT compatible
C-MAPNT
240 x 320
Magellan GPS 6000 491186 C 200/6 char 25/49 Yes cartography, high
LCD
resolution
Fixed Mount GPS, Mapping Chart Data/Cart.
480 x 640
Furuno GP-1810 392640 N 200/12 char 20/30 Yes Matches the 841 radar
LCD
480 x 640 Includes high power
Furuno GP-1810F 392780 N 200/12 char 20/30 Yes
LCD sonar, too.
GPSMAP 160 x 240 Built-in basemap, uses
Garmin 577000 N 250/6 char 20/29 Yes
180 LCD micro G-charts
Garmin GPSMAP 573600 N 250/6 char 20/29 Yes 160 x 240 Same as 180 above,
 185 LCD plus sounder
GPSMAP 320 x 240 Built-in basemap & G-
Garmin 403009 N 500/6 char 20/49 Yes
215 LCD charts
GPSMAP 320 x 240 Same as above,
Garmin 511124 N 500/6 char 20/49 Yes
215D LCD w/DGPS
GPSMAP 320 x 234 Color LCD display,
Garmin 403090 N 500/6 char 20/49 Yes
225 color basemap
GPSMAP 320 x 234 Same as above,
Garmin 511116 N 500/6 char 20/49 Yes
225D color w/DGPS
GPSMAP 160 x 240 Large 7.2" display,
Garmin 137722 N 250/6 char 20/29 Yes
230 LCD great software
GPSMAP 160 x 240 A 230 with a 500 watt
Garmin 403769 N 250/6 char 20/29 Yes
235 LCD 50/200 sonar
GlobalMap 160 x 160 Downloadable, w/IMS
Lowrance2 159264 L 750/8 char 99/7501 Yes
1600 LCD CD-ROM
LMS 160 160 x 160
Lowrance2 159272 L 750/8 char 20/50 Yes Sonar/GPS combo
Map LCD
320 x 240 Takes 2 C-MAPNT
Magellan NAV 6500 313650 C 500/20 char 25/50 Yes
LCD chart cartridges
320 x 240 Color; takes 2 C-
Magellan NAV 6510 158779 C 500/20 char 25/50 Yes
color MAPNT cartridges
GPS Chart 240 x 180 C-MAPNT Ports and
Standard 397490 C 500/8 char 5/50 Yes
400 LCD Tides
Displays without GPS Chart Data/Cart.
2 GlobalMap 320 x 200 Sonar/GPS combo
Lowrance 313678 C 250/10 char 20/50 Yes
2000 LCD w/C-MAP cart.
RayChart 320 x 240 7" version of 620
Raytheon 162243 C 1000/16 char 20/49 Yes
520 LCD w/high speed bus
RayChart 640 x 480 Enormous 10" display,
Raytheon 267064 C 1000/16 char 20/49 Yes
620 LCD C-MAPNT
GPS Sensors without Displays
GPS 36 12 Includes Garmin
Garmin 372757 12 None Yes None
TracPak channel PhaseTrac 12 recvr.
DGPS sensor; NMEA
JRC DGPS 200 398860 8 8 channel None Yes None
0183 compat.
SeaTalk interface
w/radars,
RayStar 12
Raytheon 162193 12 None Yes None plottersNMEA
112LP channel
interface w/radars,
plotters
RayStar 12 NMEA interface
Raytheon 162201 12 None Yes None
112LP channel w/radars, plotters
Turns ProFish II into a
SiTex GPS-10A 257008 11 6 channel None Yes None
GPS
Differential Beacon Receiver Receiver Comments
Receiver-in-coupler design works with Eagle and Lowrance GPS
Eagle2 94-49 360745 Analog
products. Lowest price.
Controlled by differential-ready Garmin receivers. Comes with coupler
Garmin GBR-21 142846 Analog
and 30' of lead-in
Plugs into any NMEA 0183 fishfinder, plotter or radar for instant
JRC DGPS200 398860 Digital
speed, position and nav info
Automatic frequency scanning; works with all Magellan DGPS-ready
Magellan DBR3 168026 Digital
& RTCM receivers
Completely automatic station selection. Digital signal processing for
West Marine DGPS-100 509979 Digital
best reception.

1
Some Lowrance products have variable length routes which use up to a total of this many waypoints.
2
Lowrance policy prohibits us from shipping Lowrance and Eagle products outside North America.
C- C-MAPNT
G- Garmin
N- Navionics (Also used in Garmin products under the name G-Chart)
L- Lowrance
Depth Transducer Pros and Cons
Electronics

What They Do
Depth transducers perform a dual role: they act as speakers that transmit a burst of energy down to the
bottom of the body of water, and they act like
microphones to listen for the returning echo. This
information is then fed to the display/control head
of a fishfinder or depth sounder.

How They Work

Depth transducers use a crystal to produce a sharp
pulse (usually at 200,000 cycles per second), then
listen for the sound to return to the crystal. The
control head measures the time which is
translated into water depth. They are generally
made from a polycrystalline ceramic which
resonates at a very specific frequency.

How to Select
Water depth

If you are consistently operating in shallow inland waters, deep water performance may not be critical,
and bottom detail may be the highest priority. However, along coasts or in deep mountain lakes,
maximum water depth readings may be precisely what you need. For maximum depth readings, you
want a powerful low frequency transmitter, a large diameter transducer, and/or a narrow beam angle.
Maximum readable depths in saltwater will be 25%-50% less than freshwater depths, since salt water
attenuates (reduces) the signal more.

Frequency

Refers to the "pitch" of the sound that the transducer sends and receives. Water absorbs high
frequencies more than low frequencies, so low frequency transducers provide the deepest readings.
(50kHz frequencies in water over 400' deep). High frequencies provide better resolution and detail.

If you examine 50kHz and 200kHz displays simultaneously, you'll notice better detail on the high
frequency display. This detail could show you bottom feeding fish, bait, structure, or other critical
details. Lower frequency displays will show targets such as fish as wider fish arches on the display
because of their longer residence time in the wider sound beam.

Dual frequency fishing sonars combine low and high frequency operation in a single
display/transducer. This gives serious fishermen the advantages of both, and can combine a narrow and
wide beam angle so that anglers can determine if targets are directly below the boat.

Beam width

This is the approximate angle at which the signal spreads out under water. Narrow beamwidth
transducers "look" directly below the transducer. Wide beamwidth transducers spread out to the sides
and fore and aft. By spreading the beam out over a larger area, the signal is not as strong as it would be
with a more focussed beam. Generally, when probing deep water where good resolution is required, a
narrow beamwidth transducer is desirable. In shallower waters, a wider transducer will look at a larger
area under the boat to locate fish over a greater area. Higher frequencies have narrower beamwidths, all
other considerations held constant.
Style and Shape

We refer to depth sounder transducers by several names, but is it difficult sometimes to visualize how
those transducers are installed in your boat. By far the most common models are the transom-mount
and the low-profile styles. These are usually made of tough plastic. Stem-type transducers are usually
used with thick hulls, or when the deadrise angle is too steep for the shorter versions, and are made of
bronze. Flush transducers require a countersinking cutter to install, but the result is a beautifully fair,
low-resistance installation.

Transducer diameter

High-frequency transducers don't have to be as large as low-frequency versions (think of a woofer vs. a
tweeter in a stereo speaker). Also, given the same frequency, larger transducers focus their energy in a
tighter cone, resulting in a narrower beamwidth, deeper readings, and greater ability to pick up small
targets. Our Sea View fishing sonars are sold with a 2" Skimmer transducer, since they are intended for
deep blue-water fishing. The nearly identical Eagle sonars are sold with a 1" Skimmer transducer for
greater beamwidth in shallower, inland waters.
How to Select a Fishfinder
Electronics

What They Do
Fishfinders (fishing sonars, echo sounders) display a representation of what is below the boat,
including the bottom, fish, vegetation, and structures, to help you locate fish and navigate safely.

How They Work

Fishfinders separate and enhance the
information received from a transducer to
show underwater objects. Information is
presented on a graphic display, showing a
representation of the water column below
the boat rather than with a single digital
reading, as with depth sounders.
Every fish finder has a display/control head
and a transducer. They must be matched in
frequency in order to work. The
display/control head has three
subcomponents: the display,
transmitter/receiver, and the signal
processing software. Other components
may be added to contribute additional
information including temperature, speed,
and navigation information.

What to Look For

Transducer(s).

Several factors affect transducer selection: normal water depth, frequency, desired beam-width, bottom
detail, and transducer size. See Depth Transducer Pros and Cons later in this section for more
information.

Display Type

There are two main types of fishfinder displays: Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) and Cathode Ray
Tubes (CRTs).

• LCDs are very compact, draw a small amount of current, have good contrast in daylight, and
are available in resolutions up to 320 x 200 pixels. Newer technologies such as Film Super
Twist provide far greater contrast and viewing angles than first generation "gray-on-gray"
displays. The protective lens over the display must not cause excessive reflections in sunlight,
or the display will be difficult to see.

• CRTs are similar to a television screen. They are available in both monochrome and full color
models. By using different colors, the relative strength of the echo is shown, for easier
discrimination between different types of targets. The depth of a CRT enclosure is roughly the
same as its diagonal measurement, which fills up a boat's
helm station in a hurry. In bright sunlight, CRTs must be
used with a viewing hood, or mounted in a shaded location.

Display Resolution

The resolution of a fishfinder's display is what determines its ability to

see fish near the bottom, separate closely spaced targets from one
another, and see fish on the edges of "bait balls." Display resolution is determined in two ways: the
vertical pixel count from the top to the bottom of the display, and the number of pixels per square inch.
A large number of pixels vertically will show target depths more accurately. More pixels per square
inch will provide better detail of structures, a better representation of what's below you, and improve
split screen images. But remember: the contrast of the display must also be sharp in order to use the
resolution.

Displayed Image Options

3-Dimensional Images display a perspective view of the bottom by splitting the transducer beam into
sections. While we'd like to see a TV-quality image, most of the products available display a wire
frame representation of the bottom. While not terribly detailed, they are good for large bottom
structures, and for showing you the location of fish.

Scanning Sonar can "steer" its signal from a single transducer to "look" to the right and left, or fore and
aft. This allows you to see where fish are within the beam of the transducer. The Interphase phased-
array sonars have dramatically lowered the entry price into the world of scanning sonar.

Split-Screen or Data Window displays enable the fishfinder to display different types of information
simultaneously. For instance, you can display a track plot along with the normal underwater display.
Data Windows provide digital information (speed, depth, temp, lat/long) along with the graphic
screens.

Additional Capabilities
Integrated Loran or GPS receivers reduce the clutter on your instrument panel. Since the graphic
display on a fishfinder is a perfectly good place to display navigation information as well, these dual-
function products have become very popular. However, due to the superiority of GPS, we would not
buy one with a built-in Loran.

Temperature capability detects and displays surface water temperature. Since many fish species are
found in specific water temperatures, a temperature graph or digital readout can be helpful in finding
them. Remember, this is the surface temperature and has little relationship to the water temperature
where the fish are holding!

Speed/Distance capability lets you display speed and distance so that you can maintain accurate
trolling speeds. The knotmeter will also compute distance so you can see how many miles you've
traveled in a day of fishing.

Grayline®, White Line, or Bottom Hardness displays the bottom signal as a thin line, with a variable
width band beneath it. This both indicates bottom hardness and allows you to separate targets near the
bottom from the bottom itself. Experienced users will be able to differentiate between mud, sand, and
rocky bottoms.

Fish symbols show intermediate targets as fish icons, with the size of the icon indicating the relative
strength of the return. While it is sort of a cute feature, it masks the actual signal from the user. Most
experienced users will usually opt for the display that shows targets without fish symbols (called fish
arches).

Digital displays require no interpretation when determining water depth or target depth. While it is
true that a good graph imparts relative information quickly, discrete information like speed,
temperature, and depth is most easily understood with a simple numeric display.

Alarms alert you to one of four conditions: shallow water, deep water, intermediate targets (fish, we
hope), and a change in water depth (anchor alarm).

Glossary
Auto Settings make it easier for the first-time user to get a useful picture. This is sort of like using the
default settings on a TV or computer.
Bottom Lock displays only the water column adjacent to the bottom. For example, if you are fishing
for halibut, and need to concentrate on the water within ten feet of the bottom, bottom lock will keep
this critical area in constant, detailed view.

The depths of specific targets can be shown next to each one. This function is given different names
by the various manufacturers-Humminbird calls it Fish ID +. Instead of having to interpolate the depth
of fish, the depth of each target is calculated for you.

Instant Screen Updates refresh the screen instantly when a different depth range, or zoom range is
selected. Older fishfinders start redrawing the display from scratch when you change zoom ranges or
other functions. This can take up to 30 seconds to fill the screen.

Watts, Peak to Peak is an inflated way of measuring depth sounder transmit power. Watts, RMS
which is about 1/8 of the peak rating, is the more honest way of measuring power. Do not confuse the
two ratings, and conclude that higher peak watts are better than lower RMS watts.

Pixels are the small dots that make up a liquid crystal display. Smaller pixels, and more of them,
produce a more detailed image.

Side-looking Sonar generally uses a second or third transducer to look for targets to the sides of the
boat. This can be useful for looking for fish where it is too shallow to operate your boat, or when your
boat would spook the fish.

Zoom is the ability to take a horizontal slice of the water and enlarge it. For instance, rather than 0-80
feet you can look just at the range between 60-80 feet in great detail. Zoom functions without over-
sampling (the ability to show increased resolution as well as enlarged scale) don't really offer the user
any increase in information.
Fishfinder/Sonar Comparison Chart
Electronics

Manufacturer Mfr. Model Max. # of Watts Pixels Display Freq. Spd/ Track Comments
Model Depth1 Ranges rms H x Size Temp? Plotter
W (dia)
Furuno FCV-6672 393010 1,500 8 300 232 x 6" CRT 50/ Yes No 8-color video,
240 200 dual frequency
Furuno FCV-5822 393150 2,500 8 500 232 x 8" CRT 50/ Yes No 8- or 16-color
240 200 video, large
display
Furuno LS6000/ 569668 600 7 300 320 x 6" LCD 50 Yes No Low price, 2x or
50kHz2 240 4x zoom, 5 pic.
speeds
Furuno LS6000/ 393820 600 7 300 320 x 6" LCD 200 Yes No No Same as
200kHz2 240 above
Furuno FCV600L2 159173 750 Select- 350 320 x 5.6" 50/ Yes No Compact,
able 240 LCD 200 waterproof,
energy saving
Furuno FCV582L2 159157 1,500 8 600 320 x 7.9" 50/ Yes No 8- or 16-color,
240 LCD 200 Auto sounding
range
Furuno GP- 402670 1,000 6 300 240 x 5.6" 50/ Yes Chart Color LCD,
1610CF2 320 LCD 200 integral
GPS/chart
plotter
Furuno GP-1810F2 392780 1,000 6 300 480 x 8" LCD 50/ Yes Chart GPS/chart
640 200 plotter; matches
821 radar

Garmin Fishfinder 573550 1,200 14 400 160 x 4.2" 200 Optional No See fish inside
160 160 LCD structure &
thermocline
Garmin Fishfinder 161724 1,200 14 400 240 x 4.2" 200 Optional No Like 160 with
240 160 LCD higher screen
resolution
Garmin GPS 125 137300 400 12 40 64 x 4.1" 200 Optional Yes Includes
102 LCD excellent
GPS/trackplotter
Garmin GPSMAP 573600 1,200 4 400 240 x 5.5" 200 Optional Chart 12-channel
185 160 LCD GPS,
background
basemap
Garmin GPSMAP 403769 1,200 4 500 240 x 7.1" 50/ Optional Chart With 12-channel
235 160 LCD 200 GPS and
chartplotter
Humminbird 100SX 158498 600 9 250 128 x 3.7" 200 No No Low price,
64 LCD zoom/auto
zoom, simulator
Humminbird 200DX 158506 600 9 300 128 x 3.7" 200 Optional No Excellent price,
64 LCD dual beam,
waterproof
Humminbird 300TX 158514 600 9 300 128 x 3.7" 200/ Yes No Moderate price,
64 LCD 455 tri-beam
transducer
Humminbird 400TX 158522 600 9 300 160 x 5" LCD 200/ Yes No 3 beams, split
160 455 screen
zoom/auto zoom
Humminbird Wide 2000 110788 2,000 14 300 240 x 5.7" 50/ Optional No For deep water,
320 LCD 200 lots of bells &
whistles
Humminbird Wd. 480064 1,000 10 300 160 x 5" LCD 200/ Yes No GraphLook is
Panorama 136 455 highest
resolution
Humminbird Wd. 480072 1,000 10 300 240 x 5.7" 200/ Yes No Shows fish
Paramount 320 LCD 455 right, left, center
 and back
Humminbird Wd. 357501 1,000 10 600 240 x 5.7" 200/ Yes No Shows fish
Paramt 3-D 320 LCD 455 right, left, center
and back
Humminbird NS 25 114954 600 9 300 240 x 5.7" 200 Optional Chart Combo
320 LCD sonar/GPS
w/cartography

Interphase Vista2 159066 320 Selectable 420 128 x 5.3" 200 No Yes 90º side-to-side
160 LCD forward scan to
600'
Interphase Outlook2 159041 400 Selectable 420 128 x 5.3" 200 No Yes Scans vertically
160 LCD in a 90º arc, 4x
zoom
Interphase Probe2 222333 800 Selectable 420 160 x 5.3" 200 Optional Yes Vertical scan to
128 LCD 1,200 feet ahead
Interphase Sea Scout2 222325 640 Selectable 420 160 x 5.3" 200 Optional Yes Horizontal scan
128 LCD to 1,200 feet
ahead
Interphase Twinscope2 595647 800 Selectable 400 160 x 5.3" 200 Optional Yes A Probe and Sea
128 LCD Scout joined
together

JRC FF-30 399660 1,000 Selectable 200 256 x 6" CRT 200 Yes No Compact color
256 sonar; very good
price

Lowrance3 X-28 159181 600 8 75 100 x 3.9" 192 No No Least expensive

64 LCD Lowrance
Lowrance3 X-48 159199 600 8 75 100 x 3.9" 192 Optional No Broadview
64 LCD display shows
left/right/ctr
Lowrance3 X-65 159231 600 Selectable 75 160 x 4.8" 192 Optional No Optional
160 LCD speed/temp/dist.
log-capable
Lowrance3 X-75 159181 600 Selectable 75 240 x 4.8" 192 Optional No Dual frequency-
240 LCD capable
Lowrance3 X-85 159256 1,000 Selectable 375 240 x 4.8" 192 Optional No High power,
240 LCD high resolution
Lowrance3 LMS-160 159272 600 Selectable 75 160 x 4.8" 192 Optional Chart Combined GPS
MAP 160 LCD w/CD-ROM
charts
Lowrance3 LMS-350A 159223 1,500 Selectable 375 200 x 5.8" 192 Optional Chart Powerful sonar,
320 LCD detailed display
Lowrance3 G-Map 313678 900 Selectable 75 200 x 5.8" 192 Optional Chart Combo chart,
2000 320 LCD sonar, GPS
w/options

Raytheon L2652 161781 1,200 7 300 240 x 4.4" 50/ No No Optional

64 LCD 200 Sidelooker
transducer
Raytheon L3652 161823 1,200 7 300 240 x 4.4" 50/ Yes No Dual frequency,
64 LCD 200 high power!
Raytheon L4702 161849 1,500 9 500 240 x 5.7" 50/ Yes No Has it all:
128 LCD 200 500W, large
screen, dual frq.
Raytheon L7502 391220 1,500 21 500 320 x 7" LCD 50/ Yes No Powerful, large
240 200 display, dual
frequency

Si-Tex CVS-106 158852 >1000 8 200 256 x 6" CRT 50/ Optional Yes 8-color video,
MK II2 256 120/200 compact size
Si-Tex Profish III2 158894 600 Selectable 200 160 x 4.8" 200 Optional No 8-color LCD
160 LCD easily readable
in sunlight
Si-Tex Profish II2 490451 1,000 Selectable 300 240 x 5.7" 200 Optional Yes 8-color, dual
 320 LCD beamwidth trans

Standard Strike 200 396997 600 8 440 100 x 4.3" 200 No No Value priced
64 LCD powerful sonar
Standard Strike 220S 396930 600 8 440 100 x 4.3" 200 Yes No Speed and temp
64 LCD version of Strike
200

1
Some vendors rate maximum depth performance in salt water (Humminbird), while others use freshwater. Some depths will not
be comparable.
2
The West Marine Electronics Repair Centers (Hollister, CA and Rock Hill, SC) service these fishfinders.
3
Lowrance policy prohibits us from shipping Lowrance and Eagle products outside North America.
Selecting an Autopilot
Electronics

What They Do
An autopilot connects to your steering system and makes corrections to your boat's heading based on
either compass, wind, or GPS/Loran information.

How They Work

Autopilots consist of three main components: a heading sensor, logic and power circuits, and a drive
mechanism. Advances in electronics have enabled very inexpensive autopilots to have similar sensors
and logic to the most expensive autopilots we sell. The drive mechanisms vary most among autopilots.

Operation is simple: you put the vessel on the desired heading, hold the course for a few seconds, press
AUTO, and release the helm. The autopilot will lock the course in memory, and will respond with helm
corrections to keep your boat on this course. Modern autopilots have various methods of maintaining a
more accurate course than their predecessors: auto-trim, auto sea-state, and integration with GPS or
Loran. See Glossary for details on these functions.

What autopilots do best:

Autopilots are outstanding at holding a steady course in light to moderate conditions with minimal
helm movements. They do not get tired like their human counterparts, and have an infinite attention
span. They will open up opportunities to use your boat that would otherwise be missed due to lack of
crew, lack of interest, or lack of time. And because they steer so accurately, they will save fuel and get
you to your destination faster, especially when interfaced with a GPS.

What autopilots have difficulty with:

When it is difficult for you to steer, an autopilot will generally have similar problems. This is true when
a sailboat's helm is not balanced due to the wrong sails, when the boat is yawing in following seas, or
when the spinnaker is making the boat round up.

Showtime, our company powerboat, is a traditional Northeast bass boat design and she really yaws
when going down seas. The autopilot seems to magnify this yawing, since it cannot anticipate the
waves like a helmsperson can. We find that by changing our speed, we can get Showtime to work with
the autopilot in waves, but we generally resort to hand steering.

Autopilots cannot see, so they cannot avoid obstacles or other vessels. You must, as always, maintain a
watch so that you do not end up on the beach.

Autopilots cannot hear the cry of "Man Overboard!" and cannot return to pick up a victim. If you are
single-handed, you cannot afford to go over the side-when using an autopilot or at any other time!

Autopilot Reliability and Longevity-Read this!

Because we operate our own repair center for electronics, and because we repair a lot of our customers'
autopilots, we've learned quite a bit about what works, and why things fail. By sharing this information
with you, we hope you can avoid the inconvenience of having to have your autopilot repaired.

Probably the biggest problem with autopilot reliability is that long-distance sailors frequently buy
small, cockpit-mounted autopilots, then expect them to operate flawlessly during a multi-year cruise.
When their autopilots need repair, and they will need repair eventually, our customers find themselves
in a location where it is difficult or impossible to get the pilot serviced. Since it is common to sail
short-handed, and to depend on the autopilot for much of the steering, it can ruin a cruise when the
pilot fails.
Therefore, we do not recommend cockpit autopilots for long-distance sailing unless one of the
following applies:

• You have a backup autopilot in case the first one fails.

• You have a wind vane and are not dependent solely on the autopilot.
• You love steering by hand for long hours.

A below-decks autopilot will give you a better chance for a successful cruise. They are far more
powerful, more reliable, and steer your boat better.

How to Select an Autopilot

When sizing autopilots, manufacturers sometimes engage in a bit of "specsmanship." By
recommending dinky autopilots for some humongous vessels, consumers tend to under-buy, and the
result is pilots that under-perform. The easiest job for an autopilot is to steer a boat under power in
calm seas. The smallest autopilot we offer, like the Navico TP100, could steer a 75' ocean racer under
these conditions. But that example is horribly misleading, since you'll want to use your autopilot under
more demanding conditions.

In addition to boat length and displacement, there are three aspects of boat performance to consider
when selecting an autopilot. One is the heaviness of the helm. How much force does it take to hold the
helm when going upwind in a blow? Remember that a tiller-mounted pilot is trying to steer about 12"
away from the axis of the rudder. The second aspect is how fast the helm needs to be adjusted.
Downwind, autopilots have to throw the helm over to counteract overtaking seas. A sailboat with a
spinnaker up really needs to have fast response, since delay can lead to round-ups, or worse yet, round-
downs! Powerboats need responsive pilots downwind as well, since they tend to slew and yaw as they
run down seas. Slow pilots get out of synch with the waves, and oversteer as a result. The best way to
measure the speed of an autopilot is the number of degrees per second of helm correction, not hardover
time, which may include more or less throw for different models. We suspect that a 25' boat may
require 15° per second; a 40' boat may require 10° per second; and a 70' boat may require 5° per
second. The third factor is how far the helm has to be turned. Some sailboats hardly notice a 10° helm
correction, due to their inefficient or undersized rudders, which means that their pilots have to have a
long throw.

So how do I buy the correct size autopilot?

Start with manufacturer's recommendations and don't exceed them. Yes, we told you they don't always
work, but begin by finding out which autopilot is recommended for your type of boat.

If you are near the upper limit of the manufacturer's recommendations, especially in displacement, go
up a size. Remember that your boat's displacement may increase by 20% when loaded for cruising.

Are you going to race your boat? Are you going to fly a spinnaker? Select a fast pilot, and don't
undersize or you'll end up sideways.

Are you sailing across oceans? Buy a below-deck pilot. Period.

Sailboats with Tillers

Use linear push-pull models like those from Navico and Raytheon. Some models have a separate
compass/control unit which can be mounted where convenient. Note: Don't extend the push rod length
more than 8" with extensions.

Sailboats to 40' with Mechanical Wheel Steering

Use either the Navico or Raytheon cockpit wheel pilots. They are easy to install, and have adequate
performance for most conditions. Again, for trans-ocean use, we'd upgrade to a below-decks pilot.
Sailboats 35-70' with Mechanical Wheel Steering

There are many great choices in this category from B&G, Navico, and Raytheon using a drive unit
mounted below decks and connected via an Edson tiller arm to the rudder shaft. There are two styles of
drive mechanisms: electrical/mechanical and electrical/hydraulic. The electrical models use an electric
motor to drive a series of reduction gears, which push and pull on an actuating arm. This system is
inherently more efficient. The electric/hydraulic models use an electrically-driven pump, which
actuates a hydraulic cylinder which pushes and pulls on an actuating arm. Both systems work well.

Small Powerboats with Mechanical Steering

Use the Navico PowerPilot PR500 or Raytheon SportPilot or SportPilot Plus. Each unit connects
between your steering wheel and helm. It uses a special clutch at the wheel which allows you to steer
around obstacles by simply grabbing the wheel. Installation is very simple in both cases.

Medium Powerboats and Sailboats with Hydraulic Steering

Use a small to medium hydraulic autopilot like the Raytheon ST5000 Plus or Navico PowerPilot
PH500 The pump motor simply connects to the hydraulic steering lines and starts pumping when the
Auto button is pressed. A rudder sensor provides information to the autopilot's brain so that it knows
where the rudder is aiming at all times. The smaller pump motors require smaller power switching
circuitry due to the low power requirements.

Larger Powerboats with Hydraulic Steering

Large power boats have larger steering rams, requiring larger hydraulic pumps mounted in the engine
or machinery compartment. They are selected by the size of the boat, and the volume(s) of the
hydraulic cylinder(s) that is used to actuate the rudder(s). These units are almost always installed by
professional installers, although you might want to discuss your situation with us. Autopilots in this
range include the Raytheon 6000 Plus and 7000 Plus, B&G Network, and Raytheon RayPilot 650.

Recommended Additions
For sailboats, autopilots can be interfaced with the boat's instruments, and use the wind angle
information from the masthead sensor. This allows the pilot to follow a course relative to the wind
direction, yet use the compass to smooth out heading changes.

Both powerboat and sailboat owners can benefit by interfacing their pilots to a GPS which provides
corrections to the pilot so that heads directly for a waypoint. This is especially helpful when wind or
current would otherwise cause the boat to go off-course. Interfacing to a GPS may require a separate
interface box, or might be built into the pilot.

Most autopilots have optional remote hand controls for controlling the pilot from a distance. Some
provide remote compass or instrument readouts, man overboard functions, course dodging and the
ability to change the steering characteristics of the pilot.

Glossary
Auto Sea State reduces the amount of unnecessary helm movement in choppy seas. Most boats will
wander to port and starboard when moving at an angle against head seas. These movements are
cyclical, and the autopilot will not appreciably improve the course accuracy by moving the rudder.
Auto Sea State tells the autopilot to ignore repeated course deflections, which reduces power
consumption and increases drive mechanism life.

Auto Trim corrects the center location of the helm for consistent heading errors. For example, if a
sailboat experiences an increase in wind speed, it will require more rudder deflection to hold a course.
Rather than return the rudder to straight ahead, the autopilot will induce a steady port or starboard
correction. Powerboats that are in a crosswind will also benefit from this.
Auto Wind is the ability of an autopilot to steer to an apparent wind course, tempered by the stability
of the compass course. Since apparent wind sensors tend to be buffeted by erratic wind flow, modern
autopilots use a long averaging period of wind data, and alter the compass course slowly to correct for
wind direction changes.

NMEA interfaces instruct an autopilot to steer toward a waypoint stored in a GPS or Loran. In
general, these interfaces examine the cross-track error, and alter the autopilot's course to bring the
cross-track error to zero.
Autopilot Comparison Chart
Electronics

Sail/ Hardover
Boat Max. Boat Max. Boat Current
Mfr. Model Power/ Thrust Time (kg Model Options:
Length Length Displ. Draw
Outboard load)

Raytheon

Sail
ST1000 Plus 29' 31' 5,450 lb. 500mA 125 lb. 6.7 sec. 162011 1, 2, 3, 5, 9
Tiller
Sail
ST2000 Plus 34' 36' 10,000 lb. 500mA 170 lb. 4.1 sec. 162029 1, 2, 3, 5, 9
Tiller
Sail
ST4000T Plus 38' 40' 14,000 lb. 700mA 185 lb. 3.9 sec. 162037 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9
Tiller
Sail
ST4000T GP Plus 45' 45' 20,000 lb. 700mA 205 lb. 4.3 sec. 162052 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9
Tiller
Sail
ST4000W Plus 38' 40' 16,250 lb. 750mA 37.5 ft. lb. 5.5 rpm 162078 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9
Wheel
Power
SportPilot 20' 22' 6,600 lb. 1.8-8 A 400 lb. 9.5 rpm 487457 1, 2, 5, 9
Mechanical
Power
SportPilot Plus 25' 27' 10,000 lb. 1.8-8 A 400 lb. 9.5 rpm 144206 1, 2, 5, 9
Mechanical
Outboard
SportPilot Plus 30' 30' 10,000 lb. 1.8A-8A 400 lb. 9.5 rpm 253577 1, 2, 5, 9
Hydraulic
Outboard Rams from
ST5000 Plus OB 30' 30' 24,000 lb. 2A-4A n/a 162102 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
Hydraulic 4.9-14 cu. in.
Sterndrive
ST 5000 Plus SD 30' 30' 24,000 lb. 2A-4A 330 lb. 8.8 sec. 162128 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
Mechanical
Sterndrive
SportPilot Plus 30' 30' 10,000 lb. 1.8A-8A 400 lb. 9.5 rpm 247355 1, 2, 5, 9
Hydraulic

ST5000 Plus Sail

40' 42' 20,000 lb. 1.5A 650 lb. 10 sec. 162144 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
Sailpilot Linear Mech

ST6000 Plus Type Sail

42' 45' 24,000 lb. 1.5A-3A 650 lb. 11 sec. see note 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
1 Linear Mech

ST7000 Plus Type Sail

46' 49' 33,000 lb. 2.75A-6A 1,050 lb. 11 sec. see note 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
2 Linear Mech

ST7000 Plus Type Sail

52' 55' 44,000 lb. 2.75A-6A 1,050 lb. 14 sec. see note 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
2 Linear Mech

Sail/Power
SportPilot Plus 30' 30' 10,000 lb. 1.8A-8A 400 lb. 9.5 rpm 247355 1, 2, 5, 9
Hydraulic

Sail/Power Rams from

ST5000 Plus 30' 35' 24,000 lb. 2A-4A n/a 162094 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
Hydraulic 4.9-14 cu. in.

ST6000 Plus Type Sail/Power Rams from

35' 42' 24,000 lb. 2A-4A n/a see note 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
1 Hydraulic 4.9-14 cu. in.

ST7000 Plus Type Sail/Power Rams from

60' 60' 55,000 lb. 4A-8A n/a see note 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
2 Hydraulic 9.8-21 cu. in.

Hardover
Boat Max. Boat Max. Boat Current
B&G Thrust Time (kg Model Options:
Length Length Displ. Draw
load)
Sail
Network Type 1 25'-45' 50' 31,000 lb. 3A-5A 772 lb. 15-18 sec. 178618 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
Linear Hydr.
Rams from
Sail/Power
Network Type 1 35' 40' 15,400 lb. 3A-5A n/a 6.1-13.75 cu. 178600 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8
Hydraulic
in.
Options:
(1) Handheld Dodger
(2) GPS/Loran Navigation Interface
(3) Electronic Windvane
(4) Handheld Programmer
(5) Databus connection to instruments
(6) Remote Full-function Control Stations
(7) Rudder Angle Indicator
(8) Below decks drive units
(9) User-installable

Note: These modular systems consist of multiple components and include several model numbers. See "Suggested Accessories"
below the descriptions of each of the above models on our website.
How to Select a Radar
Electronics

What They Do
Radars let you see objects around you that would otherwise be invisible. They are of tremendous value
when navigating close to shore or obstructions, around other vessels, and in avoiding collisions on the
open ocean. When it's dark, foggy, rainy, or when objects are too distant, radar provides the "eyes" to
see.

How They Work

Radars consist of a display and an antenna. The antenna sends out a stream of RF energy which
bounces off hard objects like sound bounces off a canyon's walls. When the energy is reflected back,
the same antenna converts it to a signal which the display shows the user. Because the antenna rotates
every few seconds, and because the display can calculate which direction the antenna is pointing, an
accurate bearing is calculated. This lets the user know where the targets are. Radars also measure the
time it takes for the radio energy to get to the target and back. This is displayed as the distance to the
target.

What can you see with a radar?

Land masses and fixed objects for navigation. Your distance and direction from objects is easy to
determine, and land masses which might be invisible show up prominently.

Other vessels, allowing you to avoid collisions.

The course of the river or channel you are navigating.

Squalls and other local weather phenomena.

What to Look For

Display Type

Radars are available with either LCD or monochrome CRT displays. LCDs draw less power, are much
thinner and lighter, and are much more visible in sunlight. CRTs generally have greater resolution, can
have eight levels of signal strength indicated (quantization), and have excellent contrast in low-light
conditions. We generally think of LCD radars for sailboats and small, open powerboats, while CRT
radars are for larger powerboats and sailboats with enclosed nav areas.

Antenna Type

The ability of a radar to separate closely adjacent targets is dependent on the width of the antenna.
Wider antennas can show more separation. We would imagine that the U.S.S. Enterprise's antenna can
clearly show two mice, inches apart, as separate radar targets from several miles away. Unfortunately,
at several thousand pounds, this particular antenna array would have rather severe negative stability
implications for the average pleasure boat.

Small craft antennas are either radomes or open array types. Radome antennas enclose the rotating
parts in a plastic dome, which keeps moving parts from snagging on running rigging or small children.
Because of their narrower antennae, radomes have a wider horizontal beamwidth, meaning that
adjacent targets can get clumped together. The horizontal beamwidth on radomes runs from 4° to 7°.

Open array antennas are exposed, so you can see the antenna spinning. These antennas can be as
much as 48" in width. Like a longer VHF antenna, this focuses the transmitted energy, resulting in
longer ranges and narrower horizontal beamwidths (2-3.5°). However, they are not suitable for
sailboats under 50' or so, and powerboats generally have to have a hardtop, radar arch, or mast
mounting location which is relatively isolated to support an open array.

Transmit Power

Small radars have between 1.5 and 4.0 kW of transmit energy. Greater output power means that you
are more likely to see weak targets that do not have a high radar cross section (RCS). While increased
power also allows you to see farther, it is far less important than the height of your antenna, the height
of your target, and the target's ability to reflect radar. Transmit power is more important in poor
weather, since fog, drizzle, and rain absorb the radar energy and greatly reduce radar range.

Ability to Interface to other Electronics

Everyone seems to want to interface electronics together, and radars are particularly susceptible. The
most common connection is with a GPS feeding the radar information about navigating to the next
waypoint The radar repeats this information, allowing the user to concentrate on one display at a time.
Many radar/GPS pairs can place the location of the destination waypoint right on the radar image, so
that its reflection and position appear superimposed. Some radars can take a target's location and create
a waypoint from it.

Another popular option is to interface a chart reader with the radar, so that the radar can display digital
charts. You can toggle between either image with the push of a single button. Raytheon, Furuno, and
Si-Tex all offer this capability.

Common Radar Functions

All radars have one or two EBLs and VRMs. An EBL, or Electronic Bearing Line, accurately
measures the relative bearing to a target from your position, while a VRM, or Variable Range Marker
measures the distance. This provides the range and bearing to the target, which is necessary for
calculating whether there is a threat of collision.

Many radars have Interference Rejection, which omits signals caused by other radars operating in the
immediate area. Rain Clutter and Sea State controls let you optimize the image for different
environmental conditions. The Gain of the radar is generally set manually for the best image, but more
and more radars have Auto Gain which changes the gain based on the range selected.

While you may think your boat is the center of the universe, most radars will allow you to put the
vessel off-center, so that you can optimize the range. For example, if you are travelling along a coast 3
miles offshore, you can move the center of the display to one side and use the 2-mile range, thus
providing more detail but still allowing you to see the coastline. A related function is zoom, which
allows you to "blow-up" any area on the display by a factor of two for greater detail.
Radar Comparison Chart
Electronics

Manufacturer Mfr. Model Model Transmit Power Max. Range Display Type/Size Resolution H x W Antenna Type/Size
LCD Radars
Furuno 1621-2 357006 2 kW 16 nm 6" LCD 320 x 24 15.0" Radome 6.2° 8.8 RP110L Tiny rado
Furuno 82-21 316176 2 kW 24 nm 8" LCD 640 x 480 17.1" Radome 5.7° 10.0 RP120 Large LC
Furuno 841-2 500820 4 kW 36 nm 8" LCD 640 x 480 24.0" Radome 4.0° 17.6 RP120 Larger rad
Furuno 851 569668 4 kW 37 nm 8" LCD 640 x 480 42" Open Array 5.2° 50.7 No First ever
JRC 1000 398340 1.5 kW 16 nm 6" LCD 320 x 240 12.0" Radome 7.0° 9.0 No Our least
Raytheon RL70* 162276 - - 7" LCD 320 x 240 - - - No HSB (High Speed Bus)
Raytheon RL70RC* 162284 - - 7" LCD 320 x 240 - - - Yes HSB (High Speed Bus) w/
Raytheon SL72 390750 2kW 24 nm 7" LCD 320 x 240 18.0" Radome 5.2° 14.3 lb. No Truly auto
Monochrome CRT Radars, Radome Antennas
Furuno 1721-2 356941 2 kW 24 nm 7" LCD 640 x 480 17.1" Radome 5.7° 10.0 RP110 Increased
Furuno 1731-3 251200 4 kW 36 nm 7" LCD 640 x 480 23.7" Radome 3.9° 15.4 RP110 New rado
JRC 2000 567001 2 kW 24 nm 7" LCD 640 x 480 17.7" Radome 6.0° 12.1 No Good valu
JRC 3000 398530 4 kW 24 nm 7" LCD 640 x 480 24.4" Radome 4.0° 20.0 No Great valu
JRC 2253 569452 4 kW 32 nm 10" CRT 640 x 480 24.4" Radome 4.0° 20.9 No Large, lig
Raytheon R70* 162250 - - 7" CRT 640 x 480 - - - No HSB (High Speed Bus)
Raytheon R70RC* 162268 - - 7" CRT 640 x 480 - - - Yes HSB (High Speed Bus) w/
Monochrome CRT Radars, Open Array Antennas
Furuno 1751-2 357030 2 kW 24 nm 7" CRT 640 x 480 26.2" Open Array 3.5° 24.2 RP110 3.5° horiz
Furuno 1761-2 357048 4 kW 48 nm 7" CRT 640 x 480 41.0" Open Array 2.4° 50.7 RP110 2.4°horizo
JRC 2254 569445 4 kW 48 nm 10" CRT 640 x 480 48.0" Open Array 2.0° 20.0 No Extended
* These display units can be paired with either a 2kW or 4kW radome antenna.
Testing Radar Reflectors
Electronics

If you boat in areas where shipping traffic exists, or where fog and low visibility are a part of boating
conditions, the ability to transmit a clear radar reflection can make the difference between life and
death. When choosing a reflector for your vessel, two considerations are foremost:

1. Bigger is better. Tests show that doubling reflector size increases the effective area by 16
times. In other words, increasing the size of a reflector by approximately 19% doubles its
reflective image.

2. Reflectors should provide consistent reflective performance in all directions. The

accompanying chart shows the varying degrees of reflector response, based on Admiralty
Surface Weapons Tests recorded in Great Britain. The chart shows that models like the Davis
Echomaster and the Firdell Blipper provide strong, nearly symmetrical reflections. In tests
conducted by Practical Sailor magazine, the Echomaster was rated at the top of the class for
price and performance. For performance sailors and racers, the Firdell Blipper provides a
more aerodynamic shape and smooth, rounded contours that resist chafe.
What does "Waterproof" mean, anyway?
Electronics

We inevitably run into problems when we use absolute terms like waterproof, or undefined terms like
splashproof. This is especially true when describing foul weather gear or electronics. Customers buy
foul weather gear because they don't want to get wet, period. But what if they sweat or fall into the
water? Is it reasonable to expect the gear to keep you dry under these circumstances? Buyers of marine
electronics are no different. Customers expect the products they buy to meet some criteria for exposure
so that they won't be throwing money away, and so the product will work when
they need it.

There are at least three types of water exposure ratings in common use:

The Laboratory Method

This generally requires a number of folks in white lab coats who spray water
under precise conditions at a defenseless radio or depth sounder. They're trying to
determine whether the product can withstand a certain amount of water from a
certain angle. Various agencies quantify waterproofness using different
standards: Underwriters Labs, JIS, or the US Coast Guard for example.

When Raytheon and Apelco began to promote their product's waterproofness a

few years back, they used the Coast Guard definition in CFR 46, Subpart
110.20. This defines a "waterproof machine" as one which will withstand a 65
gallon per minute stream of water, from a one inch nozzle, for five minutes,
from all directions, without leaking. The problem, of course, is that it is darned
difficult to relate this test to normal use on a boat, where electronic products
may be left out in the rain, submerged for short periods of time, or just
operated with wet hands. In fact, we find this to be true with most laboratory
standards. While the standard many be repeatable at different labs, it may not
be transferable to the real-world conditions in which we operate boats. While
we may be able to converse on the facts regarding the test procedure, we can be
totally in the dark as to whether our use is harsher or gentler that the
specification. So we ask: "What good is a standard the average boater cannot
relate to real life conditions?" NOTE: Following Raytheon's lead, other
vendors have also used CFR 46 to compare the waterproofness of their
products. We'd prefer that everyone use something more practical.

The Manufacturer's Warranty Method

Electronics manufacturers commonly warrant that their products will be repaired or replaced even if
due to water damage for a period of one to three years. This is both a statement of their confidence in
their products, and a marketing tool to sell more of them. Of course, the cost of replacing damaged
products is built into their product cost, and the consumer pays for this protection in the purchase price.
The problem is that many vendors don't actually make waterproof products, yet put a warranty on them
that suggests the products are waterproof. At least the consumer's investment is protected.

To illustrate this point, one handheld VHF radio vendor recently altered its warranty on a popular
model from not including water damage to including water damage. The product did not change: only
the warranty. The return rate on this radio have shot up as a result (from about 1% of sales to 4.7%). In
other words, consumers are now able to return water damaged radios, and they're doing just that. But
who wins in this process? Certainly not the owner who wishes that his radio worked when he needed it.

The Practical Method

Will the product withstand my type of boating conditions so that it will work when I need it? In
particular, can I rely on a radio to transmit an emergency message or my GPS to find my harbor in the
fog? While difficult to measure, this is what really counts in product performance. Generally, marine
electronics encounter water in one of three ways: humidity,
splashes/rain, and immersion.

Products in a boating environment must be capable of withstanding

the constant humidity that forces its way inside the case. Many
products from the automotive market (like stereos) have a very
short life-span due to internal corrosion that occurs whether or not
the product is exposed to the elements.

Splashes and rain are tougher, as the water tends to find gaps in
gaskets, around shafts, and through external connectors like speaker
jacks. Most makers have figured out how to build products that will
withstand drizzle and rain using a variety of seals and case designs.
Immersion is the tough one. Only a very few products can handle
being immersed in water for more than a few seconds. While most of us would never consciously drop
a GPS into a bucket of water, it can happen. Manufacturers generally warrant soaked products,
although some will object on the grounds of misuse.

If product costs are to be kept in line, consumers need to be reasonable in their expectations. If you
have a "waterproof" handheld VHF radio, and you drop it in 20' of water for a couple of days, is it
reasonable to expect the manufacturer to repair it for free? We don't think so. But if it fails in a heavy
rain, or when it falls into the dinghy bilge, we think you're entitled to a repair or replacement at no
charge.

We also like the use of "statements of immersion" as a reference to how waterproof an item is. When a
manufacturer says that its VHF radio will withstand a dunk in 3' of water for 3 minutes it sure is easy to
understand compared to other standards.

Our Approach
We'd like to be able to state categorically that if you use Product A in Condition B, it will remain
operable. However, it is pretty difficult to create use categories that everyone can agree on, and then to
test products to that standard.

While we don't test all products for waterproofness, we do run our own in-house tests using buckets,
showers, and other simple setups. We also install much of this gear on our test boats, and make
judgments based on its actual performance. When we have information about the performance of a
product from personal experience, we try to include it in the catalog. If we don't think that a product is
worthy of your consideration, we don't offer it for sale. In the absence of complete and objective
measurement criteria, we have relied on a blend of the manufacturer's warranty, since it indicates the
degree of confidence that the vendor has in their products, plus our personal experience, plus the
appropriate laboratory standard (If known), and finally independent tests where available.

We hope that this helps you to make more informed buying decisions. Buying more waterproof
products will generally cost more. You may want to save the money by taking greater precautions with
your gear, or buy two less expensive products. On the other hand, you never want to be without
communications (or navigation) when you need it the most.
Engine Systems

Assembling an Outboard Fuel System

Fuel System Installation Checklist
Fuel Filter Selection Chart
Beyond Speedometers and Fuel Gauges
Exhaust System Basics
Getting the Right Engine Parts
Spark Plug Speak
Hydraulic Steering
Understanding Mechanical Steering
Measuring Mechanical Steering Cables
Selecting Mechanical Controls
Short durations = frequent changes!
Tips on Propeller Selection
West Advisor
Assembling an Outboard Fuel System
Engine Systems

Every outboard seems to have different fuel line connectors, and this is one area where we wish
outboard manufacturers would standardize. As the array of pre-assembled fuel lines and fuel line
connectors we stock will attest, this hasn't happened yet.

There are three choices in assembling a fuel system for your outboard engine:

1. Purchase an Ultra Flow Fuel System matched to your engine. Everything you need-tank, fuel line,
and quick connector for your engine-is included. With these systems, the hose is permanently
attached to the tank.

2. Purchase a portable tank, then add a Tempo Ultra Flow Fuel Line Assembly designed for your
engine. You'll need to attach the appropriate 1/4" NPT quick connector to the tank in order to
connect the tank end of the hose.

3. Purchase a portable tank, a universal fuel line with primer bulb, or a length of outboard fuel hose
and primer bulb individually. Then add quick connectors matched to your engine. For a removable
hose, use three connectors (one for the tank and two for the hose, matched to your engine). For a
hose that's permanently attached to the tank, use a 1/4" NPT pipe-to-hose barb at the tank end, and
the appropriate quick connector at the engine end.

Clamp all connections with stainless hose clamps (Model 355222), and use Teflon tape to seal any
threaded connections against leaks. With a tie-down strap to secure the tank and a tray or rubber mat to
protect the floor of the boat, your system is complete.
Fuel System Installation Checklist
Engine Systems

Typical Permanent Gasoline Tank

The ABYC specifies that
permanent tanks must be
grounded, vented to the
outside, and accessible for
inspection and testing. All
components must meet
certain standards for
mechanical strength, burst
pressure, and fire retardance.

Required Components: Optional Components:

1 1/2" deck fill fitting Remote electric fuel gauge
1 1/2" fill hose (SAE Type A-2) Shut-off valve (anti-siphon protection)
Two 1 3/4"-2 5/8" hose clamps Fuel return fitting & hose (diesel only)
Thru-hull vent fitting
5/8" vent hose (USCG Type A-2)
Two 3/4"-1 1/2" hose clamps
3/8" feed hose (USCG Type A-1
1/4" NPT male to 3/8" male hose barb
Two 1/2"- 1 1/8" hose clamps
Tank hold-down straps
Teflon tape (to seal threaded connections)
Fuel Filter Selection Chart
Engine Systems

1. Select the correct fuel: gas or diesel

2. Select filter for outboard or inboard use: inboard filters can be used with outboard, but not
vice-versa. You must use a filter with a metal bowl for inboard gasoline engines.
3. If you are replacing a Mercury or OMC filter, see the OEM column for your brand of engine.
4. Select the flow rate required: Gas engines: GPH = 10% of max hp Diesel engines: GPH =
36% of max hp
5. Select style and filtration desired based on engine manufacturer's recommendations. Finer
filters (lower micron rating) are used as secondary filters; coarser filters (higher micron rating)
are used as primary filters.
6. Select other features (style, primer pump) desired
 Replaces
Inboard/ Bowl Primer Filtration
Fuel OEM GPH Style SKU MFR MFR Number
Outboard Material Pump? (Micron)
Filter?
Gas Outboards No 60 Polymer No Spin-on 10 484964 Racor 320RRAC01
Yes,
Gas Outboards 60 Polymer No Spin-on 10 411488 Racor B32014
OMC
Yes,
Gas Outboards 60 Polymer No Spin-on 10 411462 Racor B32013
Merc

Gas Both No 15 Metal No Spin-on 10 108664 Racor 110A

Gas Both No 45 Metal No Cartridge N/A 111062 Fram FBM1110PLM
Gas Both No 60 Metal No Spin-on 10 484972 Racor 320RRAC02
Yes,
Gas Both 60 Metal No Spin-on 10 411520 Racor B32020MAM
Merc
Yes,
Gas Both 60 Metal No Spin-on 10 411504 Racor B32021MAM
OMC
Gas Both No 70 Metal No Spin-on 10 378887 Sierra 18-7852
Gas Both No 90 Metal No Spin-on 10 129603 Racor 660RACC02

Diesel Inboard No 15 Polymer No Spin-on 2 411348 Racor 120AS

Diesel Inboard No 15 Polymer No Spin-on 30 309981 Racor 120AP
Diesel Inboard No 15 Metal No Spin-on 2 253221 Racor 120RMAM
Diesel Inboard No 15 Polymer Yes Spin-on 2 563363 Racor 215R2
Diesel Inboard No 30 Polymer Yes Spin-on 2 411363 Racor 220R
Diesel Inboard No 30 Polymer Yes Spin-on 2 411704 Racor 230R2
Diesel Inboard No 45 Polymer Yes Spin-on 2 458010 Racor 245R2
Diesel Inboard No 45 Polymer Yes Spin-on 2 563389 Racor 445R2
Diesel Inboard No 60 Polymer Yes Spin-on 2 464174 Racor 460R2

Diesel Inboard No 60 Polymer No Turbine 2 411264 Racor 500FGSS-2

Metal
Diesel Inboard No 60 No Turbine 2 108748 Racor 500MA2
Shield
Diesel Inboard No 90 Polymer No Turbine 2 411272 Racor 900FG-2
Diesel Inboard No 90 Polymer No Turbine 30 309999 Racor 900FG-30
Metal
Diesel Inboard No 90 No Turbine 2 253247 Racor 900MA2
Shield
Diesel Inboard No 120 Polymer No Turbine 2 129637 Racor 75/500FGX2
Diesel Inboard No 180 Polymer No Turbine 2 402727 Racor 1000FG-2
Metal
Diesel Inboard No 180 No Turbine 2 108656 Racor 1000MA2
Shield
Diesel Inboard No 360 Polymer No Turbine 2 129650 Racor 75/1000FGX

Diesel Inboard No 30 Metal No Cartridge 1 111088 Fram FCS1136M

Diesel Inboard No 100 Metal No Cartridge 1 201568 Fram FCS1133PLM
Beyond Speedometers and Fuel Gauges
Engine Systems

Engine instruments help ensure that your boat's engine is operating correctly, with sufficient lubrication
and within the recommended temperature range. Many stock powerboats come with a fuel gauge and
speedometer, but little else. To better understand what is going on inside your power plant, additional
instruments are helpful. For optimal performance, dashboard instruments should have night lighting,
magnetic shielding, damped movement for accurate readings even in rough water, a wide range of
angular needle movement and excellent resistance to harsh environmental conditions.

The Instruments
Tachometers display engine rpm. Engines are designed to run within a specified rpm range, and
propeller selection will impact the speed at which your engine turns. Monitoring the tachometer allows
you to select the most efficient speed based on conditions, and a drop in WOT (wide open throttle) rpm
may indicate a problem with fuel flow or your ignition system.

Fuel flow meters monitor the rate of fuel consumption. Monitoring fuel consumption can help
determine your safe cruising range and help you optimize your boat's fuel economy. See the Advisor
below.

Hour meters record engine running hours. They are the marine equivalent of an odometer and help
remind you of when general maintenance like oil changes, tune-ups and valve adjustments need to be
performed.

Voltmeters give you a quick "look" at the voltage of your electrical system. While too inaccurate to
give much information about your battery's state of charge, they can tell you whether your alternator is
working (voltage rises quickly after the engine is started), whether your regulator is unregulating
(voltage rises too high and batteries begin to smoke), and whether your inability to start is really due to
a dead battery (voltage is less than 11 volts or so).

Water temperature gauges monitor the temperature of cooling water in the engine. Operating your
engine at high power outputs without allowing it to warm up first is an invitation to short engine life.
Rising temperature often indicates a water intake blockage that does not permit enough water flow
through the engine. This can result in engine overheating and expensive repairs.

Engine synchronizers are used in dual engine applications to show you when both engines are
operating at the identical rpm. They also show you which engine is slow and which one is fast so you
can quickly even the load on them. Operating the engines at different speeds causes throbbing
vibrations which are annoying, and causes one engine to work harder than the other.

Marine safety alarms monitor common mechanical and electrical operations like flooding, over-
temperature, low oil pressure, low water flow, fire, carbon monoxide concentrations, and propane or
fuel spills. While gauges help to establish the optimal ranges for engine operation, alarms monitor areas
that are not easily accessible. Alarms need early warning indicators to alert you before damage to the
engine becomes inevitable. Accurate gauges and reliable alarms, in combination with a log of normal
performance ranges, will provide you with an engine maintenance schedule that will help keep you on
the water and keep operating costs to a minimum.

Why Fuel Flow Meters?

Fuel flow meters are the most effective way to monitor engine performance. An increase in normal fuel
consumption is usually the first sign of a problem with the engine, drive train, or shaft, or a nicked prop
or fouled bottom. This early warning of potential problems allows you to make repairs before they
become critical, saving you money, downtime, and making your boat safer and more reliable. Fuel
usage data from a flow meter can also help you determine your most efficient running speed, trim, and
weight distribution for your boat. Frequently, you'll find that by speeding up or slowing down a few
hundred rpm, you can increase your range by 10-20%. Flow meters also reduce the risk of running out
of fuel miles offshore. It tells you how much fuel you've burned and how far you can go safely without
refueling. You may be able to skip fuel docks with high prices or dirty fuel because you know exactly
how much fuel you need. Anytime you carry more fuel than you really need, you increase the weight of
your boat and your operating costs go up.

How much fuel can my engine burn?

Use this simple formula to determine how much fuel your engine can burn with a full load and running
at full throttle. Gasoline engines: multiply your hp rating by 10%; diesels: multiply by 5.5%. For
example, a 200 hp gas engine will burn up to 20 gph; a diesel engine should consume up to 11 gph. At
cruise speed you can expect to burn one to two gph less than one-half your maximum consumption
rate. This will help you determine the correct dial range for your installation.

How easy are they to install?

All flow meters can be installed by the owner, but most diesel meters are installed by mechanics. If you
have basic mechanical skills and can follow detailed installation instructions, go for it. Otherwise, leave
it to the experts!

Why do my readings fluctuate?

The single most common cause of fluctuating readings comes from a suction leak at replaceable fuel
filters. A coating of light to medium grease on all O-rings when the filter is changed will fix this
problem until the next filter change.

Are they expensive?

A common misconception is to compare these microprocessor-based instruments to a fuel gauge. This

is like comparing a hand-held compass to a differential GPS. The additional cost of a fuel flow meter is
offset over time by fuel savings, reduced engine maintenance, and peace of mind.
Exhaust System Basics
Engine Systems

Water-cooled inboard engines inject cooling water into the exhaust pipe, which cools the exhaust and
muffles engine noise. The exhaust then pushes the water out the exhaust pipe. This is known as a wet
exhaust system. Wet exhaust systems have the advantage of using the heat-absorbing and sound-
dampening qualities of water to cool and quiet the exhaust. Air-cooled, or dry exhaust, systems are
uncommon except in performance powerboat or large work boats where excessive heat build-up and/or
noise are tolerable, or in precisely engineered trawler/passagemaker exhaust systems which insulate the
hot exhaust pipe with forced air.

Above and below waterline applications require distinctly different products to muffle engine noise.
Powerboats use marine mufflers, commonly made out of non-metallic materials, to contain engine
noise and cool the exhaust. Mufflers are always mounted above the waterline, and usually have some
sort of check valve in-line to prevent backwards water flow, which might damage the engine.

Aqua Lifts, water traps, or water locks are used both by powerboats and sailboats. They are vertical
mufflers mounted below the waterline with an outlet line coming off the bottom of the container.
Exhaust and expended cooling water are mixed shortly after the exhaust manifold and travel together
into the Aqua Lift. This serves both as a muffler, and as a place for cooling water to collect before the
exhaust pushes it out the remainder of the exhaust hose. It also provides a place for sea water from
following seas to collect if the boat is running under sail. For greater quieting, an inline muffler can be
used downstream of an Aqua Lift.

Additional System Components

For vessels with through-the-transom exhaust, there are flapper valves that prevent following seas from
running back up the exhaust system and flooding the engine. They clamp around the outside diameter
of an exhaust pipe to form a check valve.

Exhaust hose or tubing is used to connect the exhaust manifold to the muffler and runs from the
muffler overboard. It is essential to use material which can withstand heat, oil, acids, pressure, water
weight, and vibration without failure. As a rule of thumb, hose runs that are longer than four times the
inside diameter of the hose should use wire-reinforced exhaust hose or fiberglass exhaust tubing.
Shorter lengths can use non-reinforced hose. All hose connections should be made to rigid surfaces
(such as tubing, pipe, or the muffler itself); hose-to-hose connections are never recommended.
Getting the Right Engine Parts
Engine Systems

We stock over 2,000 quality engine parts from vendors like Champion, Fram, Racor, NGK, Sierra, and
many others. While this is great for customers, it can also lead to confusion, due to the vast number of
parts available (and the many more we can Special Order for you.) Therefore, we have some hints
which should help you get the part you need for your engine:

If you know the manufacturer's part number (from OMC, Mercury, Volvo, Crusader, Chrysler,
Chris Craft, etc.), we can generally find the equivalent Sierra part number using the Sierra Catalog's
Manufacturer Cross Reference. This is more or less a guarantee of getting a perfect replacement.

If you know your engine's year, model, HP or displacement, and brand, we can generally find the
part number that you need. Since Evinrude has made over 20 4-hp engines, don't expect us to find the
answer with less information!

If you have the sterndrive make, year, and model we can generally find the sterndrive part that you
need. However, some sterndrives are out of production, and parts are hard to come by.

Finally, if you have a part which is made by a supplier to the engine manufacturer (Jabsco,
Autolite, Prestolite, Sherwood) we can also cross-reference these parts using the Sierra catalog.
Spark Plug Speak
Engine Systems

A spark plug ignites the fuel/air mixture inside a cylinder of a gasoline engine. The combustion of the
compressed fuel/air mixture drives the piston downward, which turns a crank shaft and helps the
engine propel your boat.

Proper combustion depends on several factors, but most importantly upon the plug's ability to ignite the
fuel/air mixture completely. The two components of a plug which have the largest impact upon this
process are the gap and the heat range.

Gap: the distance between the center electrode and the ground electrode (the bent one). The spark
travels across this distance to ignite the fuel/air mixture. The precise distance is determined by the
engine manufacturer and is dependent upon the size of the cylinder and other factors. An improper gap
setting will result in misfires and a general decrease in combustion efficiency. The correct gap setting
can be found in the engine manual.

Heat Range: the theoretical "temperature" of the plug, determined by its ability to dissipate heat away
from its tip. This is also a precise measurement, as plugs that are too "hot" are prone to pre-ignition,
and plugs that are too "cold" fail to burn up the fuel/air mixture completely in the combustion cycle,
which can leave deposits and cause plug fouling over time. Consult the most recent engine
manufacturer's guidelines for plug heat range, and read the application note
Hydraulic Steering
Engine Systems

Hydraulic steering makes handling high-torque motors and high-speed boats easy and safe. Feedback is
eliminated and holding a steady course is simplified because no steering effort is required until you
actually want to turn the engine or rudder. We offer quality hydraulic steering in complete, easy-to-
install packages and stock components to fit virtually any pleasure or commercial boat's hydraulic
steering needs.

There are two basic parts to a hydraulic system: the helm and the cylinder, although more complicated
systems may have fluid reservoirs, specialized valves, relief valves, autopilot pumps, etc. The helm
consists of a hydraulic pump and a system of valves, which pumps fluid into the hydraulic lines. The
pump is activated by turning the steering wheel, which causes a "swash plate" to press on a series of
small piston pumps. The use of small pistons and ball bearings makes the pump action very smooth,
and nothing like a normal piston pump. The internal valve assembly acts as a check valve, prevents the
outgoing fluid from returning, while effectively eliminating kickback to the wheel. In systems like the
popular Teleflex SeaStar and SeaStar Pro, the helm serves several functions, incorporating a hydraulic
fluid reservoir and a relief valve as well. Some systems have a helm, reservoir, and relief valve as
separate components.

In use, a clockwise turn of the steering wheel will send fluid from the Helm Unit into the starboard
hydraulic line. This fluid will be pumped into the cylinder and either extend or retract the cylinder rod.
Incoming fluid pushes a piston which is pinned to an external rod. As the piston is moved the rod is
either extended or retracted, and the boat turns. Outgoing fluid from the other end of the cylinder is
returned to the helm via the port side line.

Selection of the proper components is relatively easy, since the number of components is limited.
Select the SeaStar 1.7 helm for boats to 40', outboard engines with up to V-6 engines, and speeds to 50
mph. For boats larger outboards to 300 HP and speeds over 60 mph, select the SeaStar Pro. It operates
at pressures up to 1,500 psi, and offers the best steering control and reduced wheel walk and chatter. Its
increased 2.0 cu.in. displacement provides faster steering response, with slightly higher helm effort.
(NOTE: The SeaStar regular helm is available in 2.0 and 2.4 cu.in. displacements for boats with larger
cylinders or special needs by special order).

The current generation of outboard-mounted cylinders makes installation easy, since they use the tilt
tube of the engine for support, and act directly on the engine's steering attachment point. In other
words, the cylinder acts between two points on the outboard, and exerts no force on the boat's hull or
deck. This type of cylinder is what is known as a balanced cylinder, meaning that port and starboard
deflections take the same amount of hydraulic fluid. This, in turn, makes it ideal for autopilots, since
they act symmetrically port and starboard. Note that the Outboard Cylinder on the following page is an
unbalanced cylinder, and cannot be used with autopilots.

There is a wide variety of inboard and sterndrive cylinders available to fit practically any boat. The
models shown on the facing page are popular representatives, but others are available by special order.
Cylinder diameter generally goes up with boat length and displacement, requiring more turns lock-to-
lock. Teleflex offers extensive technical specifications for their cylinders; please contact us if you need
more information
Understanding Mechanical Steering
Engine Systems

Parts is parts
Mechanical steering systems achieve good handling performance and provide safe operation for
smaller runabouts (up to 24' ). They consist of a wheel, helm, push-pull cables, and hardware that
allows you to connect your steering system to your boat's IO or outboard motor. We'll start by defining
the component parts:

The Helm is the mechanism behind the instrument panel that converts the wheel's rotary motion into a
push/pull motion on the cable. The steering wheel attaches to the helm. Rotary steering helms have a
round gear around which the cable turns as you turn the wheel. Rack & Pinion steering helms have
linear gear, or rack, and the cable passes back and forth through an elongated tube. The Bezel is the
plastic trim ring that finishes the installation of the helm. They are available in 90° and 20° models,
meaning that one of them is not perpendicular to the mounting surface.

Cables are available in one foot increments from 6' up. They are sealed, and impregnated with
lubricant. Inside their protective sheath, steering cables look like a long spiral with a stretch-resistant
core. When you turns the steering wheel, the cable is either extended or contracted, which pushes or
pulls the engine to turn the boat.

Types of Mechanical Steering

The primary difference between a rack and pinion and rotary helm is the form factor of the helm-how
it fits in the space behind the mounting surface. Rotary helms extend a few inches above and below the
axis of the steering wheel, and a few inches in the opposite direction of the steering cable. On boats
with very low dashboards, rotary helms may not have enough vertical clearance. Rack and pinion
helms are long rectangular boxes which extend about 1' away from the direction of the cable, but they
are very compact vertically.

Another difference is the mechanical advantage of the helm, or how "fast" it turns. When a helm is
specified as having a certain number of turns "lock to lock," it means the number of steering wheel
rotations necessary to fully extend the cable from a retracted state. Faster gear ratios (3:1) require fewer
turns, but there is heavier helm pressure to offset engine torque. Steering that is too fast will fatigue the
driver, and can overpower the driver in demanding conditions. Slower gear ratios (4:1) require more
turns, but there is less helm pressure when turning and holding the wheel. Steering which is too slow
can make maneuvering tiring, since the wheel has to be spun more turns.

Finally, most steering systems in our catalog are available as standard or No Feedback
(NFB) types. No Feedback is a relatively new development which isolates the engine's torque
from the driver. With traditional steering systems, the engine has a constant tendency to turn
to the right, which the driver compensates for by keeping pressure to the left on the wheel.
This also allows the boat to turn rapidly to the right should the driver lose his/her grip on the
wheel, resulting in a dangerously tight turn.

NFB helms have a clutch mechanism built-in which keeps the boat on course without constant fighting.
The only time you feel the engine's torque is when you turn the helm. This greatly reduces driver
fatigue, and makes it easy to hold a course. There are no disadvantages to the NFB systems, other than
a modest $40.00 additional cost over the regular systems, and we heartily recommend them if you are
replacing your steering system.

Selecting the Right System

As powerful, reliable, and simple as mechanical steering systems are, they are not universally
applicable. For example, each helm shown in this section has either a maximum engine size, or
maximum speed, or boat type which should be heeded. Exceeding the engine size or boat speed can
cause an unsafe situation, so please heed the following recommendations, and when in doubt, err on the
conservative (oversized) side:

NFB Rack, NFB Safe-T II, NFB 4.2, Rack, Safe-T-Quick: V-4 outboards and smaller, less than 50
mph, boats to 24', steering wheels to 16"

Big T: V-6 outboards, boats to 34', steering wheels to 20". NOTE: The Big-T system can be used for
dual station installations.

SeaStar Hydraulic: V-6 engines to 300 HP, speeds over 60 mph, heavy boats, deep V hulls.

What if I have a Safe-T or Rack helm already installed?

Wow, if that isn't a self-serving question, I don't know what is! There are two pieces of good news in
this discovery: your boatbuilder had the smarts to put in really nice steering gear at the factory, and you
can buy a brand new Rack or Safe-T NFB system for as little as $150, depending on the length of the
cable you need. For that price, you get a new helm, bezel, and cable, which is all of the important stuff.
You'll have to remove and replace the wheel, remove and remount the helm and cable, but you're
looking at a two hour job, max.

Assuming you have a relatively new cable and don't want to replace it, you can replace your current
Safe-T helm with a NFB Safe-T helm for under $100.00.

I have a power-assisted outdrive. Do I really need a No Feedback helm?

No, you don't, since the engine/outdrive's power-steering system effectively eliminates all torque from
the steering wheel. In this case, due to the light loads imposed by boats with power-steering, you can
use either a Rack or Safe-T single cable system without the NFB feature. Genereally your boat will
have come from the factory with one of these systems installed, and you'll be faced with an occasional
replacement cable, but the helm should last for many years.

Should I consider going from mechanical steering to hydraulic steering?

We really like hydraulic steering for the smoothness and precision it offers. On boats with one or two
large outboards, steering quickly becomes an athletic event rather than a recreational pursuit. It's
especially appropriate for boats where stiff steering cables struggle to make it back to the engines
without being turned into pretzels.

If you want to add an autopilot, hydraulic steering allows you to do a professional installation in a few
hours. A compact hydraulic pump simply installs between the helm and the cylinder, and a complete
system can be added for about $1,000.

While it's not inexpensive (an installation runs from $800 to $1,000), hydraulic steering feels like
power steering, and we heartily recommend it.
Measuring Mechanical Steering Cables
Engine Systems

Measure:

A Center line of wheel to gunwale (or deck if mounted downward)

B Dash to transom
C Gunwale to center line of cable connection at centered tiller
For installations through engine tilt tube. A+B+C+6"=cable length (round up to the next largest
1
size) Example: A=18" B=96" C=24" Total 138" + 6"=144" =12 ft. cable
For installations mounted to transom or splashwell A+B+C-6"=cable length. (round up to the next
2
largest size) Example: A=18" B=96" C=24" Total 138" - 6"=132" =11 ft. cable
Selecting Mechanical Controls
Engine Systems

Dual-Function Controls
The most popular type of control in use today because they make boat handling easy. Both shift and
throttle are operated by a single lever in a very instinctive action. Shifting is quick and can only be
done at low RPM which protects the engine's shift mechanism.

Two cables are used, one for shift and one for throttle. Single-lever, dual-function controls are also
available for twin engine applications. In this case there are two levers on the control though only one
lever controls shift and throttle for each individual engine.

Single-Function Controls
On these controls one lever performs one function, either shift or throttle. The controls themselves may
have one lever to control either shift or throttle, or two levers (one for the shift and one for the throttle).

Twin engine applications commonly use 2 two-lever single function controls. Both levers of one
control operate the throttles, and the levers of the other control operate the shift mechanisms.
Multiple Station Installations
Dual or multiple station applications almost always use single-function two-lever controls. There are
two basic systems recommended for multiple station installations. The choice of system is dictated by
the sum of the degrees of bend in the cables. The fewer the bends, the more efficient the cable action.
The control system that gives the fewest degrees of bend should be chosen.

The parallel control system is used when cable runs are relatively short and direct. It consists of
cables from each control station running all the way to the clutch and throttle at the engine. An option
with this system, for use when cable runs are long, difficult or would be too costly, is to run cables
from the both controls to a transfer unit. Then single cables can be run from the transfer unit to the
engine.

The series control system runs cables from the upper station to the lower station controls. Then a
second set of controls runs from the lower station controls to the engine.

Understanding Mechanical Advantage

Because you are using a lever to create motion at the other end of the control system (the throttle or
shift mechanism on the engine), it requires less effort than if you were pushing directly on the engine's
throttle or shift mechanism. Understanding the control's mechanical advantage and the amount of force
needed at the engine is very important when specifying the correct control.

For example, if an engine required 15 lb. of force to move the shift lever, and you were using a control
with a mechanical advantage of 2.5, you would divide the force by the mechanical advantage to
determine how much force must be exerted at the control lever to create the needed 15 lb. of force.

15 lb. / 2.5 mech. adv. = 6 lb. of force at the lever

Control Selection by Application

Dual Function Dual Function Single Function Single Function

Boat Type
Top Munt Side Mount Top Mount Side Mount
Outboard & Sterndrive
* * *
Single Station
Outboard & Sterndrive
*
Dual Station
Inboard single Station * * * *
Inboard dual station

Jet boats

Sailboats a * *
Commercial * * * *
Short durations = frequent changes!
Engine Systems

Sailboat auxiliaries are frequently used for short duration motoring which does not allow the engine to
reach operating temperature for any length of time. This contributes to the contamination of the oil, due
to condensed water, which turns to acid in the crankcase, and an inability to get particulates into
circulation where they can be removed by the oil filter. For this reason it is critical to operate your
sailboat engine long enough to allow it to warm up, and to keep it on a frequent oil change maintenance
program.
Tips on Propeller Selection
Engine Systems

What They Do
Propellers provide forward thrust for a boat under power. There are two main styles of propellers: two-
to-four blade styles which fit inboard engines with propeller shafts (sail or power), and three-to six-
blade styles which fit outboards or stern drives.

How They Differ

Propeller size is described by two numbers: the diameter and the pitch. They are the most important
measurements in selecting a propeller.

Diameter is two times the distance from the center of the hub to the tip of any blade. In general,
smaller diameters correspond with smaller power engines or higher speeds.

Pitch is the theoretical forward movement of a propeller through one complete revolution. Since there
is always a slight amount of "slip" between the prop and the water, the actual distance is slightly less.

Material - Propellers are made of either composite, aluminum, bronze, or stainless steel. Composite
props make good, durable primary props and inexpensive spares. Aluminum props are the most
common, suitable for the widest range of size, load, and rpm applications. Bronze or stainless props
offer higher performance and better durability for speedboats, tournament ski boats, and other special
applications. The following breakdown compares the materials:

Weight Flex Repair Cost

Composite Least Little Not Possible Least
Aluminum Medium Little Easy Medium
Stainless Greatest Least Difficult Greatest
Bronze Greatest Least Easy Greatest

Number of blades - With any propeller, it is important to have enough blade area to evenly distribute
engine power across the surface of the blades so it is properly transferred into forward motion. Too
little blade area causes high "blade loading," meaning the prop is incapable of absorbing all the power
transferred to it by the engine. This leads to cavitation, vibration, and in extreme cases, pitting. Luckily,
manufacturers save you the trouble of making lengthy calculations, and design their props to fall within
a safe blade loading range.

With increased blade area you can decrease blade diameter, but often at the cost of efficiency at higher
speeds. A three-blade prop is generally considered to be the best combination of blade area and low
blade loading. However, when the number of blades on a prop is changed, the diameter and pitch
require minimal adjustment for the prop to remain within the safe blade loading range. So, for all
intents and purposes, three- and four-blade props can be used interchangeably on outboards and
sterndrives without a perceptible change in performance. Wide-blade, super-cavitating, and two-blade
folding props for inboard engines deserve special consideration, and fall outside the scope of this
Advisor.

Choosing the Perfect Prop

Prop selection is one of the primary factors which determines boat performance. Because similar-sized
boats are used for many different applications, there are a wide range of sizes and styles available. The
basic rule is to select a prop which allows the engine to reach its optimal wide open throttle (WOT)
rpm range, which is generally usually between 5000 and 5500 rpm, depending on engine type. (This
information is generally in the Owner's Manual which comes with a new boat or engine.)
The reasons for purchasing a new prop fall into one of two categories:

1) Your current prop needs replacement and current performance is satisfactory (engine rpm
at WOT is within manufacturer's guidelines).

If your current performance falls within an acceptable range, choose a replacement prop which
duplicates the diameter and pitch of your current prop. You might consider experimenting with a
higher performance propeller in a different material (upgrade to stainless steel, for example) or
consider a four bladed propeller if you have a three blade.

2) Your current performance is unsatisfactory, or you wish to change the performance

characteristics of your boat.

A correctly-sized prop will allow the engine to reach the engine speed where maximum horsepower is
produced. What do you do if your engine operates at the wrong rpm at WOT? Pitch and rpm have an
inverse relationship: increasing the pitch reduces rpm and vice-versa (sort of like shifting into a higher
gear). The relationship is that a 1" change in pitch will result in a 200 rpm change in engine speed.
Therefore, if your engine operates below the proper rpm, consider a propeller with less pitch. If your
engine over-revs beyond maximum recommended rpm, consider an increase in pitch.

It may be desirable to change propeller size to bring about specific performance attributes. You might
select a lower-pitch "power prop" to make it easier to pop skiers out of the water. Tournament bass
boats may desire more top end speed, and should choose a prop with a higher pitch. Houseboats and
displacement cruisers care more about efficiency at displacement speeds, and require a lower pitch to
achieve low-end power, and the largest diameter their lower unit can handle.

Other special circumstances may affect performance, as well. One example is an altitude change.
Reduced concentrations of oxygen at high altitude cause engines to produce less power (about 20% less
at 7,000'). This decreased performance can be partially compensated for by carrying a second prop with
reduced pitch, making it easier for the engine to achieve the correct rpm and WOT.

Cupped propellers have special curved trailing edges, which enable the prop to cut through the water
better. They allow most boats to achieve higher top-end speeds, or the same speeds at lower engine
rpm. According to some manufacturers, they also promote more efficient fuel consumption. Bass and
ski boats may want more power "out of the hole," and should choose a cupped propeller that will slip
less in the water. Engines with power trim may require a cupped propeller, to keep the prop closer to
the water's surface for reduced cavitation.
Fishing

Downrigger Fishing
West Advisor
Downrigger Fishing
Fishing

With modern electronics, finding fish is easier, but successfully catching them is a different matter.
You still must present your bait down where the fish are. Being able to precisely determine and
regulate the best fishing depth is important because fish movements and feeding patterns are affected
by such variables as water temperature, thermoplane, weather, tides and season.

In the past, wire line, deep planers and keel sinkers were used to troll bait downward, which was an
effective but weighty method. An advantage of a downrigger is that it enables the angler to regulate
fishing depth while allowing the fish to be fought using relatively light gear.

Whatever style or price range you choose, the principle is the same: a downrigger is essentially a
winch with a heavy (usually 6–10lb.) weight attached to a cable, which holds your bait at an
“attractive” depth.

Downriggers, like the rest of your tackle, can be tailored to the kind of fishing you expect to do. For
offshore saltwater fishing, you’ll want a heavy-duty model made exclusively from non-corroding
materials. For freshwater fishing from smaller craft, you’ll want to choose something that’s light and
easily removed for convenient trailering.

The mounting of the downrigger can have a significant effect on its performance and ease of use.
While it is possible to permanently bolt the downrigger to the boat, this option makes unmounting for
storage and security quite a chore. Most anglers prefer to mount a base to the deck or rail, which allows
for quick mounting and unmounting. A swivel base, which lets you rotate the downrigger inboard or
outboard, is especially convenient for tending baits or docking. Regardless of which downrigger you
select, it should be positioned for easy access while operating, but out of the way when fighting or
retrieving a fish. As a general rule, at least on larger boats, you’ll want to place the units near or on the
outside corners of the stern, free from the motor housing or I/O lower unit and prop area.

Most downriggers don‘t limit you to one rod. The use of "stacker" release clips allows for several lines
to be set off a single downrigger cable, thus effectively fishing more of the water column. A typical
setup features two downriggers off the stern with two lines being fished off each downrigger.

The success of downrigger fishing has now been proven throughout the world for both salt and
freshwater species. Give it a try!
Maintenance

Antifouling Bottom Paints

Bottom Painting Tips
Bottom Paint Compatibility Chart
Topside Painting Tips
Primers & Undercoats
Get the Right Amount of Paint
Blisters and Barrier Coats
Gelcoat Repairs
Epoxy Products
Sealants
Sealant Selection Chart
Wood Finishes
Sacrificial Anodes and Galvanic Corrosion
Understanding Antifreeze
Winterizing Checklist
West Advisor
Antifouling Bottom Paints
Maintenance

Antifouling Paint Characteristics

As you choose your paint and schedule your haulout, two important questions of timing must be taken
into account: how much drying time should you allow between coats and how long can the new paint
be left out of the water? Drying time between coats can vary from ten minutes for Teflon-based VC-
17m to a 16-hour minimum for Trilux. It is important to check the manufacturer's recommendation in
advance, both for the drying time and for the recommended number of coats, because it can have a
major effect on your planning. At least as vital is to know how soon you must launch after painting. For
a trailered or dry winter stored boat, you would naturally choose one of the ablatives, where the time is
given as "indefinite." For example, our most popular modified epoxy paints, BottomShield and
BottomPro Plus, have drying times to recoat of four to six hours, and the maximum time allowable
before launch is sixty days. For the rosin-based sloughing paint, Bottomkote, used for slow cruisers and
workboats, drying time to recoat is overnight and it must launch within 48 hours.

Modified Epoxy Paints

One-part epoxy resins, which dry to a tough, hard, reasonably smooth finish, cure by evaporation.
Their less volatile solvent concentrations keep the paint from attacking old coatings, so it can be
applied over them. They are durable and resist abrasion, adhere tenaciously to bare hulls and other
finishes and contain the highest biocide levels of any antifouling paint. However, they are moderately
difficult to remove when worn out, gradually lose effectiveness out of water and are not as smooth or
quick drying as some types of paint.

Copolymer Ablative Paints

The water-soluble polymer resin that encapsulates each particle of biocide in these paints is impervious
to air, so the paint doesn’t lose effectiveness when boats are hauled and re-launched. They continue to
work as long as paint remains on the hull. In addition, since there is no buildup of spent coating, they
are reasonably easy to recoat. Disadvantages are that scrubbing removes paint and shortens life span,
thicker coats are required (which adds weight and can be expensive) and ablatives are not as smooth or
quick drying as some other paints.

Thin Film Paints with Teflon

Teflon additive drastically cuts surface friction and the thin film, with its aggressive solvents, dries
quickly, so multiple coats can be applied in the same day. It provides a hard, smooth surface with
excellent durability, can be burnished to create an extremely low-friction hull surface and there’s no
thick buildup to remove when recoating. On the down side, they are incompatible with most other
finishes, require frequent recoating because they are thin and gradually lose effectiveness out of water.

Vinyl Paints

These paints offer a tough, smooth, extremely durable finish that resists abrasion and scrubbing. They
can be burnished to create a hull surface with extremely low friction. Because the solvents are powerful
and can ‘‘lift” non-vinyl paints, they’re incompatible with most other finishes. They also gradually lose
effectiveness out of water.

Sloughing Paints

The least expensive of the antifouling paints, they are easy to apply and easy to sand or remove.
However, they flake off in a less controlled fashion than ablatives, so they do not provide protection
that‘s as consistently reliable. Since they usually use a rosin, rather than resin, binder, which is much
softer and more air permeable, they are best suited to slower boats with limited time in the water.
Sloughing paints are too soft to survive much scrubbing and they quickly lose effectiveness when
exposed to air.
Planning Ahead
The haulout and bottom painting operation is the most complex, expensive maintenance boats regularly
undergo. Planning helps make the job as smooth and economical as possible. Because our customers
own a wide variety of boats in diverse locations and climates, these suggestions must be somewhat
general.

Climate is a major factor. Manufacturers say it's best to apply paint when temperatures are in the 50°–
85°F range and humidity is below 65%. If you don't have access to a heated shed, plan to do the job
when conditions in your area are closest to these parameters. Before haulout, perform other
maintenance operations and inspections, such as disassembling and lubricating seacocks, replacing
worn transducers and inspecting rudder bearings. You may want to pull and inspect the propeller shaft
and bearings. If you‘re paying by the day or hour for time out of the water, planning can save you a lot
money. Before haulout, check your boat‘s electrical system. Improper grounding can neutralize the
effectiveness of the antifouling coating.

Basic Preparation
Before you start, be sure you have everything you need, including safety and cleanup equipment.
Bottom paint is toxic and much of the work is done directly above your head. Don‘t breathe it or get it
on your skin or in your eyes. Have the right respirator, eye protection and clothing, and have on hand
the materials needed to prevent sanding residue from blowing away. Wash up and thoroughly clean up
the worksite when you finish.

Use the Bottom Paint Compatibility Chart above to decide if the paint you plan to use is compatible
with what‘s on your boat now. If old paint must be removed because it‘s incompatible or too
deteriorated to overcoat, be sure to have our West Marine Bottom Paint Stripper System or other
material on hand.

The care and effort you put into preparing the surface for each succeeding coat will directly impact
how well and for how long the paint you apply keeps your hull free of marine fouling. Using the right
materials, —plenty of solvent-wash products, clean cotton rags and 80-grit sandpaper—will help
guarantee success.

We stock a vast array of bottom paints that discourage underwater plant and animal growth. They all
contain biocides, chemical agents that kill or repel unwanted underwater life. Most contain copper
compounds combined with other substances to give particular characteristics. Research continues as
paint makers try to develop more effective antifouling products that don‘t have a negative effect on the
marine ecosystem. Tin was once thought to be the ultimate marine biocide. However, it was too
good—it killed everything in sight. Today it can only legally be used on underwater aluminum where
copper would cause negative galvanic action.

The challenge is that there are as many bottom paint types as there are ways to build and use boats.
And that's a lot! The good news is that if you define exactly how you intend to use your boat, the right
paint is probably readily available from us. Your boat's hull may be fiberglass, wood, steel or
aluminum. Moreover, you may plan to use it in salt, fresh, or brackish water—or all three. There may
be special challenges in your boating area, like zebra mussels or algae. Nevertheless, the right product
for your needs has probably already been formulated—like Interlux's new Micron Extra, specially
developed to resist slime caused by algae—and we can help you determine which one to buy. If you‘re
a racer, speed is most important to you, whereas a cruising sailor or workboat captain may opt for a
more durable bottom coating. Where your boat is stored; whether in a slip, at a mooring or on a trailer,
will also influence your bottom paint choice.

Applying Paint

• Use solvent de-waxer to dissolve mold release wax on new fiberglass hulls. Follow
suggestions about solvents, and the generous use of clean rags, in the West Advisor on
Topside Painting.

• Think safety. Be sure the boat is securely blocked in position before you start work beneath it.
Wear protective clothing, respirator and eye protection.

• Wash the boat’s hull with a solution of one-pint ammonia, a squirt of dishwashing detergent
and a gallon of warm water. Scrub with a brush or ScotchBrite pad. Rinse thoroughly with
water.

• Antifouling paint is best applied with a roller. Spraying is not recommended for do-it-
yourselfers as it involves serious toxic hazards.

• Paint maker‘s instructions give single-coat square foot coverage and recommend the number
of coats needed for optimum protection. Generally, you should lightly sand between coats
with 80-grit sandpaper.

• With ablative paints, if you use a different color for the base coat, you'll know it‘s time to
recoat when it begins to show through.

• Avoid the tendency to try to economize on paint either by thinning it excessively or by

spreading it too thin. Ablative paints in particular must be thickly applied. Apply extra coats in
areas of turbulence such as the bow, rudder and leading edge of the keel.

• The cuprous oxide toxicant in most bottom paints is a high-density pigment that settles
rapidly. Be sure to stir the paint thoroughly before and occasionally during application. Save a
small quantity to touch up areas on the hull where it was supported.

• Finally, have a small can of special Transducer Antifouling Paint to touch up any underwater
transducers.
Bottom Painting Tips
Maintenance

• Wear protective clothing, especially eye and hand protection. Be sure to wash off sanding residue or solvents
immediately after the job is completed.

• Wash the boat's hull with a solution of one pint ammonia, a squirt of dish washing soap and a
gallon of warm water. Scrub with a brush or a ScotchBrite pad. Rinse thoroughly with water.

• Use a de-waxer to dissolve mold-release wax on new fiberglass hulls. Don't economize on the
number of rags you use-you'll just smear the wax, rather than remove it, if you reuse the rag
too much. Use plenty of solvent to get the bottom really clean. These de-waxers work better
than acetone or other organic solvent, because they do not evaporate as fast, and they hold the
wax in suspension better.

• To provide a built-in renewal indicator for ablative paints, try painting the first coat in one
color, with subsequent coats in a contrasting color. When the first coat begins to show
through, you'll know it's time to recoat.

• Because of the high cost of antifouling paints, there is a tendency to stretch the paint to
achieve more coverage. This may result in premature failure due to inadequate film thickness.
Antifouling paints are made to be applied as they are received in the can. Use thinner
sparingly.

• The easiest method of applying antifouling paint is by roller.

• Ablative paints depend upon a thick film to achieve a long service life. In areas of high
turbulence such as the bow, rudder, and leading edge of the keel, extra coats are
recommended.

• The cuprous oxide toxicant in most bottom paints is a high-density pigment that settles fairly
rapidly. Be sure to mix the paint thoroughly before, and occasionally during, use.

• Improperly grounded electrical systems aboard your boat may neutralize the effectiveness of
an antifouling coating. Make sure all electrical work has been done properly and checked out
thoroughly.

• If antifouling paints are sprayed, protective clothing and appropriate respirators must be worn.
Spray painting is not recommended for do-it-yourselfers.
Bottom Paint Compatibility Chart
Maintenance

NEW MODIFIED VINYL SLOUGHING TEFLON TRI-LUX

ABLATIVES
PAINT EPOXIES PAINTS PAINTS PAINTS II

MODIFIED Sand Sand Sand Well Heavy Sand Sand Well Sand
EPOXY & Apply & Apply & Apply & Apply & Apply & Apply
ABLATIVE Sand Lightly Sand Sand Well Sand Well
Remove Remove
PAINT & Apply & Apply & Apply & Apply
VINYL Sand Well
Remove Remove Remove Remove Remove
PAINT & Apply
Heavy
SLOUGHING Sand Sand Sand Well Sand Sand Well
Sand
PAINT & Apply & Apply & Apply & Apply & Apply
& Apply
Heavy
TEFLON Heavy Sand Sand Well
Remove Remove Remove Sand
PAINT & Apply & Apply
& Apply
Heavy
Sand Sand Sand Well
TRI-LUX II Remove Remove Sand
or Remove & Apply & Apply
& Apply
Primers & Undercoats
Maintenance

Primers and undercoats are a very important part of a complete painting system. Proper use of these
products is often the difference between a successful paint application and a poor result.

Primers are very specific in their use; they are used as either buildup coatings or conditioners to prepare
the surface for the application and adhesion of finish coatings on specific types of substrate. For
example, steel primers are used on bare steel prior to the application of other paint products. They are
formulated to prevent rust bleed and stop corrosion. Special pigments and resins are used, so that steel
primers will possess these attributes.

Aluminum primers, on the other hand, form a barrier coat on the aluminum metal, but need not be as
specific regarding anticorrosive pigmentation. Because of the good corrosion resistance of marine
aluminum alloy, protection against aluminum corrosion is not as important a consideration as it is for
steel. Aluminum metal primers, particularly above water, are used to fair and smooth the surface so the
aluminum hull can be brought into proper conformation. Beneath the waterline, whether it be an
aluminum or steel metal primer, film thickness must be adequate to achieve a satisfactory result.

No-sand primers provide a good bond on difficult substrates. With these products no sanding is
required prior to the application of the next coat of paint. In many paint systems, these primers are
recommended for use as a tie coat between an epoxy coating and antifouling paints.

Certain types of metal primers are designed to etch the surface of the metal in order to provide some
"tooth" to which paints can adhere.

Most undercoating products are specific to the type of coating which is to be applied over them.
Enamel undercoats for example have enough body to fill small surface imperfections and provide a
uniform color background for a smooth, even finish coat.

Sanding surfacers are designed to fill small, superficial blemishes in the form of scratches, crazing,
grain and spider webbing. Their function as a filler requires that they be sanded almost completely
from the surface, though they should not be sanded through. Leaving a thick residue of this type of
product under the overcoating enamel can lead to blistering and/or detachment of the overcoating
enamel.

The critical thing to understand about primers is that they are designed and formulated by each
manufacturer to work as part of a complete system. If they are not used properly, very expensive paint
systems can fail. They must never be eliminated from an application system because they seem to play
only a minor part.
Topside Painting Tips
Maintenance

Choose the Right Paint

There are several categories of topside paint, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages.
This is how they stack up.

• One-Part Polyurethane: Similar to two-part polyurethanes, but not quite

as hard or durable. Ideal for do-it-yourself painting of topsides, as
professional-looking results can be achieved by brushing or rolling.
Although formulated for the amateur, many professional painters prefer
them to all other enamels.
• Alkyd Enamels: Traditional oil-based paints. Easiest for the amateur to
apply using a brush. More compatible with underlying surfaces than
polyurethanes. Most economical, and least fussy in terms of how they are
applied. Lower gloss and color retention than polyurethanes.
• Two-Part Polyurethane: The hardest, highest-gloss, most durable paint.
Many can be brushed, rolled, or sprayed, while others must be sprayed. Best results are
usually achieved if sprayed. Generally more toxic than one-part paints, especially when
sprayed. Some two-part polyurethanes lift oil-based paints; check label or manufacturer's
guide for more information on compatibility.

Application Tips

Preparation

• Paint when conditions are in your favor. Do not paint when its windy, wet, late afternoon,
foggy, snowing, etc. Waiting one additional day may save you from having to re-do a bad
paint job.

• Different weather conditions require that you modify the topside paint you're using with
thinners and reducers. Changing the paint's properties in this way is one of the factors that
separates the amateur painter from the professional. The same paint will exhibit different
drying characteristics when mixed with certain thinners.

• Put on protective clothing, especially eye and hand protection, because you'll be subjected to
toxins and strong chemicals. Be sure to provide adequate ventilation, and keep all products
away from sparks and open flames. Wash off sanding residue or solvents immediately after
the job is completed.

• Read the instructions on the can and follow them. Sounds simple, but sometimes you can learn
the tips that make the difference.

• Good brushes are like good shoes and shirts; they may cost more, but they are a pleasure to
own, last longer, and work better than the cheapies. Use less expensive brushes for projects
with resins and other solutions that are too hard to clean, and where the final
finish does not matter.

• Use Fine Line tape to ensure sharp, clean divisions between colors. Although
more expensive, its thin profile, sharp edges, and better adhesives will do a
much better job than other tapes.

• Stir, do not shake, enamels. Bottom paint needs shaking due to the
propensity of the contents to settle, but shaking topsides paint causes bubbles
that hinder the application process and cause blemishes in the dried finish.
 • Clean the surface with a tack rag to remove the last vestiges of dust and residue immediately
prior to painting. If you use a solvent wash, allow it to evaporate completely before over-
coating.

Painting

• Try to apply paint in one direction without interruption. Paint should

be spread evenly and as quickly as possible to a uniform film
thickness.

• When you notice a dry spot, resist the temptation to go back over it.
Wait for the next coat to cover it completely.

• Several thin coats are better than a few thick coats. However, a film
thickness which is too thin is also undesirable, because the paint may
exhibit uneven gloss or show brush marks.

• Paint hides underlying color, but not texture. The use of sanding surfacers, putties, sealers, and
sandpaper will have as much to do with your final result as how many coats and what type of
paint you use.

• Always observe appropriate dry times between coats.

• All surfaces should be sanded between coats, and especially prior to applying the finish coat.
Sanding smooths the surface, fills small blemishes, and sets up the surface for proper adhesion
of the next coat.
• When sanding, do not apply too much pressure, or use a high RPM sander, as it may glaze the
surface. Frictional heat will soften the paint and "load up" the sandpaper prematurely.

• If spraying is the desired application method, please refer to the manufacturer's instructions. A
top-quality spray finish requires proper materials, an experienced applicator, and professional
equipment. Most spraying is done by maintenance yards and experienced professionals, and
not by typical recreational boaters.

Clean-Up

• Put a layer of plastic wrap over the surface of the paint remaining in a partially-filled can. This
will prevent a skin of paint from forming on the surface, and will allow the paint to be re-used.

• Clean brushes in used paint thinner that has been left undisturbed in a can. Thinner lets paint
solids drop to the bottom of the can, and is reusable many times. Use clean thinner for the
final rinse.

Personal Protection

Many solvents, paints, paint removers and sanding residues are carcinogenic. You should wear
protective clothing to prevent contact with them, and be especially careful to always use a respirator,
gloves, and eye protection. It wasn't very long ago that people who used fiberglass and paint would
wash their hands in acetone and paint thinner-we now know that contact with organic solvents should
be avoided whenever possible.
Get the Right Amount of Paint
Maintenance

Size and Type Bottom Topside Topside

Waterline Deck Interior
of Boat Paint Polyurethane Enamel
Note: The following recommendations are for two coats of paint. All the values are approximate.
10' Dinghy 1 qt. 1 qt.
14' Outboard 1-2 qt. 1 qt. 1 qt. 1 qt.
18' Runabout 2 qt. 1 qt. 2 qt. 1 pt. 1 qt.
20' Sailboat 3 qt. 2 qt. 2 qt. 1 pt. 1 gal.
24' Runabout 3-4 qt. 2 qt. 2 qt. 1 pt. 1 qt.
30' Sailboat 1.5 gal. 3 qt. 1 gal. 1 pt. 2 qt. 2 qt.
1.5-2
32' Cruiser 3 qt. 1 gal. 1 pt. 2 qt. 2 qt.
gal.
36' Auxiliary 2 gal. 5 qt. 2 gal. 1 pt. 1 gal. 3 qt.
40' Cruiser 2.5 gal. 6 qt. 2.5 gal. 2 pt. 1.5 gal 1 gal.
3-3.5
45' Sailboat 8 qt. 3 gal. 3 pt. 2 gal. 1+ gal.
gal.
50' Sportfisher 4+ gal. 8 qt. 3 gal. 4 pt. 2.5 gal 1+gal.

Another way to determine bottom paint quantity is to estimate the approximate surface area of the hull
below the waterline, using the following formula:ss

Length x Beam x .75 = Approximate Underwater Surface Area in Sq. Ft.

Each paint has a "theoretical coverage" area, but most paints require at least two coats, so you can
expect actual coverage to be no greater than half of the theoretical value.
Blisters and Barrier Coats
Maintenance

When fiberglass boats were first built, no one thought about the possibility of gelcoat blisters. Gelcoat
was believed to be an impermeable layer that would keep the underlying resin and fibers dry forever.

However, as we now know, blisters mysteriously appear on some boats and, just as mysteriously, not
on others—sometimes quickly and sometimes after years of use. Warm water seems to encourage them
and the exact choice of resin may help deter them, but the fact is—even today—we don’t completely
understood why blistering occurs.

To understand how to avoid and to deal with them, let’s quickly review how the typical fiberglass boat
is constructed. First, the mold release wax is sprayed onto the inside of the (usually) female mold, and
then the layers of gelcoat are sprayed on. Gelcoat is a pigmented resin that gives the boat its natural
color and smooth exterior finish. Inside the gelcoat are layers of fiberglass, usually in the form of
chopped-strand mat and woven roving, saturated with polyester resin. It is inside this fiberglass matrix
that the blister mischief begins when water seeps through the gelcoat.

Tiny amounts of water get inside the fiberglass and begin to dissolve the minerals and chemicals found
there. This solution then attracts additional water through the gelcoat barrier using the process of
osmosis. As more water enters, the pressure increases and finally, a blister is formed.

Barrier Coats: Once manufacturers figured out that blisters resulted from water penetrating the gelcoat
membrane, it didn’t take long to figure out what to do about it. The barrier coat—usually epoxy or
similar material that seals out the moisture—was born. However, figuring out exactly where, when and
how to apply it is the hard part and leads to some hard decisions.

Unfortunately, it’s virtually impossible to determine which boats need treatment to avoid blisters, so
each must be considered as a potential problem.

New boats with gelcoat intact need only a careful surface wipe-down with solvent dewaxer, a thorough
sanding and the application of the recommended thickness of barrier coat, followed by antifouling paint
appropriate to the area’s waters. (Note: Some new boats may be delivered ready for antifouling paint
application.) We offer barrier coat products from each of our major paint manufacturers. A review of
their manuals will tell you how seriously they take this problem. They give drying times, literally by
the hour, for the range of temperatures over which the coating may be applied, along with precise
recommendations as to the number of coats that will give the necessary film thickness after it dries.

Older Boats: It’s a tougher call with older boats, where gelcoat is in suspect condition and blisters are
beginning to form. We must remember that the function of a barrier coat is to prevent the passage of
moisture. If water is already in the laminate, adding barrier coat prematurely will just seal the water in.
One school of thought prescribes stripping the gelcoat entirely, testing the laminate with a moisture
meter and letting the boat sit on the hard for as many months as it takes for the meter to read the same
both above and below the waterline.

Blister Repair: More often, the gelcoat is in reasonably good shape, but a few blisters are in evidence
and are large enough to demand attention. In these cases, blister repair by the owner is practical. Haul
the boat and scuff-sand lightly over the blistered areas. This marks the blisters for later attention so
they can still be seen if they flatten out. Then open the blisters, scrape or grind away the damaged
material and allow time for thorough drying. This could require many days, or even weeks.

Deciding on the right material and technique for repairing the surface is next. Each manufacturer offers
a selection of products to be used in sequence to seal the laminate, fill the void that has been made by
grinding out the damaged material and fairing the surface in preparation for the final gelcoat repair.

Seeking local advice; especially from someone experienced with your particular make of boat; can be
helpful. We offer a number of books on blisters and blister repair. Books like the Fiberglass Boat
Repair Manual, by marine surveyor Allen H. Vaitses, and This Old Boat, in which Don Casey
describes a specific restoration, are both good resources. We also recommend two introductory
publications from Gougeon Brothers' series of WEST SYSTEMS books: Fiberglass Boat Repair and
Maintenance (Model Number 318485), and Gelcoat Blisters: Diagnosis, Repair, and Prevention
(Model Number 384420). They are inexpensive and full of information. Up-to-date information based
on current experience can be found in many boating magazines. Analyzing and following procedures
outlined in these publications should help you find a solution to your particular blister problem.

Fiberglass Blister Repair Guide

Steps: Prep Seal Coat Waterproof Water Barrier Bottom
Filler Coating Paint
Products Available by Manufacturer
West Marine West Marine West Marine SeaFit Epoxy West Marine Bottom
Thinner/Dewaxer BottomPoxy & Filler BottomPoxy Paint
(3-4)* of Choice
Interlux 202 InterProtect Interlux 2000/2001 or
Solvent Wash 1000/1001 #417/#418 3000/3001 (3-
5)*
VC Tar V125
(5-7)*
Pettit 15095 4777/4778 7020/7025 4777/4778
Fiberglass Epoxy Primer Fairing Epoxy Primer
Dewaxer Compound (3-5)*
West System Thinner/Dewaxer 105 / 205 105 / 205 + 105 / 205 +
Resin/Hardener 410 422
Microlight Barrier Coat
(5-7)*
Quantities Needed:
20' boat 1 Qt. 3 Qt. kits – 6 Qt. kits 3 Qt.
30' boat 2 Qt. 6 Qt. kits – 3 Gal. kits 1.5 Gal.
40' boat 3 Qt. 3 Gal. kits – 6 Gal. kits 2.5 Gal.

* Approximate number of coats to equal 10-mil thickness

Gelcoat Repairs
Maintenance

The next time you're cleaning and waxing your boat, take the time to look for small cracks, scratches
and chips in its gelcoat. If your boat is more than a few years old, you'll probably be surprised at the
number you find.

The Diagnosis

The sources of most scratches and chips in gelcoat are not cause for concern, but if you find a series of
cracks, take a minute to inspect the area more closely. If the cracks radiate from the base of a piece of
load-bearing equipment like a cleat or stanchion, there is probably a problem with the installation that
deserves attention before repairing the gelcoat. Solving it might be as simple as shifting a load from
undersized equipment, or installing a larger backing plate to spread the load over a wider area. If cracks
appear at important joints or intersections in the cabin or deck, however, they might be the sign of an
underlying structural weakness that needs to be examined.

The Repair

Before you begin, wash the area with soap and water and rinse it thoroughly. If the surface is oxidized,
restore it with a rubbing compound so you'll be able to match its color accurately. Once the surface is
clean and dry, mark off the repair area with masking tape.

Next, small, narrow cracks (and scratches that are too deep to remove with rubbing compound) should
be gouged out until they are wide enough to fill with gelcoat paste. A miniature grinding tool like a
Dremel is ideal, but the sharp point of a can opener can work, too. The damaged area should then be
lightly sanded with 220-grit sandpaper. When you're finished sanding, thoroughly clean the area with
acetone to remove the sanding residue and any waxes or other contaminants that might interfere with
the bond between the damaged surface and gelcoat (make sure to provide adequate ventilation and
proper protection for your skin and eyes whenever you work with acetone).

The next step is to match the color of your existing gelcoat. Start with a white or neutral gelcoat paste
(not resin) and begin adding tiny amounts of coloring agent. Mix several test batches of gelcoat and
pigment, add hardener and allow to them cure (gelcoat changes color during the curing process). Once
you've found an acceptable match (an exact one is nearly impossible), mix a final batch using the same
ratio.

Next, using a putty knife, fill the areas to be repaired with the paste you've mixed. Make sure to force
out any air holes and be sure to overfill, as gelcoat has a tendency to shrink as it cures. When you're
finished filling, you'll need to seal the repair off from the air with a PVA curing agent or a piece of
Saran Wrap or wax paper-gelcoat does not cure properly when exposed to air.

Once the gelcoat has fully cured, sand the repair smooth (wet sanding works particularly well with
gelcoat). You can start with 220-grit sandpaper and, for a really slick surface, finish with at least 400-
or 600-grit. Finally, apply a coat of high-quality marine polish and your repair is complete.
Epoxy Products
Maintenance

What they do

Epoxy resin, used in conjunction with its companion fillers, fabrics and tools, is one of the most
versatile materials available for boat repair and construction. The key to the broad acceptance of
epoxy-based materials, by professionals and amateurs alike, is the fact that they can comprise a
complete system. Whether you want to repair gelcoat cracks or a delaminating deck, install a bulkhead
or even cold-mold a brand-new hull, you can create an epoxy mixture with the precise characteristics
you need.

In addition to their versatility, these materials are designed to be easy to work with in terms of mixing
the proper ratios of resin to hardeners, fillers and additives. The completeness of the offering is
apparent when you realize that we can supply everything from mixing sticks and pots to reinforcing
fibers and cleanup products.

How they work

The heart of working with epoxy is the basic epoxy resin. This clear amber liquid resin can be made to
cure to a high-strength plastic solid at room temperatures by mixing specific proportions of resin to the
correct choice of hardener. By using a simple “cookbook“ approach, you can tailor both the handling
characteristics and the physical properties of the cured resin to suit both your working conditions and
the specific coating.

Mixing the Epoxy

Unlike many epoxy systems, in which you vary the amount of hardener depending on ambient
temperature or desired cure time, our epoxy system is designed to be mixed to a specific ratio of
hardener to resin. To achieve the proper ratio for each type of hardener, we offer pumps calibrated to
deliver the proper mixture. When using these pumps (highly recommended), remember that the proper
mixture is achieved when you mix one full pump of resin with one full pump of hardener.

Epoxies, resin, hardeners and pumps are packaged in “group sizes.“ For each container size of resin,
there is a corresponding container size of hardener.

Modifying the Epoxy

The basic resin/hardener mixture can be modified to suit a particular application by the addition of
specific fillers or additives.

Fillers are designed to thicken the epoxy mixture and are broadly grouped into two categories: High
Density and Low Density.

High Density fillers are used to modify the structural properties of the epoxy by adding strength, bulk
or both. High-density filler mixtures cure to a strong, hard-to-sand plastic that is useful in structural
applications like bonding, filleting and laminating.

Low Density fillers cure to a light, easily sanded material, which is often used for cosmetic or surface
applications such as shaping or fairing.

With some of the resins, additives can alter the physical properties when the epoxy mixture is used in
coating applications. For instance, a barrier coat additive might improve the effectiveness of the basic
epoxy/hardener mixture at resisting moisture penetration. Unlike fillers, additives are not designed to
thicken the epoxy mixture.
Reinforcing materials are not mixed with the epoxy like Fillers and Additives, but are often used in
conjunction with the epoxy mixture to provide additional physical properties.

Safety

There‘s no getting around the fact that epoxy mixtures are not
healthy. While the resin itself rarely causes skin sensitization, the
hardeners can and do. Follow the handling procedures below with
any epoxy products.

Avoid skin contact by wearing rubber gloves whenever you

handle epoxy-related materials. Barrier skin creams provide
additional protection. Use a waterless hand cream to clean
uncured epoxy from skin. Never use solvents to remove epoxy
from your skin.

Protect your eyes from exposure by wearing safety goggles.

Avoid breathing vapors. Use epoxy only in areas with good

ventilation. When ventilation is restricted, use an approved respirator with an organic vapor
cartridge. Wear a dust mask any time you sand epoxy. If it has
cured less than a week, use a respirator with an organic vapor
cartridge in combination with a dust prefilter.

If you feel light-headed, tired, nauseous, "high" or irritable while

using solvents, move immediately into fresh air.

Dispose of resin, hardener and empty containers safely. Do not

dispose of resin or hardeners in a liquid state. Follow your local
regulations to dispose of wastes properly.

You will find on our website, and in our catalog, an abundant

selection of books, manuals and videos on the uses of epoxy
resins, from the most basic to the most complex.
Sealants
Maintenance

What They Do

The three primary functions of sealants are: 1) to form a watertight and airtight seal between two or
more surfaces; 2) to join two or more surfaces (often used in conjunction with mechanical fasteners;
and/or 3) to isolate one surface from another (to prevent electrolysis, noise, etc.)

How They Work

Sealant compounds cure to a tough, flexible, rubbery consistency. They adhere to surfaces to prevent
water or air from penetrating. Unlike epoxies or glues, sealants remain permanently flexible so they can
withstand some movement of the surfaces to which they are bonded without losing adhesion.

How They Differ

• Polysulfides-Perhaps the most versatile sealants available. Two-part polysulfides have long
been popular as caulking material for teak decks. One-part polysulfides are easier to use and
just as durable, but slower to cure. Both bond well to most surfaces. Oily woods (such as teak)
should be primed before using polysulfides. Not for use on plastic, as they will melt it.

• Polyurethanes-Recommended for permanent bonding because of its enormous adhesive

strength. Good for hull/deck joints and bonding thru-hull fittings. Incompatible with ABS and
Lexan.

• Silicone-Very elastic and highly chemical resistant. Excellent insulation barrier between
dissimilar metals. Not as strong in adhesive strength as polysulfide or polyurethane.
Compatible with plastics.
Sealant Selection Chart
Maintenance

VG = Very Good, G = Good, NR = Not Recommended West Marine

3M BoatLife Sika
Multi Life Life
Applications Silicone 101 Teak 4200FC 5200 5200 FC Silicone Silicone 240 291
Caulk Calk Seal
Wood to:
Metal (Deck/Hull
VG G VG VG VG VG VG G VG G G VG VG
Hardware)
Wood (Wood Trim) VG G G VG VG VG VG G VG G G VG VG
Deck Seams (Teak,
VG NR NR VG NR NR NR G VG NR NR NR NR
Other Woods)

Underwater Wooden
VG NR NR VG VG VG VG NR VG NR NR NR NR
Hull Seams

Thru-Hull Fittings
VG G VG VG VG VG VG NR VG G G VG VG
(Wooden Boat)
Glass VG G G NR NR NR NR G VG G G G G
ABS & Lexan Plastic NR G NR NR NR NR NR G NR VG G NR NR
Plastic Hardware NR G VG VG VG G G G NR VG G NR NR
Rubrails VG G VG VG VG G G G VG G G G G
Fiberglass to:
Metal (Deck/Hull
VG G VG VG VG VG VG G VG VG G VG VG
Hardware)
Fiberglass G G VG VG VG VG VG G G VG G VG VG
Thru-Hull Fittings
VG G G VG VG VG VG NR VG VG G G G
(Fiberglass Boat)
Glass VG G G NR NR NR NR G VG VG G VG VG
ABS & Lexan Plastic NR G NR NR NR NR NR G NR VG G NR NR
Plastic Hardware NR G VG VG VG G G G NR VG G NR NR
Rubrails VG G VG VG VG G G G VG VG G VG VG
Glass to:
Metal (Windshields) VG G G NR NR NR NR G VG VG G VG VG
Vinyl NR G NR NR NR NR NR NR NR VG G NR NR
Other:
Deck to Hull Joints VG G NR VG VG VG VG NR VG VG G VG VG
Electrical Insulation G VG NR VG VG NR NR NR G VG VG VG VG
Attributes
Sandable (Y=Yes,
Y N Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y
N=No)
Paintable (Y=Yes,
Y N Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N Y Y
N=No)
Chemical Resistant
Y Y Y Y N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y
(Y=Yes, N=No)
Gluing/Adhesion G G NR G G VG VG G G G G VG VG
Cure Rate (F=Fast,
F F S F F S F F S F F F F
S=Slow)
Life Expectancy In
20 20 20 10 20 20 20 5 20 20 20 20 20
Years
Wood Finishes
Maintenance

Varnish and various wood oils have been the traditional transparent wood finishes for boats for
hundreds of years. The lack of pigment allows the beauty of the wood grain to show through, while
protecting the wood from the ravages of sunlight, saltwater, dirt, and abrasion. The finish which results
from careful application can vary from practically invisible protection for interior and exterior wood, to
a fine-furniture glossy coat in which you can see your reflection.

In addition to wood oils and varnish, there is a new category of wood finishes which are gaining
popularity in the marine market. To say "gaining popularity" is a massive understatement; all you have
to do is ask about Sikkens Cetol or similar products on an Internet news group, and you'll have 50
responses from around the globe debating its properties, comparing it to other finishes, and explaining
EXACTLY how to apply it.

Assuming you want to protect and beautify your boat's exterior wood, how do you select among the
incredible (dare we say baffling?) variety of finishes? Knowing full well that this is as big a minefield
as debating the benefits of power vs. sail, we none the less courageously offer the following
observations:

Wood Oils

Oils generally maintain the original look of the wood more so than the other finishes. This is because
they penetrate deeply into the wood fibers, and do not create as much of a surface coating. Oils are
available in colors ranging from water clear to gold to dark brown. As with any wood finish, multiple
coats generally result in a more uniform finish and greater longevity.

We find oil to be the easiest to apply, since surface blemishes are not as apparent in the final outcome.
This does not mean, however, that slapping four coats of oil on dirty teak will produce a Bristol finish,
and you'll also find that the thin consistency of oil makes masking practically as important as with
varnish to protect surrounding gel coat and painted surfaces. Clean, sanded teak with several coats of
oil can provide 3-6 months of beauty and protection.

Varnish

Varnish is a complicated finish consisting of oil, solvents and thinners, resins, dryers, and additives. By
varying the proportions of the ingredients, and by adding UV inhibitors and other secret ingredients,
varnishes end up with widely varying characteristics. Varnish can have gloss or matte appearance, can
be formulated to be extremely hard for walked-on surfaces, can be water-based for low VOCs, and can
vary in their color. Newer oil-based varnishes are truly better, with improved durability in the worst
environments: hot, tropical sunlight. And yet, in our opinion, nothing looks better or takes more
continual maintenance, than exterior wood finished with gloss varnish.

Synthetic Wood Finishes

These are the (relatively) new kids on the block, with names like Sikkens Cetol, Armada, and West
Marine Wood Pro. They have remarkable durability for exterior use, are relatively easy to apply, and
look relatively good. We say relatively good because these products tend to have a pigmented
appearance, with an orangish brown cast (Cetol), or a sort of chocolaty brown (Armada) which you
either like or possibly don't like. We formulated our Wood Pro with as little pigment as possible, so
that as much of the wood's natural appearance is preserved, but this is an area of personal taste.
Finishes in this category are, like varnish, available in gloss and satin finishes. Ease of application is
similar to teak oil, where you can apply it directly over sanded, clean wood. Masking surrounding areas
is highly recommended.
Sacrificial Anodes and Galvanic Corrosion
Maintenance

When your boat‘s hull is submerged in water—salt or fresh—there is danger that various metal
components will be dissolved by galvanic corrosion. This results from an electro/chemical reaction that
occurs when different metals are touching one another, or are electrically joined together by a
conductor, with both immersed in an electrically conductive fluid (electrolyte) such as the saltwater
surrounding the boat, bilge water, or the seawater in an engine cooling system. The net effect is the
dissolution of one metal (known as the active metal, or the anode) while the other is unharmed (known
as the noble metal or cathode.)

Galvanic corrosion can be prevented

by breaking the electrical circuit Galvanic Series for Maritime Metals in Seawater
between immersed metals, but (Ranked in relative order from least to most noble)
sometimes this is not possible, and in
• Magnesium and magnesium alloys
any case, on many boats this
• CB75 aluminum anode alloy
connection is necessary in order to
provide adequate lightning grounding, • Zinc
and to ensure safety when plugged into • B605 aluminum anode alloy
shorepower. In this case, protection • Galvanized steel or galvanized wrought iron
against galvanic corrosion can be • Aluminum 3003, 1100, 6061, 356
provided by electrically connecting a • Mild steel
sacrificial anode to the immersed • Cast Iron
metal. This electrical connection is • 13% chromium stainless steel, type 410 (active)
created either by bolting the anode to • 50-50 lead tin solder
the metal - as with a propeller shaft • 18-83% NO stainless steel, type 316 (active)
zinc - or else by wiring the anode to the • Lead
immersed metal. The sacrificial anode • Tin
consists of a less noble metal than any • Manganese bronze
found on the boat, and as such, it takes • Naval brass
the place of the least noble metal in the (60% copper/39% zinc)
galvanic circuit, dissolving in its place. • Nickel (active)
It is important to note that the
• Yellow brass
effectiveness of the anode is dependent
(65% copper/15% zinc)
on a good electrical connection, and is
• Aluminum bronze
directly proportional to its surface
area—as it corrodes away, and its • Red brass
surface area declines, its effectiveness • (85% copper/15% zinc)
diminishes. As a rule, anodes should be • Copper
replaced when half gone. If an anode is • Silicon bronze alloys
allowed to dissolve altogether, the next • Nickel (passive) alloys
least noble piece of metal in the circuit • 18-8 stainless steel type 304
will now start to dissolve. (passive)
• Titanium
Sacrificial anodes can extend the life • Platinum
of your boat’s hull, engine, rudder,
propeller shaft, engine cooling system,
refrigeration condenser and other
components by protecting them from the deterioration caused by galvanic corrosion.

Galvanic corrosion can also occur in a single piece of hardware, particularly alloys, because these
contain more than one metal. Interactions between the differing metals in the alloy will dissolve the
least noble, the most common example of this being the dissolution of zinc from many zinc/copper
alloys (such as brass, and some bronzes) leaving a spongy copper residue with little strength. That‘s
why it‘s so important to use marine-grade fasteners (bronze, monel and 316 stainless steel) in
underwater applications—so they are not destroyed, allowing a hose clamp to fail or your propeller to
fall off. Higher salinity and water temperature increases the likelihood of corrosion.

New Magnesium Anodes for Freshwater

We now carry a limited selection of premium magnesium anodes for use in freshwater only.
Freshwater is much less conductive than saltwater, and magnesium anodes are the best choice because
they’re much more active (less noble) than zinc or aluminum. While great in freshwater, magnesium
anodes should never be used in saltwater or brackish water, where accelerated anode corrosion could
damage expensive engine parts.
Understanding Antifreeze
Maintenance

The freeze-proof ingredient in antifreeze is either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. Ethylene glycol
makes a good antifreeze/coolant, but it's a poison that's deadly to pets and wildlife and makes disposal
problematic. Propylene glycol (PG) is odorless, tasteless, biodegradable, and nontoxic. While it is
slightly more expensive to produce, it offers a combination of safety and effectiveness we feel makes it
a superior choice for marine use.

The three main applications for antifreeze are potable water systems, winterizing non-running
engines, and engine antifreeze-coolants. Potable (drinking) water systems require a non-toxic
antifreeze that has no harsh chemicals. Boats with internal combustion engines need freeze- and
corrosion-protection during winter lay-up, yet they don't need added chemicals to act as a coolant. In
addition to protecting the engine from internal damage at cold temperatures, coolant antifreeze prevents
the breakdown of anti-corrosive additives when heated to running temperatures. These are ideal for all
engine uses during summer or winter. Our Seafit -50 and -100 antifreezes are formulated to provide
safe, effective protection for both non-running engine and onboard water systems.

No matter what type of antifreeze you choose, be sure to follow the manufacturer's dilution ratio
instructions carefully. A simple proviso: when buying antifreeze, you are mostly paying for ethylene or
propylene glycol. Antifreezes can vary from 25% to 95% glycol content. Products that advertise
protection to -50°F may require that you use the product full strength, while other products can be
diluted with water at a 3:1 ratio and provide the same -50°F protection. Shop carefully and remember
that cheapest isn't always the best value!

Many companies are recycling PG-based de-icing fluids from aviation use and packing it as marine
antifreeze. While we support the use of recycled products, we feel that antifreeze (particularly potable
types) should be clean and free of possible contaminants. We recommend you use virgin PG products
whenever possible.
Winterizing Checklist
Maintenance

The following checklist for laying up your boat is adapted from Nigel Calder’s invaluable Boatowner’s
Mechanical and Electrical Manual (Model 420323). For more information, including how to
winterize generators, air conditioning units and sailboat rigging, see Appendix A in his book.

Engine and Gear Train

• Change the engine oil, transmission oil and antifreeze.

• Drain the raw water system, taking particular care to empty all low spots. Remove rubber
pump impellers, lightly grease with petroleum jelly and replace. Leave the pump cover screws
loose so that impellers won’t stick in the pump housings. Run the engine for a few seconds to
drive any remaining water out of the exhaust. Wash salt crystals out of any vented loops.

• Check the primary fuel filter and fuel tank for water and sediment. Keep a diesel tank full to
cut down on condensation.

• Squirt some oil into the inlet manifold and turn the engine over a few times (without starting)
to spread the oil over cylinder walls.

• Grease all grease points.

• Remove the inner wires of all engine control cables from their outer sheaths; clean, inspect,
grease, and replace. Check the sheathing.

• Seal all openings into the engine (e.g., air, inlet, exhaust) and the fuel tank vent. Put a
conspicuous notice somewhere so you remember to unseal everything at the start of next
season.

• Inspect all hoses for signs of softening, cracking and/or bulging.

• If hauling out: Check for propeller blade misalignment and Cutlass bearing wear; tighten any
strut mounting bolts; inspect stainless steel prop shafts for crevice corrosion; remove prop nut
to check under it.

Batteries

• Bring to a full charge. Equalize flooded batteries. Top up. Clean the battery tops. Unless the
batteries are being properly float charged (via a solar panel or battery charger with float
regulation) remove from the boat and store in a cool, dry place. Bring flooded batteries to a
full charge once a month.

Electronics and Electrical Circuits

• Remove electronic equipment to a warm, dry place.

• Clean corrosion off all electrical terminals and connections and protect with petroleum jelly or
a shot of WD-40 or other moisture-dispelling aerosol. Pay attention to all external outlets,
especially the AC shorepower socket.

Toilets

• Drain and/or pump system with 30% to 50% antifreeze. Break loose the discharge hose and
check for calcification. Wash out vented loops.
Freshwater Systems

• Pump out and clean tanks. Drain system and/or pump through a 30% to 50% propylene glycol
antifreeze solution. Use a water heater bypass, if applicable. Inspect pumps (especially vane
and flexible impeller types) for wear. Remove flexible impellers, lightly grease (with a
Teflon-based grease), and reinstall.

Stuffing Boxes

• If hauling out, repack. If wintering in the water, tighten down to stop any drip. Be sure to
loosen before reusing the propeller or the shaft will overheat.

Seacocks

• If hauling out, pull and grease all seacock plugs if possible. Dismantle and grease gate valves.
If wintering in the water, close seacocks (except cockpit drains) and closely inspect cockpit
drain hoses and clamps.

Stoves

• Drain a little fuel from kerosene and/or alcohol tanks and check for water and contaminants.
Close LPG or CNG gas valves at the cylinder. Renew filaments on filament-type igniters at
least every two years.

Steering

• Cable steering: Remove cables from conduits, then clean, inspect, grease, and replace them.
Also, check sheave mountings and clean, inspect, and lubricate cable ends. Rack-and-pinion
steering: Remove top plate and input socket screws; clean, grease and replace. Hydraulic
steering: Top off fluid and check all seals and hoses for leaks and/or damage.
Navigation

Binoculars
Night Scopes
Quality Optics Onboard
Navigation Light Rules
Selecting a Steering Compass
Hand Bearing Compasses
Electronic Chart Displays and Formats
USCG REQUIREMENTS
West Advisor
Binoculars
Navigation

How they work

Binoculars use a combination of lenses and prisms to magnify images. Lenses gather light and focus
the image. Prisms allow binoculars to be more compact by “folding” the light path back on itself.

Binoculars are described by two numbers such as 7 x 50 or 8 x 25. The first number is the
magnification, or power. The second is the diameter of the objective lens in millimeters.

Magnification power describes how much closer objects appear when you look through them. In a 7 x
50 binocular, the image is magnified seven times. Increased magnification reduces the brightness of the
image, so as magnification increases, binoculars require increasingly larger lenses to maintain
brightness.

The lens at the front is the objective lens. The larger its size, the more light it can gather. This is
important in the low light from dusk to dawn. When conditions are bright, larger lenses are not a
particular advantage and add to the weight of the binoculars.
What to look for

Waterproof Construction

Waterproof construction isn’t just important if you drop the binoculars in the water; it can also prevent
fogging. Temperature changes in the chamber may cause water vapor to condense on the interior
lenses, causing them to fog. The best marine binoculars are filled with dry nitrogen or some other
stable gas to prevent this.

Brightness

The relative brightness of a pair of binoculars is a function of the quality of the optics and the ratio of
the objective lens diameter divided by the magnification, squared.

Thus, 7 x 50 binoculars have a relative brightness of about 50, while 8 x 23 binoculars have a relative
brightness of only 8.2. Objects will be visible in far less light with the 7 x 50 models.

Optical Quality

The quality of the lenses, prisms and coatings affects brightness, too. Adding thin layers of minerals to
the glass surfaces reduces internal reflection, and different colors of light can be focused at a consistent
location within the binocular, thus maintaining sharpness and brightness.

Cheap glasses may allow only half the light entering the objective lenses to reach your eyes. Our least
expensive binoculars pass about 75% of the light. Truly exceptional binoculars with multiple lens
coatings pass more than 95% of light to your eyes, making dim images appear brighter.

Quality optics also make the image sharper. Inexpensive glasses may produce images that are fuzzy at
the edges. Superior glasses are sharp from edge to edge and are less fatiguing to the eyes when used for
extended periods.

Magnification

Moving boats are not the ideal platforms for viewing magnified images. The more an image is
magnified, the harder it is to keep in view. Seven power is about the maximum usable magnification
for use on boats under 50'. If you require magnification greater than 7X, consider Image Stabilized (IS)
binoculars.

Prisms

Prisms, used to invert an image, are either Porro or roof prisms. There is some disagreement as to
which is best, but it's generally believed that Porro prisms yield superior optical performance. They
transmit more light, which results in brighter images. However, some roof prisms with phase shift
coating provide excellent performance. Porro prisms come in two basic styles, BK-7 and BAK-4. BK-7
uses boro-silicate glass and BAK-4 uses a denser, finer barium crown glass, which eliminates internal
light scattering and produces sharper images than BK-7 glass. The higher quality is reflected in the
price of the binoculars.

Roof prisms are lighter and more compact, but they are more complex and difficult to manufacture, and
have more precise tolerances, so they are usually more expensive than Porro prisms.

Weight

Heavy binoculars are tiring over long periods. Polycarbonate housings are lightweight, yet rugged.
Eye Relief

Eye relief is the maximum distance from the eyepiece (ocular lens) at which your eye can still discern
the full field of view. If you wear eyeglasses (or sunglasses), this is important.

Focusing

Your eyes each have a different “prescription." Quality binoculars allow you to focus the left and right
lenses separately. Waterproof binoculars have independent eyepiece focus to compensate for the
differences between eyes and for different distances. In center focus binoculars, one eyepiece adjusts to
accommodate the difference between your eyes. A central focus knob then adjusts both sides
simultaneously for distance.

All lens systems have a range of distances over which the image appears in focus, called the depth of
field. Optics with greater magnification have a shallower depth of field. Most people don't have to
change the focus of 6 and 7 power binoculars unless they're looking at objects over a wide range of
distances.

Bearing Compasses

Built-in compasses, which appear on the image you see through the lens, let you take bearings from an
object that would be invisible with a nonmagnified hand-bearing compass.

Reticle

If you know the height of an object (often printed on charts), and you know the angle it subtends (as
measured on the reticle) that's visible through the lens on binoculars so equipped, you can calculate the
distance to it.
Nightscopes
Navigation

How They Work

A night scope is an electronic device that uses a camera-like lens to focus weak available light on a
sensitive plate, called a photocathode. This plate turns the energy from photons into electrons, which
are electronically amplified in energy and quantity as they are pulled through a thin wafer called a
microchannel plate. These electrons then crash into a phosphor screen, where their energy is converted
back into light, which our eyes can see through the eyepiece. This multiplying effect means that weak
light is amplified by 10,000 to 35,000 times.

What to Look For

We offer Gen(eration) I, Gen II, and Gen III scopes. In general, here is our advice on each grade:

Gen I scopes have lower light magnification and we find that their optical clarity is inferior to the Gen
II and Gen III products. Their advantage is a dramatically lower price, allowing buyer to experience
night vision for under $500. Note that we don't carry really cheap units, since we think they are a waste
of your money.

Gen II scopes offer better contrast and light magnification, and generally have much better optics
without the annoying "pincushion" effect in Gen I units. Units from ITT have dried up in recent years,
but there are some very competitive Russian-made products which have very good quality.

Gen III scopes from ITT are the best, hands down. They use a gallium-arsenide microchannel plate
which has excellent sensitivity to the infrared light spectrum, and have the ability to amplify more of
the otherwise "invisible" radiation found in the night sky. This provides greater visual acuity and image
clarity.

Image Intensifier Tube

They also provide better contrast, so man-made objects appear more distinct against natural
surroundings. This creates a sharper image in conditions of extreme darkness.

Operating life is up to four times longer. When your grandchildren inherit your Generation III scope
the image-intensifier tubes will still have many years useful life in them.
Magnification can be helpful, but we find that there is dramatically less need than you'd expect. Having
a broad viewing angle (about 40°) and unity (1X) magnification is very helpful, as are low power
magnification up to about 3X.
Quality Optics Onboard
Navigation

On a recent delivery from Seattle to San Francisco aboard a beautiful Nordhavn 57, we had plenty of
time to compare a wide variety of marine optical devices during the 80-hour voyage. While the
Nordhavn 57 is a stable platform, we were still knocked around by steep northerly seas so we
experienced the motion that makes viewing so challenging on the water. We operated the vessel all
night for three nights, so we also had plenty of low-light viewing conditions.

Binoculars
We had a total of six pair of non-stabilized binoculars on board, ranging from pocket models to full-
sized marine 7 x 50 models. After trying all of them under various conditions, it became obvious that
the best combination of clarity, weight, light gathering ability, etc. were the classic marine 7x50
binoculars with a built-in compass. We had two examples: a 10 year old pair of Fujinon Polaris
binoculars that have served us for over 50,000 miles on ProMotion, our Santa Cruz 40 sloop, and a pair
of center-focus Nikons. We feel that the clarity of the Fujinons is superior, especially at the edge of the
image, where many less expensive binoculars get fuzzy. However, the light weight of the
polycarbonate housing and the convenience of center-focusing made the Nikons an excellent
alternative.

The rest of the group proved either too powerful and therefore impossible to hold (there was a pair of
20 x 50s on board), or were too narrow in their field of view (some birding glasses like 8 x 25), or did
not have enough light gathering ability (8 x 30).

The built-in compasses of the Fujinons and the Nikons were excellent. We set up the radar to read out
in magnetic (as opposed to relative) bearings to targets, and found it extremely easy to pick up the
binoculars and find the target using the bearing compass. We highly recommend the combination.

Stabilized Binoculars
Unfortunately, we didn't have a pair of Canon's Image Stabilizing binoculars aboard, but we did have
the Fujinon Techno-Stabi 14 x 40 glasses. Once you get beyond the peculiar name, you'll find these
binoculars a tremendous aid to navigation. Using small piezo vibration sensors, the Techno-Stabis
compensate for hand and boat motion, resulting in a gentle, dreamlike motion of the viewed image.
This allows 14-power magnification to be used while keeping the target in view. We consistently found
radar targets like boats and buoys at a far greater range that we could with the conventional 7 x 50
models. In addition, we were able to read vessel names and identify buoy designations that were
unreadable using non-stabilized products.
There are three minor negatives associated with these glasses: they are expensive, they have a
relatively narrow field of view due to their high power, and they gobble up batteries in a few days (3
AA alkalines.) If you can put up with those minor issues, we highly recommend them.

Night Vision
Boy, this is a tough one. Being frugal by nature, we'd really like to report that inexpensive night vision
scopes are a great deal, but we simply can't. The problem with both Gen I and Gen II scopes is not that
they don't amplify the available light, but rather that their optical sharpness is so poor. Call us
perfectionists, but we don't think it helps to have a bright green blob in the eyepiece when looking for
an anchorage or another vessel.

Of the non-ITT models, the best was the sleek, black Phantom 150 Gen II model which looked like it
came right out of a SWAT operation. Tiny, with optional lenses for greater magnification, this model
was acceptable.

Then there are the ITT Gen III models. We had two on board: the Night Mariner 160 monocular, and
the Night Mariner 260 binocular. Both provided excellent clarity and sharpness, with extraordinary
light amplification. Of the two, we prefer the binocular style since using both eyes is more comfortable
than squinting with the monocular. Plus, the electric focus and individual eye focus works great.

Since we never entered a harbor or an anchorage at night, of what use were the night vision scopes?
They proved to be excellent at finding nighttime radar targets, which were too dim to be seen with
binoculars. We were able to see navigation lights of boats as far as 10 miles away using them, which
gave us confidence that our radar targets were legitimate. We could also see buoy light characteristics
at a far greater distance than we would have otherwise.

Bottom line: We're not snobs!

You could accuse us of always liking the best, most expensive gear, and in this case, you'd probably be
justified. But we feel that optical gear is too damned important to have to compromise with fuzzy,
blurry images. Not only is it tiring for your precious eyes, but the reason that you have optical gear
aboard is for more than simple pleasure. The ability to pick out small, important targets with the ease,
whether it is another vessel, a person in the water, or a navigation aid, is a critical factor in safe boat
operation. And the strain that comes from substandard optics is very draining on watch standers.

We'd like to suggest two quick tests the next time you're shopping for marine optical gear. These are
non-scientific, but they have served us well:

See how quickly you can get sharp, clear focus on a well-defined object a few hundred yards away.
Some binoculars never seem to be "right on", and require fiddling with the focus. Fujinon, Steiner, and
Tasco models look great with minimal focus adjustments.

Look through the binoculars "sideways" so that you are using the edges of the image to view your
targets. See if the image is sharp not only in the center, but around the perimeter, too.
Navigation Light Rules
Navigation

Recreational boats operating at night are required to display navigation lights between sunset and
sunrise. Recent changes to the Inland Navigation Rules make them nearly identical to the International
Rules, so we will describe the International Rules to simplify the choices.

Basic rules:
Sidelights are red (port) and green (starboard) and shine from dead ahead to 112.5 degrees aft on
either side.

Stern lights are white and shine aft and 67.5 degrees forward on each side. (Thus, the sidelights and
stern light create a full circle of light.)

All-round lights are white and shine through 360 degrees.

Masthead lights are white and shine from 112.5 degrees on the port side through dead ahead to 112.5
degrees on the starboard side. They must be above the sidelights.

Sailboats under power are considered powerboats.

Sidelights may be combined into a single "bicolor" light.

Power vessels under 20 meters in length need to show sidelights, a stern light and a masthead light.
Power vessels less than 12 meters may show a single all-round light in lieu of the separate masthead
and stern lights.

Sailing vessels under 20 meters in length need to show sidelights and a stern light. These may be
combined into a bicolor light and stern light, or a single tricolor light at the top of the mast. Sailing
vessels under 7 meters must have an electric torch or lantern available so that collisions may be
averted.

Oar-driven vessels can show either the sailboat lights, or use the electric torch/lantern option.

When anchored outside of a special anchorage, power and sail vessels under 20 meters need to display
an all-round light. Vessels under 7 meters are exempt, unless anchored in a narrow channel or
anchorage, or where other vessels usually navigate.

Finally, sailboats with sails up during the day, but which are also under power, must fly a black
"steaming cone," with its point downward, where it can be best seen. When under power they must
follow the rules of the road for powerboats.
Selecting a Steering Compass
Navigation

How they work

A magnetic compass consists of a free-spinning compass card that aligns itself with the earth’s
magnetic field. While the earth’s magnetic field is very strong, small magnetic fields close to the
compass may cause it to point away from magnetic north. These sources of deviation must be
compensated for by swinging the compass, and/or creating a deviation table. Swinging the compass is a
process of adjusting small compensating magnets within the compass until heading errors are
minimized.
Electronic compasses measure the relative strength of magnetic fields passing through two coils of
wire. Using sophisticated electronics, these sensors can deduce the direction of the earth’s magnetic
field. They are still affected by local magnetic fields like steel components and speaker magnets, but
they can compensate electronically for those fields that do not change in strength or location.
One advantage of electronic compasses is that their sensors may be mounted remotely in many cases.
This allows you to place the sensor where it will be least affected by moving magnetic fields and the
motion of the boat. Of course, it does increase the complexity of the installation.

Mounting style
Compasses need to fit your boat. There are five basic mounting styles:

• Flush-mount compasses are set into a horizontal surface with half above the surface and half
below.
• Bracket-mount compasses are highly versatile since the bracket can be mounted on surfaces
with different tilt angles. They can also be removed easily for storage and loss prevention.
• Bulkhead-mount compasses are the traditional sailboat compasses since the bulkhead offers a
highly visible location within the cockpit. These compasses must be selected according to the
angle of bulkhead inclination so that the internal gimbals of the compass work as intended.
Small powerboats also use bulkhead compasses that mount in a 2 7/8" hole, much as an engine
instrument would.
• Surface-mount compasses mount on top of a surface and can be easily removed. Mounting is
easy, as no large holes need to be cut.
• Binnacle-mount compasses also mount on a surface or steering pedestal, like those used on
wheel-steered sailboats. Powerboat owners select them when there is no room under the
mounting surface for a flush-mount compass to protrude.

Size
A compass card is referred to by its ”apparent” size, since the dome and fluid inside a compass magnify
the actual card size. Compass-card size largely determines the stability and visibility of the card.
Simply stated, larger compasses have better performance. This is due in part to the increased volume of
the compass bowl and greater amount of compass fluid, which damps the motion of the card. Larger
compass cards can be seen from further away and under worse light, because the numerals, markings,
and lubber lines are larger.

Card type
There are two basic types of traditional compasses: direct reading and flat cards.

Direct reading cards: The heading is read from the side of the card nearest the helmsperson. This is
more logical for some users, as you don’t have to peer into the compass to see the heading. Direct
reading cards do not bisect the compass dome, however, and therefore have more movement in rough
conditions.
Flat cards: The heading is read by looking inside the compass dome, on the forward side of the card.
These compasses generally have lubberlines (heading references located in the direction the boat is
traveling) and additional lines at 45° and 90° to the boat’s heading.
Dual reading cards: Read like both direct and flat cards. These are almost exclusively bulkhead-
mounted sailboat compasses, and can be read more easily from the sides than conventional cards.

Digital displays are how electronic compasses display a heading. They often use cardinal and
intercardinal (i.e., N, NW, W, SW, S, SE, E, NE) descriptions as well. While we live in a ”digital
world“ with digital displays on clocks, computers, and calculators, some boaters feel more comfortable
seeing the location of a heading relative to other points of the compass. Users of electronic navigation
systems should feel right at home with a digital display, since a Loran or GPS displays bearings to
waypoints digitally.

Southern Hemisphere "dip" – We can provide compasses that are "balanced" to compensate for the
downward magnetic force that would otherwise cause the card to "tilt" at locations south of the equator.
These are available through Special Order.
Hand Bearing Compasses
Navigation

What They Do
Hand-bearing compasses enable you to take a magnetic bearing on a distant object. This bearing allows
you to plot lines of position for coastal navigation. You can also check to see if a collision is probable.
Racing sailors can check progress against their competitors by seeing if the bearing to a competitor
changes over time.

How They Work

There are several ways to take a hand-
bearing compass sight. To use an arm's-
length compass, line up the sighting
vanes on the top of the compass with the
desired object, and then glance at the
compass card. However, it is usually
difficult to keep everything lined up on a
moving boat. A better choice is a
handheld compass with an infinity
prism. This type is held up to your
cheek, and you sight across the top of a
small prism. The prism makes the
bearing appear in focus when your eyes
are focused at a long distance, so the
object and the bearing are in focus at the same time. We find this method much easier and more
accurate to use on a moving boat. Taking a reading with a digital compass is like taking a snapshot.
You sight using the unit's aiming system, and then press a button. They store the bearing in electronic
memory for future recall.

Important Features
Size - We really like the models that either are comfortable around your neck, or fit easily in a pocket,
so you can keep them at close hand.

Night Lighting - Like other navigation aids, bearing compasses should have night-lights. Some use
small battery-powered lamps. Others have glow-in-the-dark lighting, which uses small quantities of
photosensitive gas. We like this type best because it is ready at a moment's notice, and never needs
charging or new batteries.

Accuracy - A precisely graduated card and excellent damping are critical for obtaining accurate sights.
On a moving boat, most people can get a bearing accurate to 2-3 degrees using a well damped, infinity
prism compass like the Iris 50. Compasses that are held at arm's-length are probably accurate to about
10 degrees. Like all compasses, they are affected by poor aiming, steel-rimmed glasses, and other
sources of error.
Electronic Chart Displays and Formats
Navigation

What They Do
Electronic chart displays show you a representation of a nautical chart on a navigation display. When
integrated with, or connected to, a GPS receiver, you can see your vessel's position superimposed on
the chart, a trackplot of your progress along a route, and the relationship of your vessel to charted
features.

How They Work

In the last decade there has been tremendous improvement in both position fixing devices like GPS,
and in the ability to store and recall cartographic information (charts). It is now possible to buy a fixed-
mount GPS which can display detailed charts for about $500. Hand-held GPS receivers also have chart
displays, and rival the fixed-mount models in their capabilities. There are great advantages to
integrated GPS/chart plotters:

Boats with limited navigation areas are now able to display charts covering many hundreds of miles of
coastline and dozens of charts, at a variety of scales.

It is much easier to enter a waypoint into a GPS, since it is done by picking the desired point on the
chart visually, without typing in coordinates. Routes are created by simply stringing together
waypoints, or by creating waypoints on the fly.

It becomes easy to understand your boat's position relative to hazards like land masses and shoals, your
intended course, and your destination. The position of your boat as shown on the chart is as current as
the last position fix from the GPS. Instead of spending lots of time plotting your position on a chart and
failing to keep a good watch, you can concentrate on your surroundings from the helm and your radar.

What should I use to display the charts?

There are three popular methods of displaying electronic charts:

Dedicated GPS/Chart Displays

With or without an integral GPS, these products house high-resolution LCD displays in water-tolerant
enclosures. They are designed to be mounted in wet (not drenched) locations. All use some
combination of C-MAP, Navionics, or a proprietary database stored in a bewildering variety of chart
cartridges. We really like this approach, and think that it makes sense. User interfaces have been
refined to the point that these are among the easiest-to-use marine electronics.

Combination Electronic Displays

Most boats don't have room for a dedicated display for every function on board: radar, fishing sonar,
charting, instrument repeaters, etc. Frequently one primary display requires most of your attention,
while other functions are far less important. Garmin, Furuno, Raytheon, Si-Tex, Lowrance, and others
allow you to display two or more functions on a single display. For example, the Garmin GPSMAP 185
Sounder has a GPS, chart plotter, and fishing sonar in one package. Most radars now have add-on chart
readers which let you toggle between a radar image and chart image on the same display. This
technology is available for both CRT and LCD displays.

While this approach saves space, and is less expensive in some cases, we are not big fans of
installations where the chart operation control is remotely mounted from the display. Frequently you
need to look at on-screen information, yet your fingers have to enter data or select functions off to the
side. We prefer to have all data-entry keys right next to the display. We also find that some of the
combination product user interfaces have not kept up with the dedicated products.
Laptop and Desktop Computers

The last five years have seen an explosion in the number of PC software programs that display chart
information using the input from a GPS. Programs from Nobeltec, Nautical Software and Maptech® let
boaters put their PCs to work on board. In general, these programs use raster charts from private
sources or NOAA/Maptech®, and offer the most "chart like" appearance on screen, especially when
used with a PC that has a high-resolution, active-matrix display. Larger boats may use a desktop PC
and a large color display, but this is too power-hungry and takes up too much room on smaller yachts.

While it is tempting to bring a laptop computer on board and to use its large display and extensive data-
entry abilities (the keyboard and mouse) to manipulate data, you must also contend with several
challenges:

Many boats don't have comfortable places to work with a computer which allow it to be protected,
seen, and typed on at the same time.

Laptops are notoriously water sensitive, and can be ruined in one regrettable, wet moment.

Laptop displays are frequently hard to read in varying light conditions, and hard to use at the helm
unless your helm is specifically arranged for them.

Chart Providers
So where do you get all this neat chart data so you can pop it up on your new cartographic display?
There are several possibilities:

Charts on a Chip

Many different chart formats are available on memory cards, which are fast, reasonably waterproof,
and not subject to vibration problems when your boat is pounding toward Bimini. Offshore charts are
provided by Navionics and C-MAP, while inland data can be supplied by Garmin, C-MAP, and
Lowrance. There are many formats: We stock over 10 different cartridge series. Each cartridge holds
between 6 and 80 charts, and new mini format cartridges (C-card from C-MAP, micro G-Chart from
Garmin, and NavChart from Navionics) may hold several hundred charts. Prices range from $100 to
$400 per cartridge.

Since the data is in vector format, it does not look like conventional paper charts, although CMAPNT
charts look darned close when viewed on a color display. In color or monochrome, vector charts tend to
be simpler and look less like familiar paper charts than the other electronic chart format, raster charts.
However, they have some substantial advantages over raster charts:

Very fast screen update rates combined with greatly reduced storage and processor requirements due to
the vector format.

The ability to change from very large to small scales while still being able to read text and identify
icons and other features (fonts are constant size).

Charts are seamlessly integrated so that you don't run to the edge of a chart and have to pull in entirely
new map data.

Chart information is stored in layers so that data may be selectively shown or removed from the image,
and chart attributes can be queried for incremental information.

At least two potential problems exist:

There are at least ten chart formats from several vendors which make it next to impossible for a retailer
to have the right chart for your particular device in stock. Chart data is frequently out of date.

The chart images don't look like conventional NOAA paper charts.
Downloadable Vector Charts from a CD-ROM

This is the newest category, and already Garmin, Magellan, and Lowrance have GPS receivers which
can download map data from a CD. You can select the geographic area, and in many cases, the type of
information of greatest interest to you (points of interest, marine aids to navigation, road networks,
hiking trails) until it fills up the memory in the GPS. Some allow you to download any portion of the
CD, while others are on a "pay per view" basis where you have to pay to unlock each geographic areas.
We see great potential in this storage method.

Raster Charts on CD-ROM

Raster charts are electronic files made by scanning a paper chart. NOAA has teamed up with a private
distributor (Maptech®) to bring their library of 1,000 charts to the public. The charts are stored on CD-
ROMs with high memory storage capacity and tolerance for wet environments. Each CD-ROM stores
up to 50 NOAA charts and inset charts of harbor areas. The chart images, when viewed on a color LCD
or CRT display, look just like the paper source map. In addition, other national Hydrographic Offices
are beginning to use the same raster format, so that the software is compatible with foreign chart
providers.

The current software available for displaying raster charts is dramatically better than that available
even two years ago. It is easy to use, utilizing most of the common software interfaces that make newer
software operate consistently. Chart re-draw speeds are greatly improved, so that zooming and panning
are not chores. And, obviously, computers are dramatically better each year, with more speed, better
displays, and almost universal inclusion of CD-ROMs in all portable models.

Software features are rocketing ahead, as well. Among the more impressive are the new mapping
engines, which make raster charts practically seamless, and make it easier than ever to select the right
chart for a given scale. Another great feature is the integration of tide and current information with the
chart presentations, so you can see where the current will be ebbing or flooding on the next leg of your
voyage.

Regardless of the hardware or charts you select, we feel that you will thoroughly enjoy navigating with
these products, and will get more enjoyment from your boating, too.
USCG REQUIREMENTS
Navigation

Under Power Sidelights, Stern Light, & Masthead1,2

Under Sail Sidelights & Stern Light1,3

Rowing Same as "Under Sail"

All-Round Light (night) or Black Anchor Ball (day) When Outside a Designated
At Anchor
Anchorage4

Visibility 3 nm Masthead, 2nm 5 nm Masthead, 2 nm

1 nm Sidelights, 2 nm All Others
Range All Others All Others

NOTES: Boats under power under 40' can substitute a single all-round light for separate stern and
masthead lights
Boats under 65' can substitute a single bi-color light for sidelights
Sail boats under sail under 40' can substitute a tri-color light for separate sidelights and stern
light.
See our anchor ball Model 203646

Definitions

All-Round Light White (32 pt.)

Masthead Light: White (20 pt.)
Sidelights: Red (10 pt.) & Green (10 pt.)
Stern Light: White (12 pt.)
Plumbing

What To Look For When Choosing a Pump

Centrifugal Bilge Pumps
A Word About Bilge Pump Ratings
Bronze versus Brass Fittings
Selecting Among Different Sanitation Systems
Head & Holding Tank Treaments
When is it OK to discharge?
Pressurized Freshwater Systems
Watermakers
What to look for in Washdown Pumps
Sizing Up Hose
Threads
Thru-Hull Sizes
West Advisor
What To Look For When Choosing a Pump
Plumbing

Self-Priming Capability
Centrifugal pumps are the only non self-priming pumps; they therefore must be installed below the
liquid level to be pumped, or some provision must be made for priming them. Keep in mind that even
pumps capable for self-priming may be unable to do so if the amount of lift required to prime exceeds
the pump's lifting capacity (suction).

Run-Dry Capability
Some pumps, notably impeller and vane types, require fluid to be present in the pump to prevent the
impellers and seals from heating up and failing. Diaphragm, centrifugal, and bellows type pumps are
the best choices when a pump might be run dry.

Flow Capacity
Pumps are generally rated for flow rate in GPM (Gallons Per Minute). Unfortunately, this rating is
usually taken without any restriction to the discharge rate, such as hoses or head (the vertical distance a
pump has to push fluid), and therefore gives only a relative indication of how a pump would perform in
the real world.

Different types of pumps react to flow restrictions in different ways. Impeller and displacement pumps
try to move the same volume continuously. If something restricts the discharge flow, they work harder
and harder until something fails or they are switched off. Centrifugal pumps are not damaged by
increase in discharge pressures, they just respond by moving less and less fluid until they stop.

The ability of a pump to withstand high discharge pressures depends upon the strength of the
components and the capacity of the motor to withstand prolonged running before burning out.

PUMP APPLICATION CHART

Application Flexible Vane Centrifugal Electrical Manual Piston
Impeller Diaphragm Diaphragm
Engine Cooling
Raw Water * *
Fresh *
Water
Refrigeration
Condensers * *
Washdown * *
Bilge
Electric * *
Manual * *
Sink/Shower * *
Discharge
Toilets
Electrical * *
Manual * *
Showers *
Water Systems
Pressurized * *
Manual * *
Fuel/Oil * *
Transfer
*with nitrile
impeller
Centrifugal Bilge Pumps
Plumbing

What they do

Maintenance: Small amounts of water can enter the bilge every day in a variety of ways, including
condensation, leaks in decks, thru-hulls, freshwater hoses and stuffing boxes. If the rate of incoming
water is low and bilge ventilation is good, the water can be removed through evaporation; if not, the
bilge must be pumped dry. Leaving large amounts of water in the bilge can have many undesirable
effects on a boat, including destabilizing it, lifting spilled fuel and distributing it throughout the bilge
(where it can attack, among other things, the insulation on electrical wiring) and promoting the
development of osmotic blisters in fiberglass hulls. Getting this water out of your hull is the primary
role of a centrifugal bilge pump.

Emergencies: If your boat begins to flood, a centrifugal bilge pump (or two or three) can be helpful in
slowing the rate at which water rises, but cannot guarantee that you'll reach safety. Keep in mind that a
1"-diameter hole in the hull, 2' below the waterline will bring water on board at the rate of 1,680
gallons per hour, and a 6"-diameter) hole 2' below the waterline will bring water on board at the
stunning rate of 60,000 gallons per hour. No 12V centrifugal pump can stay ahead of a large, or even
medium-sized hole in your hull. Depending on the size of your boat, however, a good pump might be
able to stay ahead of a small hole or leak, or water from occasional boarding waves. It also might give
you more time to either repair a slightly larger hole or leak, limp back to shore with it, or make
preparations to abandon ship. Do not rely on a single 12V centrifugal bilge pump as your only
emergency bilge pump; install multiple electric pumps, plus at least one high-capacity manual
diaphragm pump.

What to look for

Selecting a pump: Your boat should have the largest bilge pump it can accommodate. Small-boat
owners, in particular, need a large pump for several reasons: 1) they have less internal volume and will
sink sooner than a large boat; 2) they tend to ship more water over the gunwale because they have less
freeboard; 3) they don't have much bilge capacity to hold water away from engines and electrical
systems.

Selecting a switch: Centrifugal bilge pumps don't have an on/off switch. To operate, they need to be
wired to an automatic switch, a panel switch, or both. Automatic switches allow you to leave the pump
in "automatic" mode, ready to dewater the bilge should the water level rise to a predetermined level.
They work well with a three-way panel switch, which allows you to turn the pump on manually, as
well as leave it to operate automatically. Among automatic switches, we prefer magnetic switches, like
our Ultra Pumpswitch, to air-pressure switches or float switches. They have sealed wiring, no arm to be
jammed by floating debris, and cannot spring an air or mercury leak.
Installation tips
Location: Locate the pump in the deepest part of the bilge. A centrifugal bilge pump is not self-
priming and needs to be located below the level of the water it is supposed to pump. Be sure, however,
it is still accessible for servicing and cleaning.

Wiring: Consider wiring your pump directly to the battery instead of through a distribution panel so
you can turn off the panel when you leave the boat without disabling the pump (make sure the bilge
pump is still properly fused). Purchase switches that are rated to handle the amperage of your pump
and use correctly-sized wire so that voltage drop is minimized at the pump and flow rate is maximized.
Consider, too, installing a pump-cycle recorder to let you know how often your pump turns and,
therefore, if the rate of incoming water is increasing.

Plumbing: The inexpensive and common ribbed bilge hose is horrible for pumping efficiency-use
smooth bore hose if possible. Keep hose runs straight and short and double clamp all hose connections
below the waterline. If discharging through the transom would result in a very long hose run, discharge
through the side of the hull instead. Make sure the discharge thru-hull is located above the waterline on
all angles of heel; if that isn't possible, loop the hose well above the waterline and install a vented loop
at the high point to prevent water from being siphoned on board.
A Word About Bilge Pump Ratings
Plumbing

There is a good deal of misinformation in the world of centrifugal bilge pumps, at least between
"advertised" capacity and actual capacity. Boy, was it great to read this:

"Submersible centrifugal bilge pumps dominate the electric bilge pump market, and with good reason.
They are simple, reliable, easy to install, and cheap. The gap between real-world performance and the
nominal output of these pumps, however, is so great that in our opinion it borders on the irresponsible.
Like the warning on packs of cigarettes, every centrifugal bilge pump should have the following
emblazoned on the pump: 'Warning: this pump's nominal capacity is rated at open flow, with no lift and
no discharge hose attached. In actual installations aboard a boat, the pump will never achieve this rate
of flow.'

"The only pumps which have warnings are West Marine's house brand pumps, which give flow rates at
various lifts and various system voltages. This information, permanently attached to the pump, should
be an industry standard. It would reduce the misleading pump capacity claims that plague the electric
bilge pump industry."

(Nick Nicholson, Practical Sailor, October 1, 1997)

Our thanks to Nick Nicholson and Practical Sailor for helping to set the record straight, and for
confirming something we have believed in strongly for years. Due to reductions in flow caused by lift,
hose length, indirect hose runs, and other factors, actual capacity is usually no more than half, and
sometimes as little as one-third the "advertised" rating. Buyer beware! Be sure to consider these
installation factors, and buy the largest capacity pump you can fit in the space.
Bronze versus Brass Fittings
Plumbing

Several letters from boaters to Practical Sailor in 1999 brought to our attention some confusion over the
plumbing fittings in our catalog.

In our 1996 catalog, we labeled our brass pipe nipples as bronze. We

caught the error, and corrected it in subsequent catalogs, but by that time,
it had crept onto our store shelf labels. By the time you read this, the shelf
labels will have been corrected, but the exercise of getting to the bottom
of it has taught all of us a lesson about marine plumbing that we'd like to
share.

The difference between bronze and brass in the world of plumbing

fittings concerns their relative potentials to be subject to galvanic
corrosion. Dissimilar metals in contact can set up an electric current in an
electrically conductive fluid (an electrolyte, such as saltwater). One of the
metals will be “eaten away” or “sacrificed” in the process. Sacrificial
anodes are made of zinc because it is one of the least “noble” (i.e., highly
active) metals and is thus sacrificed to protect your engine, rudder,
propeller shaft, refrigeration condenser, etc. from damage due
to galvanic corrosion. However, with thru-hulls, seacocks, etc.
dissolving fittings are not an option. You want all the fittings to
remain intact.

So, to avoid this potentially hazardous situation, make sure you

are not setting up the conditions for galvanic corrosion by
connecting dissimilar brass fittings to bronze fittings. Generally,
you can tell them apart just by looking at them. Bronze fittings
have an outer surface that is rough in feel and appearance,
almost like it's covered with sand. That's because bronze fittings
are almost always cast, and the casting mold that forms them is
actually made of sand. The only parts of a bronze fitting that are
smooth and precise are the places where threads or mating flanges have been machined, on either a
lathe or a milling machine. A brass fitting, on the other hand, has a smooth exterior and an equally
smooth interior, as it is made by drawing the brass through a die. Look at the bronze and brass fittings
pictured at the right: you can see the difference.

In the marine environment, bronze is best for seacocks, thru-hulls and raw water filter bodies. It is
more noble (less active) than brass. However, we don't sell bronze nipples, because they are not
commercially available. (Nipples, remember, are short, straight, smooth pieces of pipe, threaded at
each end.)

So what should you do?

You should continue with what has always been sound marine practice: use bronze fittings for the
thru-hull mushrooms, seacocks, strainer bodies and valves. If one of the pipes must be turned through
an angle, use a bronze Street Ell, either 90° or 45°. Once the bronze fittings are in place and aligned,
thread a bronze hose barb into each, and join them with sturdy hoses and stainless steel clamps.

Don't confuse bronze hose-to-pipe fittings like those made by Groco and Perko with small brass hose-
to-pipe adapters. Bronze fittings used for seacocks are fine for use in saltwater.

But what if the application absolutely demands other fittings? Try fittings of some other, nonmetal
material such as nylon or marelon, both of which we carry. These galvanically inert materials present
no problems when used in conjunction with any marine metals in underwater applications.
Selecting Among Different Sanitation Systems
Plumbing

The Requirements
The U.S. Coast Guard requires that all boats with installed toilet facilities have some means of treating
and/or storing waste (a.k.a. an MSD, or Marine Sanitation Device) onboard. Only the storage/treatment
device needs to meet Coast Guard approval; system design can be determined by the boat owner.

Federal regulations designate three types of discharge "zones" in U.S. waters. Over three miles
offshore, you can discharge waste directly overboard. Inside the three-mile limit, it is illegal to dump
raw (untreated) sewage. In these areas, boaters may discharge waste only if it has been "sanitized" by
an onboard treatment device. Otherwise, it must be contained onboard and discharged at a pump-out
station (which, in many cases, means it will get a modest amount of treatment and then get pumped
back into the water). Some inland waterways and coastal areas have been designated "zero discharge"
zones, which means that overboard discharge of any kind is illegal. Consult the Coast Guard to find out
the waste discharge rules for the waterways on which you will be operating.

The System Setup Options

There are several ways to deal with waste on board, most of which are minor variations of one another.

The Illegal, Direct Discharge Method

Not an option. It is unattractive, and in most places, illegal. Don't continue to
operate your head without a means to contain or treat waste onboard, and don't
visit foreign cruising areas and pump your poop overboard within 100 yds. of
the beach. This is harmful to swimmers, and those who eat the local fish and
shellfish. The fact that the hundreds of Caribbean charter boats have little, if any,
sewage treatment systems onboard is an embarrassment, especially when scores of boats can fill
relatively small harbors every night. Ugh.

The Portable Head Method

This is a solution for thousands of "weekend" or trailer boats that need a way to hold limited amounts
of waste. They aren't fun to take on shore and dump, but they eliminate the need to install permanent
plumbing and are inexpensive.

The Holding Tank/No Discharge Method

For areas with pump-out facilities, a holding tank connected
between your head's discharge and a through-deck fitting is
inexpensive and meets the requirements of the law. We offer
holding tanks as small as 3 gallons, although we strongly
recommend installing a large tank if possible. The drawback
with this method is that you have no recourse if your tank is
full and you cannot find a pump-out station.

The Holding Tank/Overboard Method

This method has a Y-valve in the discharge line of the head so
that cruisers can pump directly overboard when offshore. This
means that the holding tank does not serve as a "middleman"
in the flow. This method has the disadvantage of possible
accidental discharges, and no way for the boater to empty the
holding tank at sea. In addition, locating the Y- valve
immediately downstream of the head may be illegal in some
areas.
Our Favorite Method
All of the waste is pumped into the holding tank, yet you
have the option of pumping it overboard when legal and
logical to do so. Otherwise, you can enlist a sewage-sucking
sanitation sentinel to whisk away waste. We cannot imagine
getting cited for having a downstream Y-valve like this
system has, but we can't guarantee that you won't run into an
revenue-enhancing Countie Mountie with a thick pad of
tickets. The only drawback to this method is problems caused
by a pump clog where you don't have access to a pump-out
station, since there would be no way to empty the holding tank at sea.

The Most Versatile Method

This setup has slightly more valves than a nuclear reactor, but
it lets you pump sewage directly overboard, into a tank,
through the deck, or all three at the same time. While we
don't like the complexity, it does allow you to do whatever
you want to do with your waste. All valves must be clearly
labeled, or you might end up with a personal onboard
Chernobyl.

The "Treat it and Tell It Good Bye" Treatment Method

Several manufacturers make compact waste treatment systems (Type I or II MSDs) that use heat or
chemicals to break down waste and reduce the bacteria count
below specific levels. The resulting sanitized waste is legal to
dump overboard in most areas. However, even this low bacteria
count, EPA-certified discharge is not allowed in "zero
discharge" areas. We'd recommend a treatment system if your
cruising grounds are not "zero discharge" areas, and if your
electrical system is capable of handling the added loads. We'd
be cautious in areas that are, or could become, No Discharge
areas. Note that we've shown the treatment device with a Y-
valve, since we would hate to have a broken treatment system and no way to flush the head. Again, this
may not be legal.

Selecting the Components

Seacocks and Thru-hulls

Most head systems use a 3/4" intake seacock and thru-hull, and a 1 1/2" discharge seacock and thru-
hull. This seems to be an industry standard, although other options are possible. Bronze is favored for
its durability, and Marelon is favored for its non-conductive, non-corroding nature.

Hose

Use either Shields Heavy Duty Vinyl Hose (#148) or Super Head Hose (#101). All other hoses begin to
smell in a short period of time or may be inadequate below the waterline. You may find that it is easier
to get either of these hoses over barbed fittings if you place them in boiling water, and use liquid soap
as a lubricant. Try not to let waste rest in the hose by 1) flushing the system completely after each use,
and 2) installing the hose without any "low spots" and as few bends as possible.

Vented Loops
Vented loops MUST be installed in any part of the system where a siphon could create backflow and
possibly sink the boat. A vented loop will break the suction, yet allow normal flow. Many systems have
them in the inlet line and the outlet line.

Holding Tanks

We believe that the most rugged, least odoriferous tanks are thick-walled high-density polyethylene
(1/4" or thicker). Wall thickness is especially important; thin tanks will eventually smell and could
possibly burst. Taller, narrower tanks are preferred, since they can be emptied more completely.
Plumbing attachments should be as low and as high as possible. Flexible tanks can be used when
spaces are oddly shaped or inaccessible. We feel that they do not have the odor resistance or strength of
rigid tanks, but they do work in some applications.

Y-Valves

We feel the best Y-valve is made by Whale, but others may integrate into your plumbing more
conveniently depending on the direction of your hose runs. The Bosworth Y-valve can be surface-
mounted so that you don't have to climb into a tiny locker to change directions.

Pumps

Pumps are used to empty the tank overboard. We recommend large diameter diaphragm pumps,
because they are the least likely to clog. We like the Henderson Manual Waste Pump and the SeaLand
T-12 Electric Pump, since their Nitrile rubber components resist attack from sewage. Macerator pumps
grind waste for easier passage through the sanitation system, but don't make great discharge pumps
because they can burn out if run dry. If you decide to add either a diaphragm pump or a macerator
pump to your system, install it downstream of the holding tank.
Head & Holding Tank Treatments
Plumbing

Holding tank treatments combine deodorants and germ killers to mask or eliminate offensive odors
created as waste is broken down. They come in four basic formulations.

Chemical treatments, the most common, kill bacteria immediately. They very effectively control odors
by masking smells with deodorant. Although relatively inexpensive compared to other treatments,
chemicals must be added regularly. They are not designed to dissolve waste and they are the least
environmentally friendly.

Enzyme treatments accelerate the digestion of organic materials in waste and neutralize odors at the
same time. Their toxicity is extremely low. They work quickly and completely emulsify paper and
sewage. They must be added regularly and they have a limited range of effectiveness in terms of
temperature and pH. Enzymes require a tank free from residuals of other treatment products.

Nitrate treatments provide an interesting alternative. Oxygen is vital to bacteria in the process of
breaking down organic waste. When little air is present, as in most holding tanks, bacteria derives the
oxygen from sulfates in the waste, which produces hydrogen sulfide (stinky!) gas. When nitrates are
introduced, they act as nutrients for the bacteria, providing an alternative source of oxygen, which
results in the production of nitrogen (odorless) gas. Nitrates are environmentally friendly. They speed
up the breakdown process and eliminate odors. They require a tank free of the residuals from other
products. They are expensive relative to other treatments.

Bioactive treatments contain live aerobic bacteria, which break down waste, reproduce and crowd out
anaerobic (odor-producing) bacteria. They, too, are environmentally friendly. Like enzymes, bioactive
treatments emulsify paper and sewage completely. Unlike other treatments, they multiply and continue
to work long after treatment is complete, eliminating the need to add more between pump outs.
However, the microbes require a well-ventilated holding tank to survive. The tank must be free of
residuals. Although initially expensive, bioactive treatments become more cost effective over time
because of bacteria propagation.
When is it OK to discharge?
Plumbing

This question can be addressed from legal, moral, or environmental perspectives. Legally, you're not
allowed to discharge untreated waste from a boat within three miles of land. Many large bodies of
water are judged to lack sufficient "flushing" action (now there's an appropriate term), so waste must be
contained until it can be pumped into a municipal system, or when far enough offshore. Even treated
waste which meets Type 1 or Type 2 standards cannot be discharged where such discharge is
specifically prohibited.

The morality of the situation comes when one leaves the U.S. waters and travels to areas where there
are no regulations. While pumping waste overboard seems insignficant while on the open ocean, it
raises a completely different issue when anchored off a lee shore. This is especially true in compact
harbors where dozens of cruising boats, ostensibly there to "get away from it all" end up anchored in a
tight group. It doesn't take an environmental expert to imagine what the effect of untreated sewage is
on the local water quality, whether for the boaters who are swimming from their boats, or the locals
who enjoy their pristine homes. Bottom line: use holding tanks when your sewage can impact water
quality for others, regardless of the law.
Pressurized Freshwater Systems
Plumbing

What They Do
Pressurized water systems make life aboard more comfortable by providing a constant source of fresh
water for dishwashing, showers and more. The complexity of installing and maintaining one will
depend on the number of outlets and accessories you choose.

What To Look For

Freshwater Tank: We think the best tanks are made of thick-walled, high-density polyethylene, but
flexible tanks can work in an odd-shaped or inaccessible space. Tank size depends on the space
available and your needs-a gallon per person per day is a safe rule for extended trips offshore. Make
sure your tank's deck fill has a tight seal and that your tank's vent terminates inside the boat so your
drinking water supply won't be fouled by outside water.

Hose: Most pumps and fixtures are designed for 1/2" I.D. hose. Be sure the hose you choose can stand
up to 35-40 psi and is made from FDA-approved (nontoxic) materials. Hot-water hoses need to be
reinforced-high temperatures will melt cheap vinyl tubing.

Strainer/Filter: Strainers protect your pump by catching large contaminants; to actually improve the
taste of water, you'll need to add a filter. Filters are a good idea because tanks and hoses tend to be
great hosts for biological growth. Be sure not to locate your filter after the water heater-high
temperatures will destroy most filter elements.

Pump: By far the most popular kind of freshwater pump is the electric diaphragm pump-it's self
priming, efficient, can generate high pressure and is not damaged by running dry. These pumps fall into
two major categories: automatic and manual demand. Automatic pumps have a built-in pressure switch
to turn them on and off, while manual-demand pumps are controlled by (and wired to) an electric
switch on the faucet. Manual demand pumps must be used with faucets which have an integral switch,
and they do not produce water instantly, or under much pressure. For most applications, we like
automatics. They accept standard fixtures and newer, sealed pressure switches are increasingly reliable
and easily replaced if they should fail.

Accumulator Tank: Accumulator tanks combine a small air chamber with a water reservoir. By
providing an expansion area, they greatly reduce pump cycling caused by minor pressure variations.
They also provide steadier water delivery. Larger tanks can store enough water to eliminate pump
cycles when small amounts of water are needed.

Municipal Water Inlet: By connecting a drinking water-safe garden hose between a municipal water
inlet and a faucet on shore, you'll have a continuous source of pressurized water at the dock without
ever having to fill the tank or operate the pump. To protect and isolate your pump and accumulator tank
from potentially damaging high pressure, install a one-way check valve as shown in the diagram.

Water Heater: The water heaters we carry can be operated at the dock by AC power or underway by
drawing heat from your engine's cooling water. Even a small, 6-gallon heater is enough to provide hot
water for washing dishes or taking a short shower.

Faucet/Shower: Showers, whether in the head or out on the swimstep, can greatly enhance your
"quality of life" on board. Higher capacity pumps with large accumulator tanks will provide the most
home-like shower. When adding a shower, it is mandatory to have a shower sump so you don't fill up
your dry bilge with slimy water every time you bathe.

Final Notes
Take the time to add a water system purifier periodically to inhibit the growth of algae. The clarity of
your water will improve and your system won't grow a permanent green lining. Boat owners who
venture far offshore should consider adding a watermaker to their freshwater system. Use high quality
hose and hose clamps and inspect the entire freshwater system frequently. Sailboat owners should
consider installing a siphon break in the drain lines of sinks, or shutting off sinks' thru-hulls when not
in use. It's possible to heel over to where the sink is below the waterline, setting up a siphon that can
"sink" the boat.
Watermakers
Plumbing

What they do
The modern watermaker is a miraculous machine, taking undrinkable salt water and, with a modest
amount of energy, producing a steady supply of pure, fresh water. A well-designed, properly
maintained watermaker can add significantly to your safety and comfort while cruising and thousands
of experienced voyagers swear by them.

There are lots of reasons to install a watermaker to make your cruising (or racing) more enjoyable:
Emergency water when your tanks spring a leak and dump 200 gallons of water in your bilge. Water
can also become undrinkable if you fill up with crud in some cruising "paradise" and lack the ability to
purify it.

You can reduce your water burden by taking some water in your tanks and supplementing it by using
the watermaker. This is obviously of great interest to racers, but can also allow a cruising sail or
powerboat to perform more efficiently by cutting down on weight (and, at 8.2 lb. per gallon, it doesn't
take much water to push the bootstripe under!)

You can extend your range if you have been water-capacity limited. Instead of planning your trip based
on where you can fill up your tanks, you can push on knowing that you can make your own.

You can save money in foreign ports, where potable water can be very costly. Many Caribbean ports
charge $0.10 per gallon or more to fill up water tanks, which doesn't sound like much until you realize
that you've always thought of water as free.

Finally, you'll be assured of having a safe water supply on board. The water quality in many parts of
the world is questionable, and we could all do without a gut-wrenching bout of turista caused by some
unattractive parasite.

How they work

Reverse osmosis watermakers, like those from PUR and HRO, produce fresh water by pressurizing
saltwater to around 800 psi and forcing it through a semi-permeable membrane. The key word here is
semi, since the membrane appears to be about as permeable as a fiberglass boat hull. Somehow,
miraculously, water molecules can pass through, but practically all contaminants (like salt, bacteria,
viruses, grit, etc.) are left behind. The resulting "brine" is discharged overboard, and a new batch of
saltwater is introduced. This is a continuous process, with about 10% of the incoming saltwater being
turned into fresh water, and 90% being discarded.

Since PUR watermakers were originally designed to be powered by hand, PUR developed an energy-
saving method of taking the rejected brine (still at very high pressures) and using it to assist in
pressurizing the incoming water. This "energy recovery" principle made it possible for a person to
hand-operate a small watermaker and produce enough water to hydrate 25 people in a life raft. The
original product, the Survivor 06, eventually led to the production of other manual and electric
watermakers which also incorporated the "energy recovery" technique, which greatly reduces energy
consumption compared to units which do not use some means of recovering the energy.

How much is enough?

What's a reasonable water budget for voyagers? Starting with a minimal approach, the W.H.O. (World
Health Organization) recommends at least a liter of fresh water per day to maintain hydration.
Obviously, that figure is for survival conditions, and not how we envision our summer vacation.
Donald Street, in The Ocean Sailing Yacht, says that fresh water consumption can be 2 quarts per
person, per day, assuming that this is augmented with other liquids and that normal water conservation
methods are used (saltwater showers, rinsing veggies in saltwater, etc.) Linda Dashew comments in
Offshore Cruising Encyclopedia that her family of four used five gallons of fresh water per day
initially, but graduated to 12 gallons per day as their children grew and their water storage capacity
increased.

So, shoot, if we are going to have a watermaker on board, we'd probably plan on a luxurious 2 gallons
per person per day and really live it up. That translates to approximately 80 minutes of PUR
PowerSurvivor 40 operation per person per day, or half that much using the PowerSurvivor 80 II. And
that, in turn, translates to about 5Ah per day per person for lots of fresh water.

Based on this crude analysis, most small cruising boats can exist harmoniously with a PowerSurvivor
40, and not have to operate it day and night. When your consumption, whether due to having too many
friends, or a profligate use of water, rises to over 10 GPD, we'd go with the PowerSurvivor 80 II.
Should your consumption be over 20 GPD, we'd recommend the PowerSurvivor 160.

Saving water aboard

Cruising books are full of recommendations on how to reduce your fresh water consumption while
passagemaking. While we'd love to have enough water not to be concerned with conservation, reality
must prevail. Here are some tips:

• Plumb your galley, and possibly your head, with saltwater. One of our customer/advisors
recommends that you install a Y-valve on the inlet water to the pressure water pump. When in
conservation mode, use the pressure pump to deliver saltwater to the galley and head. Rinse
vegetables and clean pots and pans with reckless abandon! The ocean will provide as much
water as you require. Use a foot pump for fresh water for drinking, sensitive recipes, and a
final rinse of dishes. In non-conservation mode (as when marina-hopping), change back to
fresh pressurized water.

• If no pressure water, have salt and fresh water pumps in the galley. We'll bet that using foot
pumps instead of pressure water can save 50-75% of the water consumed on board. And
having a dual pump set-up with fresh and saltwater will really stretch the drinking water
supply.

• Cook and clean with salt water. While you can't substitute saltwater for fresh in all
applications, it can be used to cook certain types of fish, and can be used with fresh water to
boil pasta (10-20% salt). Vegetables can be washed in salt water, too. See the Offshore
Cruising Encyclopedia for more ideas.
• Maintaining your watermaker

PUR watermakers like to be run daily, which keeps "growies" from taking up residence on the insides.
Ideally, you'd run your watermaker for 2-8 hours to produce the water needed during the day. An ideal
time to run a watermaker, even those which draw as little as the PUR PowerSurvivors, is when the
engine is on for propulsion or battery charging. This assures that the voltage is high, and that the
energy goes directly into the watermaking load without having to be stored in the batteries.

For all their utility, however, watermakers demand something in return: regular maintenance.
Watermakers are unlike household water filters in that you cannot "set and forget" one on your boat
and expect it to perform reliably for weeks, months or years on end. Watermakers demand regular
attention and failure to properly maintain a watermaker can cause it to be disabled or even destroyed.
The following guidelines were adapted from a list created by PUR in an effort to ensure the optimal
performance of their watermakers.

Operating and Maintenance Suggestions

Watermakers perform best when used daily. Daily operation inhibits biological growth in the unit and
is preferable to running your watermaker less frequently but for longer periods. Consider briefly
flushing the system with non-chlorinated fresh water after each use. This will minimize the amount of
nutrients in the membrane, thereby slowing biological growth
When your watermaker is inactive for as little as one week, flush the system with biocide. Biocide
treatment is good for up to a year of storage. (Remember to discard the first 20 minutes of product
water after each treatment.)

Rinse the prefilter at least once a week during regular use. If you don't, silt can gather in the prefilters
and eventually enter the watermaker, constrict flow and reduce water output.

Change the prefilter once it loses its original rigidity. Be sure to replace it with a polyester 30-micron
prefilter. Paper filters are cheaper, but break down quickly, causing problems for your watermaker.

Install a Repair Seal Kit after every 1,000-1,200 hours of use. The kit includes a set of all O-rings and
check valves in the unit. Replacing the seals is analogous to your car's 3,000-mile oil change.

Use acid and alkaline cleaners at least once a year to remove stubborn biological growth and mineral
scaling.

If you must use your watermaker in areas with high silt contents, install a more elaborate pre-filtration
system, using components such as 5-micron prefilter (in addition to the 30-micron prefilter) and a 1A
booster pump (to ensure the watermaker still gets enough water flow).

Factors Affecting Maintenance Schedules

Watermakers are designed for use in clean sea water. The maintenance timetables listed above may
need to be accelerated if your watermaker is used in other environments. Conditions to be aware of:

High salinity will decrease output and lead to a modest increase in amp draw.
Cold water will have a the same effect to high salinity.

Silt or sand can damage components of the high pressure pump if not effectively removed during pre-
filtration.

High air temperatures foster growth in the reverse osmosis membrane.

Pollutants such as oil or chlorine will eventually destroy the membrane. Avoid operating the unit in
harbor water. While the membranes are replaceable, they are quite expensive ($400 or so for the
PowerSurvivor 40).
What to look for in Washdown Pumps
Plumbing

Think of washdown pumps as saltwater pressure pumps to help you hose down the deck after a day of
boating. Frequently used to clean up a cockpit after landing a big fish, they are also handy for cleaning
muddy anchor rode, hosing off seagull indiscretions, and rinsing the decks after a scrubdown.

They consist of a rugged 12V DC pressure pump with an integral pressure switch, and are frequently
packaged with a hose nozzle, inline filter, or other accessories which will assist in the installation. In
addition to this equipment, you'll need a way to supply the pump with saltwater (either by teeing into
an existing line, or by installing a separate through hull and seacock), 3/4" non-collapsing inlet hose,
hose clamps, 1/2" to 3/4" outlet hose (minimum 40 psi burst strength), and a faucet to control the flow
of water on deck. The electrical connections are similar to any simple DC load wiring, and most pumps
draw less than 10A, so 14 ga. wire can be used up to 10' (breaker panel to pump) with less than a 5%
voltage drop. Note that some pumps specify a higher current circuit (Groco Deck Wash Kit), so follow
the manufacturer's recommendations!

Many boaters elect to hook up a garden hose directly to the pump outlet, and skip the plumbing on the
discharge side. That's why many of the washdown pumps are suitable for wet locations: the pumps are
actually located in the cockpit or in a semi-exposed location. When washdown water is needed, you
simply hook a garden hose and trigger nozzle up to the outlet, energize the pump circuit, and use the
hose as if you were connected to dock water.

As with any pressure pump, an accumulator tank will smooth out water delivery and cause the pump to
cycle on and off less.
Sizing Up Hose
Plumbing

Types of Hose
Drinking water hose-must be safe (made from FDA-approved, non-toxic materials) and not create a
bad taste in drinking water supplies.

Sanitation (sewage) hose-must be strong and resist odor permeation.

Bilge pump hose-must resist chemicals, be relatively inexpensive, and be flexible.

What to Look For

Bend radius: This is the minimum arc through which a hose can be bent before it kinks. In general,
small diameter hose and reinforced hose have tighter bend radii.

Reinforcement: Many hoses have reinforcement in the walls for strength and rigidity, and to prevent
collapse or expansion under pressure.

Maximum pressure: Changes depending on diameter, with small diameter hoses having greater burst
strengths. Hose with multiple plies or helical reinforcement has greater pressure limits, which is
important for pressure water or exhaust applications.

Pressure vs. suction: Hose that is used on the discharge lines has to resist pressure, while hose on the
intake has to withstand suction.

FDA-approved: Hose used in potable (drinking) water systems must be constructed from safe, non-
toxic materials that are contamination- and corrosion-free.

Other Considerations
Hoses are sized by their inside diameter (I.D.). Hose fittings are labeled based upon the I.D. of the hose
they will fit. In other words, the outside diameter of a 1/2" barbed elbow is liable to measure slightly
greater than 1/2", but it will fit 1/2" I.D. hose just fine. Smooth bore hose is recommended for all
applications, since corrugated hose can reduce flow by as much as 30%.
Threads
Plumbing

Thru-hull threads are a complicated topic, since you are trying to accomplish different tasks at each end
of the seacock. Threads on the thru-hull are untapered (straight) pipe threads, since you don't know
how thick the hull is, and you therefore need a locking nut which engages the threads on the entire
length of the thru-hull body. This means that the hull side of seacocks have to have straight threads
also, since you cannot screw a tapered female thread onto a straight male thread for more than a few
turns, and it is guaranteed to leak and lack strength if you do.

The "other" end of the seacock is a different subject, however, since you would commonly thread a
tailpiece with a tapered thread into the seacock body. Tapered threads are used here since you want a
tight, waterproof seal. In general, you can aim the direction of an ell tailpiece in the right direction with
judicious tightening.

This is one of the BEST reasons to NOT use a ball valve, or worse yet, a gate valve, on a thru-hull.
While ball valves are great for inline applications, they all use tapered threads, which will not engage
the thru-hull threads correctly. Plus, they cannot be bolted to the hull for strength.
Thru-Hull Sizes
Plumbing

A confusing area in our plumbing selection is how to measure thru-hulls and tailpieces. Many pipe
fittings are based on National Pipe Thread, or NPT. NPT sizes are nearly universal in the marine and
plumbing industries, but thru-hulls are designated by hose I.D. - the inside diameter of the hose they
are designed to accept. The following chart shows how dimensions compare on various sizes of
tailpieces:

Size A B C D
1/2" 1/2" 5/16" 13/16" 2 1/4"
3/4" 3/4" 1/2" 1" 2 1/4"
1" 1" 13/16" 1 5/16" 2 1/4"
1 1/4" 1 1/4" 1" 1 5/8" 2 3/4"
1 1/2" 1 1/2" 1 1/4" 1 7/8" 3"

Although the hose barb end of the tailpiece does measure the same as its "size," the pipe end is not
related.
Rope/Chain/Anchor

Anchoring Techniques
An Anchoring Lesson in Mexico
Anchor Rodes
Anchor Rollers
Anchor Windlasses
Boarding Ladders
Dock Lines
Fenders
Constructing a Permanent Mooring
West Advisor
Anchoring Techniques
Rope/Chain/Anchor

Setting
To ensure that an anchor "sets" well, apply tension to the rode so the anchor penetrates the bottom. We
do this by making fast the line and applying power in reverse. If your boat moves, reset the anchor and
try again.

Many boaters make only a half-hearted attempt to set the anchor by putting the boat in reverse for just a
few seconds. To be sure the anchor is set you must put a reasonable strain on the rode for a reasonable
length of time. Your boat should surge forward when you back off the power, indicating that you have
put some strain on the rode to test the anchor set. We know of no way to ensure that your anchor will
hold other than by pulling on it hard.

Only when an anchor is securely set should you consider shortening scope in a crowded anchorage.
Once an anchor has been set, it will almost always hold the same amount of tension that was used to set
it, even if the scope is reduced. This means that you can pay out long scope, pull hard on the anchor
rode using the engine and then shorten scope to reduce swinging room. However, if your boat swings
and the anchor has to reset itself, it will have to do so at a reduced scope. This is also known as
Anchoring Russian Roulette.

Resetting
It's fairly easy to set an anchor when wind and current
come consistently from one direction, but if they veer,
some perform better than others under varying angles of
pull. Any anchor can become dislodged from the seabed
if the boat swings far enough. Three techniques can alert
you when your boat swings:

1. If you have an anchor alarm on your GPS, set it

so it alerts you if the boat swings too far from
the position where it was when you set the
anchor.

2. If you have an electronic compass or autopilot,

set the course alarm so it alerts you if the boat's heading changes radically.

3. Stand an anchor watch.

Anchoring Bow and Stern

In tight anchorages, you may have to limit your boat's tendency to swing at anchor. By dropping an
anchor close to the beach and a second anchor offshore, you can locate the boat precisely in the
anchorage. You can also use the tension on one rode to help set both anchors.

Two Anchors off the Bow

Bob Ogg, co-inventor of the Danforth anchor, recommends setting one anchor into the wind or current,
and a second anchor 180° away. Then take both lines to the bow of the boat. This allows the boat to
swing around in a relatively small arch, yet will allow the boat to pull against an anchor without
causing it to reset when wind or current change.
An Anchoring Lesson in Mexico
Rope/Chain/Anchor

What we encountered...
Several years ago, we chartered a large sailboat in La Paz, Baja California. The fathers of the two
charter families aboard had similar boating experience, so they decided to alternate being Captain each
day.

Our Moorings 510 was beautifully equipped and was in great condition-except for the anchoring
system. Although equipped with a Bruce 44 and a CQR 45 and lots of rode, the windlass location and
rode storage locker invited injury at every use. With prudent technique and a healthy respect for the
equipment, we ended the charter with the same number of toes and fingers as when we started.

Our routine was to send the non-Captain forward each evening to operate the windlass, while the
"other" Captain drove the boat. And since we both worked for West Marine, we didn't waste the
opportunity for an anchor test: we alternated the CQR and the Bruce like we alternated Captains. Until
the last night, we thought both anchors worked identically, with fast sets and secure holding. To set the
anchor, we'd apply throttle in reverse up to 2,000 rpm for 20 seconds. With a three-blade fixed prop
and an 85 HP Perkins, this generated substantial load.

The last night of the charter found us anchored in narrow cove at Puerto Ballena on Isla Ispirtu Santo.
We were on a lee shore, but the winds were light, and we anticipated no problems for the night. Since it
was the Bruce's turn, the co-captain went forward and dropped it with about 5:1 scope. I dutifully put
the Perkins in reverse and began to rev it up. At about 1,200 rpm we could feel the unmistakable surge
caused by the anchor releasing its grip. Slow dragging did not reset the anchor, so we weighed it and
started over again.

Again he dropped the Bruce, and again I slowly brought the anchor line taut and applied throttle. Again
the anchor dragged at about 1,200 rpm. We did it a third time, with the same results. In desperation,
brought on by a desire to sip a cold one and put this anchoring nonsense behind us, the co-captain
resorted to the CQR for our fourth try. It held, and continued to hold as I goosed the throttle to 2,000
rpm. To be certain, I held the power on for almost a minute. The boat steadfastly refused to drag
perceptibly.

That night I was awakened by the uncharacteristic sound of halyards flapping furiously against the
mast and spreaders. (I suspect we had not left the boat in what would be considered Bristol fashion
when we retired.) I bolted on deck and faced into a 20-25 knot breeze from the west, pushing us
directly towards the beach (and the certainty of losing our damage deposit). However, our position was
unchanged, and the anchor line, while bar tight, gave no indication that the anchor was dragging. After
20 minutes of observation, I concluded that we were not going anywhere, so I went back to bed.

What we learned...
Many boaters anchor as if they are concerned that they might disturb the anchor if they pull too hard on
it, or they make some half-hearted attempt to set the anchor by putting the boat in reverse for a few
seconds. The only way to make sure is to put a reasonable strain on the rode for a reasonable amount of
time. Your boat should surge forward when you back off the power, indicating that you have put some
strain on the rode. We know of no other way to ensure that your anchor is really going to hold.

Not all anchors work in all bottoms. Before leaving the next day, we dove on the CQR and examined
the bottom. There was some slick grass growing on sand that the Bruce had been unable to penetrate,
but the CQR had pierced and was able to engage the sand. The CQR was almost completely buried.
Now we've anchored with Bruces for years, in many different conditions, with very few problems. But
in this anchorage, with this boat, it was not the right anchor. Nor, we suspect, would a Danforth-type
anchor have penetrated. A plow-type anchor like a CQR or Delta was the right choice, so have a
variety of anchors on board for different conditions.
Anchor/windlass systems that require you to transfer heavily loaded line and chain on and off a gypsy
or drum are dangerous. We strongly recommend either all-chain rode, or a windlass capable of
handling rope-to-chain spliced rode without interruption. And anchor rode lockers which open to reveal
a cavernous pit into which it is easy to fall strike us as unseamanlike. We know that boats are a
compromise, but a safe and efficient anchor system is mandatory for good seamanship and cruising
enjoyment.
Dock Lines
Rope/Chain/Anchor

What they do
Dock lines secure your boat to a dock, or to another boat when rafting, either temporarily or semi-
permanently. These applications
demand different types of dock
lines.

How they work

When your boat is away from its
regular slip or mooring, you need to
have some designated nylon lines
aboard, preferably with spliced
eyes, ready for use when you tie up
somewhere. We call these transient
dock lines. The eye in the end is
easily passed around a cleat or
piling by someone on the dock and
the bitter end is adjusted onboard.
There are dozens of combinations of
diameters and lengths.

Permanent dock lines are also made

of nylon, but differ from transient dock lines in several ways. First, they must be protected from chafe,
the enemy of all lines in constant use. This calls for leather or rubber chafe gear where the line passes
through the chocks, and possibly some leather on the eye where it goes around the cleat on deck. At the
dock, lines should be protected from chafe using eye splices and shackles if the dock has rings, or eye
splices and short lengths of chain if the dock has cleats. Permanent dock lines should be cut to fit the
particular boat in the slip.

What to look for

Dock lines should be made from nylon, which has a superior combination of strength and stretch. Both
three-strand and braided construction are common. Three-strand stretches more, is very abrasion- and
snag-resistant and less expensive. Braided nylon is stronger, comes in colors, and has a nice "hand" or
feel.

Diameter

We recommend 1/8" of line diameter for every 9' of boat length. Larger lines will wear longer and
stretch less. See the chart below:

Boat Length Up to 27' 28'-31' 32'-36' 37'-45' 46'-54' 55'-63' 64'-72'

Diameter 3/8" 7/16" 1/2" 5/8" 3/4" 7/8" 1"

Length

Transient dock lines should be about 2/3 of the boat's LOA when used on the bow and stern. Spring
lines should be equal to your LOA.

Glossary
Chafe is the damage caused by rubbing lines or sails on surfaces. It is inevitable, but can be reduced by
not changing the angle of a line abruptly and by using abrasion-resistant pads, such as lengths of
leather or hose, called chafing gear.
Eye splices are loops woven into the ends of line by passing the strands of the line in and out of the
strands on the standing part. They retain a high percentage of the strength of the line compared to
knots, and cannot come apart accidentally when properly spliced.

Nylon is a synthetic fiber that has high strength, high stretch and good abrasion resistance.

Spring lines are dock lines that run forward from the stern, or aft from the bow of the boat to the dock.
They oppose the tension on the bow and stern lines and keep the boat from moving fore and aft.
Fenders
Rope/Chain/Anchor

What They Do
Fenders act as a cushion between a boat and a dock or another boat.

How They Work

Using either an inflated plastic bladder or soft foam, fenders absorb the shock of vessel movement so
that neither the vessel nor what it is bumping against are damaged. They both insulated the boat from
damage, and decelerate it as it moves about.

Boats that tie up to floating docks commonly set fenders just above the waterline to maintain a buffer
zone between dock and boat. Boats that raft together place the fenders at the point of contact-generally
where the beam is the greatest. Docking next to pilings presents a special challenge: the pilings tend to
push the fenders aside, with damaging consequences. A solution is to use a fender board that spans the
distance between pilings. With the fenders and pilings, a boat can ride reasonably comfortably against a
wharf.

Boats with permanent slips often install dock cushions so that the dock carries the protection, not the
boat. Since they can be placed right at the point of contact, they won't swing out of the way. Dock
cushions can prevent damage when fenders are not lined up precisely.

Sizing Them Up
Don't buy cheap, tiny fenders for a nice boat. Nice boats deserve generous protection, and large
diameter fenders are the best way to provide that protection. It is, after all, only the width of the fender
that separates the boat from the dock. We like 1" of diameter for cylindrical fenders or 2"of diameter
for spherical fenders for every 5' of boat length. We suggest using proper lines, or fender whips, to
suspend the fenders at the correct height.

Boat Length Cylindrical Fender Dia. Spherical Fender Dia.

To 15’ 3” NR
16-20’ 4” 9”
21’-25’ 5” 9”
26’-30’ 6” 12”
31’-35’ 7” 15”
36’-40’ 8” 15”
40’-50’ 10” 18”
Boarding Ladders
Rope/Chain/Anchor

What they do

The primary function of boarding ladders is to allow boaters to get in and out of the water from the
deck of a boat or swim step and to aid boarding from a dinghy. Although they can sometimes be used
to help in the retrieval of a crewmember who has fallen overboard, they are typically of little or no use
in rough seas.

How they work

Boat ladders must extend below the level of the water to be effective. We like ladders with at least two
rungs below the surface, which means they must either fold or be removed when underway.

Common ladder types include:

Swim-step ladders hang down from powerboat swim steps and usually contract underneath or fold up
on top of the step. Since the swim step is so much lower than the side of the boat, these ladders
generally need only 1-3 steps.

Platform ladders create a mini-swim step on one side of the outboard

or outdrive. These come with a platform and side rails.

Transom ladders on sailboats hinge up and down and

generally match the appearance of the stern pushpit.

Over-the-gunwale ladders for runabouts and small sailboats. These

have hooks that vary in width to match the width of the gunwale.

Removable ladders fit in brackets bolted to the hull or deck. The

brackets have keyhole slots that hold the ladder securely, yet allow it
to be removed quickly for storage.

Many ladders fold in half so they can be left in place without

dragging in the water. They can be used while folded when boarding
from a dinghy and extended when swimming. They are also easier to
stow.

Portable ladders are flexible, collapsible and lightweight, which makes them great for dinghies and
other small boats. However, they're not ideal as a primary ladder because their flexibility makes them
difficult to climb.
What to look for

Where to mount

Ladders should be mounted so that the steps extend far enough into the water to make climbing aboard
as easy as possible and at a spot that’s convenient for boarding. For example, stern ladders are quite
common on sailboats, but this is frequently where the motion of the boat is the greatest. On sailboats
with a fixed pushpit, a better place may be on the side, forward of the cockpit, where the lifeline gate is
located.

Comfort and security

We like broad, nonskid treads, since 1" stainless tubing is remarkably painful under bare feet. We also
like ladders that stand off away from the side of the hull, because they provide finger and toe clearance.
Side rails that extend above deck level provide a handy place to grab.

Construction
Ladders are made from noncorroding materials like stainless, aluminum and plastic. Aluminum is
lighter and less expensive, while stainless looks better and is stronger. Plastic treads are fine and are
quite comfortable.
Anchor Windlasses
Rope/Chain/Anchor

What They Do
As boats become larger, the size of their anchors increases roughly proportionately, to a point at which
they cannot be weighed by hand. Rather than down-size your boat, or use inadequate ground tackle,
consider installing a windlass. Windlasses reduce the effort required to raise or lower your anchor and
rode with electrical power, or by adding mechanical advantage to your muscle power.

How They Work

Windlasses are powered by one of three methods: muscle power (manual), electricity, or hydraulic.
We'll examine the first two types, as hydraulic windlasses are generally used only on very large
vessels.

Windlasses generally mount in the center of the boat's foredeck, aligned with an anchor roller of some
sort. Most boats have an anchor roller/mount that stores the anchor when not in use. Other boats store
the anchor in chocks or a locker on deck. All boats need a roller to pass the anchor rode smoothly over
the rail of the boat.

Manual Windlasses

Manual windlasses multiply your strength through mechanical advantage. They also ratchet in one
direction so the rode does not run backwards. Because they require you to be on deck to raise or lower
your anchor, they're generally limited to small- to medium-sized boats. Their chief advantages are low
price, no need for electrical wiring, and their relative simplicity, reducing maintenance or chance of
failure while cruising.

Manual windlasses come in one and two-speed models, and

most are double-action, meaning that the windlass pulls on
both forward and backward strokes. Two-speed windlasses
are similar to two-speed sheet winches: they have a fast,
low-power speed for easy pulling, and a slow, high-power
speed for increased power.

Some manual windlasses rotate in a vertical axis like a sheet

winch. This limits the amount of power they can develop,
based on length of the handle, but allows them to be more
compact and very simple in construction.

Electric Windlasses
By using a 1/2- to 2-hp electric motor to help weigh anchor, anchoring becomes a push-button
operation-mostly. Electric windlasses will raise an anchor at
35'-100' per minute, and can exert a pull of several thousand
pounds on your anchor rode. Many windlasses can lower your
anchor by push-button as well. Some even drop anchor faster
than they retrieve to reduce the time you spend with your finger
on the button, either by clutching the shaft so that it free falls,
or with a gear change mechanism.

Unless they are dual-direction type windlasses, most electric

models use a clutch-release mechanism to allow the anchor line
to pay out. Unfortunately, this requires that someone operates
the clutch from the foredeck.
What to Look For

The Ideal

Ideally, windlasses should raise and lower anchor line without operator intervention except to push a
button. Anchor rodes can be under great tension, and they pose a risk to fingers, feet, hands, etc. We
don't like the idea of transferring a line under tension from a capstan to a chain wildcat in the middle of
weighing anchor, or clearing a jam from a balky system. Furthermore, we believe that windlasses
should pass the line below decks to a locker, rather than pile the line on deck so that you have to stow
it.

For these reasons, we prefer a self-tailing/self-stowing windlass that does not require the operator to
come into contact with the rode. Self-tailing windlasses handle three types of rode: rope only, rope and
chain, and chain only.

Note: A self-stowing windlass requires that your anchor locker be set up correctly. Specifically, the
anchor rode must have a long "fall" so that it doesn't stack up under the incoming rode. A poor anchor
locker design will render the installation of an otherwise ideal windlass useless.

Rope Only

Simple rope capstans let you wrap the rode around a drum and use the electric motor for power. By
pressing a button on the deck or windlass case, you haul the rode in by hand the same way you would
tail a sheet winch. You'll end up with a pile of line on deck that must be coiled and stowed, and you
need to go forward in order to operate the windlass. While helpful when anchors are stuck in the
bottom, or when singlehanding a boat in lots of wind, we don't find rope-capstan windlasses to be
much of an advantage.

Rope-only self-tailing windlasses wrap the line around an internal pulley and deposit it below, and are
generally restricted to one or two sizes of 3-strand anchor line. You are limited to a length of chain that
does not exceed the distance from the windlass to the anchor roller, generally a few feet or less, which
we think is inadequate for most rodes.

Rope-chain

Rope-chain wildcats use a single gypsy with normal chain pockets on the perimeter, and V-shaped
grooves in the center to handle rope. This requires that your anchor rope be spliced directly to the last
link of chain. This may be a source of concern to some boaters, but we've conducted tests that have
made us comfortable with this approach. Naturally, the splice should be checked regularly for chafe.

All-chain

All-chain gypsies are self-tailing, due to the nature of the chain as it engages the pockets in the gypsy,
and are self-stowing, since the weight of the chain causes it to fall through the chain pipe into the rode
locker. All-chain rode is favored by many cruising boaters. It is highly abrasion-resistant, lies on the
bottom in most conditions, and is strong. It is also heavy, expensive, and collects mud.

Orientation
Windlasses are categorized as horizontal or vertical. Vertical axis
windlasses, with the motor mounted belowdecks, are very popular.
The line coming from the anchor roller leads back to a capstan or
gypsy, wraps around 180°, and feeds through a deck pipe to the
anchor locker. Horizontal axis windlasses, like those from
Powerwinch, are commonly used on smaller boats. Very
large yacht windlasses and most manual windlasses are also
horizontal. The side-to-side alignment of horizontal
windlasses is critical; they cannot accept a rode that leads
from an off-center angle.

Pulling Power
The amount of pulling power required from a windlass is
hotly debated. Windlasses are not intended to pull a boat against 25 knots of wind and 2' chop with the
engine in neutral. Windlasses are not designed to break out a heavy anchor 3' under hard sand. They are
designed to weigh an anchor and rode that is not under strain, and to provide some tension to break out
a firmly set anchor. But, as any text on the subject will tell you, it is the engine's power which moves
the boat upwind, and the motion of the boat that should break out the anchor-not the windlass.

Strain on the windlass should be limited to the hanging weight of the anchor and rode. In reality, due to
boaters violating the above, it is often greater than this. Therefore, manufacturers tend to recommend
windlasses with hefty pulling power so that you have the power if your engine is out, or it is blowing
like stink, or your anchor is firmly stuck. Maxwell recommends that the pulling power of the windlass
be three times the weight of the anchor and rode, a rule that has served them well. That is, a boat with
250' of 5/16" High Test chain and a 35-lb. CQR would select a windlass with at least 900 lb. of pulling
power. (265 lb. of chain plus 35 lb. of anchor, times three).

Chain Size
Since gypsies have to fit the chain they are hauling, windlasses come with gypsies appropriate for the
chain that a certain size of boat would be most likely to use. In other words, you won't find a gypsy for
1/2" chain on a small windlass. This encourages boaters to buy the correct size: if you would normally
use 5/16" chain, and the windlass will handle it, it will probably work on your boat.
Anchor Rollers
Rope/Chain/Anchor

What they do
Anchor rollers provide a rolling surface that makes it easier to drop and weigh anchor without banging
up your topsides. Anchor roller/mounts allow you to stow your anchor conveniently after you weigh it.

How they work

Anchor rollers make it easier for you to weigh anchor by hand since you can place your body where
you can pull most efficiently. They also create a fair lead for the anchor rode so it doesn't chafe against
your stem fitting or chocks. The rolling action reduces chafe as the nylon line stretches.

Anchor mounts cradle the anchor on the bow of the boat so that it's always ready for deployment (a
basic tenet of good seamanship). They are practically required when your boat is equipped with a
windlass, since they guide the anchor rode to the windlass gypsy, and keep chain from gouging your
hull and deck.

Power boats commonly place anchor mounts on their centerline, since they have no headstays.
Sailboats, with stem fittings, head stays, furling drums, bow pulpits, etc. should have mounts placed 4"-
8" to the right (or left) of the headstay. Wooden blocks may be required to raise the mount above the
toe rail. It should be parallel to the centerline of the boat, however, and aligned with the windlass
gypsy.
Anchor Rodes
Rope/Chain/Anchor

What to look for

Not surprisingly, no one rode does the job for all boats. Each anchor rode is a combination of
characteristics that must be chosen for a given type of boating.

Rode Types

All-Nylon Rodes: Small boats often use anchor rodes made entirely of three-strand nylon because they
are lightweight, inexpensive and, for boats without a windlass or anchor well, easier to stow than rodes
with chain. Although all-nylon anchor rodes can be quite strong, they lack the chafe resistance of rodes
with chain and are therefore not appropriate for extended use or for use in rough weather. As the
primary rode for a lunch hook or spare anchor, however, an all-nylon rode functions quite well.

All-Chain Rodes: Larger boats with windlasses generally use all-chain rode. This reduces the need for
long scope (except in shallow water) because the chain is heavy and lies on the bottom until severe
conditions are encountered, when more scope may be required. Since chain has very little elasticity,
care should be taken to prevent the chain from becoming "bar tight" in high winds by using a snubber
made of nylon line. The drawbacks to all-chain rode are weight, expense, and the need for a windlass.
A windlass and all-chain rode may add 300-600 lb. in the bow and can adversely affect the
performance of your boat. Owners of modern, lightweight cruising boats probably are probably
unwilling to suffer reduced speed and increased pitching caused by this extra weight.

Mixed Rodes: A good compromise between all-nylon or all-chain rode is a short length of chain (6'-
30') connected to the anchor, with a long length of three-strand nylon line connected to the chain. This
combination satisfies nearly all requirements of a good anchor rode, except that it is not abrasion
resistant over its entire length. Long scope must be used to keep the pull on the anchor shank
horizontal. Nylon is preferred for its elasticity. Its stretch reduces peak loads on the anchor and on your
boat. One myth we'd like to dispel is that a boat length of chain will keep the pull on an anchor shank
parallel to the bottom. Even a 15-knot wind will lift short lengths of chain off the bottom. The primary
function of chain is to handle the chafe from rough bottoms that would otherwise abrade the soft nylon
line.

Rode Sizes and Lengths

Scope is defined as the ratio of water depth (plus freeboard) to anchor line paid out. Most anchoring
texts and anchor manufacturers agree that a scope of 7:1 achieves the anchor's designed holding power,
and more scope is better than less. In theory, 7:1 scope is great, but at a crowded anchorage most
cruisers scoff at the idea of paying out more than 3:1 or 4:1-there just isn't much space for boats to
swing. Any reduction in scope, of course, must be made up for by using larger anchors and/or larger
chain.

As a general guide, for winds up to 30 knots, we recommend the following anchor line and chain
diameters, using three-strand, high quality line. This table assumes an 8:1 working load ratio.
 Boat LOA: 3 Strand: Chain:
Up to 25' 3/8" 3/16" PC
27'-31' 7/16" 1/4" PC
32'-36' 1/2" 1/4" PC
37'-44' 9/16" 5/16" PC/BBB
45'-50' 5/8" 5/16" PC/BBB
51'-62' 3/4" 3/8" PC/BBB
63'-76' 7/8" 3/8" HT
77'-90' 1" 1/2" HT

Conclusion
In inland, coastal, and performance cruising applications, boaters should use a combination of nylon
line and galvanized chain. For serious cruisers, all-chain rode is a better solution. The trade-off is one
of weight vs. abrasion resistance
Constructing a Permanent Mooring
Rope/Chain/Anchor

A permanent mooring must remain secure for long periods while unattended, occasionally under
adverse conditions. For peace of mind, it should be properly sized for the job. Below are the basic
components.

Anchor: The most common type of mooring anchor is the mushroom, which, under ideal conditions,
can dig in, create suction and develop good holding power. A weight of 5-10 times boat length is a
good rule of thumb. The heavier the better, as long as you don't have to move it. Heavy objects like
concrete blocks and engine blocks can't dig in, so their holding power is not as great.

Chain: Chapman's recommends two sections of galvanized chain: a heavier, primary chain and a
lighter, secondary chain. The primary (ground) chain lies on the bottom. Its length should be 1 1/2
times maximum water depth. The secondary (riding) chain, is connected to the ground chain with a
galvanized shackle or swivel. It's usually half the size of the ground chain and equal in length to
maximum water depth. The heavier chain is not used for the entire run so that the mooring buoy does
not have to support an excessive amount of weight. Chain should be as large as possible-make the
riding chain at least double the size of the chain on your anchor rode.

Buoy: The buoy must have about twice as much flotation as the suspended chain has weight in order
for it to ride high enough in the water to be visible. The Taylor T3C buoys on this page allow you to
pass the chain through the center of the buoy, and attach the pendant on top.

Pendant: The pendant attaches the chain to the boat. Large-diameter 3-strand nylon line is used
because its inherent elasticity allows it to act as a shock absorber. Polyester line or stainless steel wire
is preferred by some for better chafe resistance. Length should be about 2 1/2 times freeboard.
Diameter should be as large as is practical-it must be able to fit through bow chocks and around a bow
cleat. Chafe protection is recommended for the point where the pendant passes through a chock. A light
pick-up buoy at the boat end makes it easy to grab the pendant.
Safety

Beyond the Coast Guard Minimum Requirements

Crew Overboard Rescues
Emergency Beacons (EPIRBs)
Registering your 406 EPIRB
EPIRB Comparison Chart
Personal Flotation Devices
Factors Affecting pfd Performance
Safety Harnesses and Jacklines
Visual Distress Signals
When are SOLAS flares required?
Fume Detectors and Alarms
Fire Extinguishers
On Medical Sea Paks
Selecting a Life Raft
Safety Equipment Inventories for Sail and Power Boats
USCG Minimum Safety Requirements
West Advisor
Beyond the Coast Guard Minimum Requirements
Safety

Who requires what? The Coast Guard Minimum Requirements shown on opposite page are just that:-
the minimum amount of gear you are required to carry while boating. And while it's a great place to
start, many boaters need additional safety-related gear on board to suit their individual style of boating.
Your needs will depend on where you operate your boat, proximity to potential rescuers, the type of
boating you do and your desired degree of self-sufficiency. It also depends on who else is controlling
your boating. And who, you might ask, could be doing that controlling? We can think of four or five
influences:

State governments have found it difficult to keep their hands off the Federal regulations, so many states
have added to the list of required boating gear. Generally, these additional requirements concern boat
mufflers, PFD requirements for children, restrictions on flares, etc. While well meaning, they require
that you know the various state boating laws as you travel along the ICW or when you trailer your boat
to a new state.

For decades, The United States Coast Guard Auxiliary has championed boating safety by offering free
boating-safety courses and Vessel Safety Checks (formerly known as Courtesy Marine Examinations,
or CMEs.) VSCs are done by specially trained Vessel Examiners who check that your boat is carrying
the correct safety gear. Last year, U.S. Power Squadron members also began doing VSCs. In addition
to Coast Guard-required equipment, examiners check to see that you are carrying state-required gear.
They also check electrical and fuel systems-common sources of problems on boats. On-the-spot
rechecks are available after faulty gear is replaced. When your boat passes the safety check, you'll get a
Vessel Safety Check decal, which shows that you take boating safety seriously.

If you are a sailboat racer, the Offshore Racing Council will have a strong influence on the gear you are
required to carry. The ORC divides races into five categories, from local bay racing (Category 4) to
circumnavigations (Category 0). As the need for self-sufficiency increases with distance away from
shore, the inventory of required safety gear grows, too. Excellent boat preparation information is
available from US Sailing in two booklets-one for racers and one for cruisers. (There is a ton of
applicable information for power cruisers, too.) The racing booklet is called Recommendations for
Offshore Sailing including ORC Special Regulations and the cruising booklet is called Safety
Recommendations for Cruising Sailboats.

If you race in long distance races, like the West Marine Pacific Cup or Transpac, you'll find that Safety
Committee members often take liberties with ORC requirements. Race Committees are forever adding
water, taking away sails, allowing crummy flares and the like. Check the Notice of Race carefully to
see if basic ORC requirements have been modified.

Variations in Quality

From this discussion, you'd probably assume that various organizations require you to have more gear
onboard. But, it's more complicated than that. We should always remember that quality counts as well,
and the performance levels of safety products in each category do vary.

For example, you can meet the Coast Guard requirements with a $5.00 Type II PFD, but these are
miserable for constant wear, provide no protection against the cold and are ugly. (How do you really
feel about Type II PFDs, Mr. Advisor?) Yet, not all of our customers need the flotation and
performance or want the expense of a SOSpenders inflatable PFD or a Mustang Bomber Jacket. That's
why it's important to read our catalog carefully and to talk to our store or catalog sales associates, who
will help you, select the right gear for your kind of boating.

In general, these are the conditions, which we look for when we encourage customers to upgrade to
higher performance products:
Cold water: Few environments in the world are as dangerous to humans as cold water. If you Frostbite-
i.e. boat in the Pacific Northwest, Northern California or in other cold-water regions-choose gear that
protects you against hypothermia. If you should fall overboard, it could save your life.

Poor visibility: Things get challenging in a hurry when you boat in foggy areas, rainsqualls, or at night.
You'll have a far greater need for radar reflectors, radar, quality navigation lights, and sound signals.

Distance from help: If your route includes the coast of Mexico, the Inside Passage or a quick trip to
Hawaii, you'll be far from the convenience of your local West Marine store and far from the security of
the Coast Guard. Your need to be self-sufficient is greatly increased as you venture away from the
inland and coastal U.S. waters.

Rapidly changing weather conditions: Many boating areas are subject to squalls or other fast moving
weather systems that can stir up trouble in a hurry. Boats operating in these areas should have gear
aboard which can be used defensively, like larger anchors, lightning detectors and grounds, mainsail
reefing equipment, drogues and sea anchors.)

Rough seas: Many areas, like San Francisco Bay in the summer, have consistently strong winds and
heavy chop. That makes for great sailing, but also raises equipment requirements for sailboats and
powerboats alike.

Our recommendations

The following is a brief description of various categories of safety gear and how your needs might
differ depending on whether you are sailing on a lake in Kansas, powering over to Catalina Island, or
fishing off the Georges Bank. While the requirements for sailboats and powerboats boats are similar,
you'll note some differences. Please take a moment to compare this list to the inventory of gear you
have on your boat. Our Product Advisors would be happy to provide more information on how to select
the correct safety gear for your application.
 Equipment: Sail/Power Inland Coastal Offshore
Lifesling Both On boats over 24' Absolutely Absolutely
Life jackets Both Yes, depends on Type I or Inflatable Type I or Inflatable
activity
Heaving line Both Yes, 50-70' Yes, 50-70' Yes, 50-70'
Life raft Both No Coastal Life raft Offshore/SOLAS raft
Safety harnesses Sail Possibly One per crew One per crew
Safety harnesses Power No No One for use on weather
decks
Bilge pumps Sail ORC requirements ORC requirements + Add electric bilge
Electric pumps
Bilge pumps Power 1 manual/1 1 manual/2 electric Add engine-driven
electric
Flares Both 3 handheld/3 3 handheld/3 SOLAS 6 handheld/6 SOLAS
meteor parachute parachute
Emergency Both CB, cell phone, VHF, Class B EPIRB 406 MHz EPIRB,
communications VHF Inmarsat E
Communications Both CB, cell phone, VHF, backup antenna SSB or Ham, VHF,
VHF handheld VHF
Medical kit Both First aid kit Trauma kit Trauma kit w/drugs
Drag Device Both No Possibly Strongly recommended
Storm sails Sail No Double reef, storm jib Trysail, storm jib
Radar reflector Both If ship traffic Yes, temporary Yes, permanent and
present large
Fire Both USCG minimums USCG minimums + 1 per USCG minimums + 1
extinguishers cabin per cabin
Emergency Both Gallon water jugs Gallon water jugs Manual watermaker
water
Reliable fuel Both Second tank Second tank, good filters Two + tanks, excellent
supply filters
Navigation Both Compass, depth Compass, radar, depth, Compass, depth, GPS,
GPS radar
Ground tackle Both 1 working anchor 1 storm/1 working anchor 2 storm anchors, 1
working anchor
Weather Both Weather radio VHF radio High Seas, WFAX,
information Inmarsat M
Alarms Power Fume, depth Fume, fire, depth, carbon Fume, fire, depth,
monoxide carbon monoxide
Crew Overboard Rescues
Safety

The Magnitude of the Problem

In an average year, about 600 boaters die in recreational boating accidents. Approximately 80% of
these deaths are by drowning, demonstrating that water can be a very hostile environment for the
unprepared boater. Boaters end up in the water as a result of falling overboard, capsizing, collisions
with objects and other boats, and sinkings. Once a person enters the water, it is paramount to get
him/her out of the water before hypothermia or drowning occurs. More boaters could be saved by the
use of improved crew overboard (COB) techniques and gear.

The Crew Overboard Challenge

Flotation

There are a variety of challenges to rescuing a person from the water. Perhaps the most critical is time:
victims don't stay afloat nearly as long as you'd think, because of rough seas, bulky clothing (including
shoes and boots) no swimming ability; intoxication, Sudden Drowning Syndrome, injuries sustained
during the accident, and exhaustion.

The answer to staying afloat is simple: wear flotation appropriate for the type of boating. Unless the
victim has been fatally injured, proper flotation can keep a victim alive until rescued, sometimes even
after the victim has succumbed to hypothermia. This is so basic that many of us overlook it in search of
more complicated, technical solutions. Wearing flotation is the primary solution.

The boat doesn't return

In some circumstances, such as with single-handers, the boat cannot, or does not, return to pick up the
victim. Solo boaters must wear harnesses to ensure that they are not separated from the boat. There are
other reasons: the remaining crew does not know that a person has gone overboard, the boat is sailing
under a combination of sails or equipment which make it difficult to reverse direction (poled-out
genoas, spinnakers, unreefed sails, drogues), or the crew does not have the skill to handle the boat.
While each case is different, the likelihood is that if you are rescued, it will be by your own boat and
crew. Harnesses, and skilled crew members, are part of the solution.

Inability to find the victim

In many cases it's difficult or impossible to locate the victim in the water. Various studies have shown
that once visual contact with the victim has been lost, the chances of finding the victim are greatly
reduced. COB methods which assume a rapid return to the victim cannot guarantee that this will always
be possible. Winches override, sails jam in sail tracks, engines don't start, and victims may not be
found on the first pass.

While COB accidents occur in all weather conditions, large seas and reduced visibility, especially at
night, may cause the crew to lose sight of the victim almost immediately. There are two strategies to
deal with this: the victim must make himself as visible as possible to rescuers, and the boat must stay in
the vicinity of the victim. To increase personal visibility, strobes, SOLAS tape, flares, and other
devices must be carried and used. To stay in the vicinity, a trained crew must be capable of
maneuvering which does not involve sailing too far away from the victim.

Inability to make contact with victim

Even when the boat comes alongside the victim, it can be difficult to make contact. In rough seas, even
experienced boat drivers have a tough time coming close, but not too close, so that contact can be
made. In some cases, the victim may be near some object or hazard which precludes the boat's
returning to him.
Devices such as throw rope bags, heaving lines, or the Lifesling can be used to bridge the gap between
rescuers and victim, and reduce the risk of injury posed by approaching too closely.

Hypothermia

The abnormal loss of body heat to the environment, or hypothermia, occurs rapidly because water
absorbs heat about 25 times faster than the equivalent-temperature air. Hypothermia causes loss of
motor skills, judgement, and eventually consciousness, then death. While cold water (less than 60°F)
acts much more quickly than warm water, hypothermia can be a threat in waters less than 85°.

Many COB techniques fail to account for the fact that a victim rapidly loses the ability to self-rescue as
hypothermia progresses. Even strong swimmers, and individuals trained in survival methods, will
gradually lose their ability to swim, think, use ladders, communicate, tie knots, or hang on.

Inability to re-board

While many COB techniques deal with the boat's path through the water as it returns to the victim, few
have addressed the need to have a foolproof method to re-board. The use of ladders, swim steps, lifting
devices, or other crew members to bring a COB back onboard puts both the victim and the rescuer at
risk in most cases.

Maneuvering Techniques
Most boaters describe their COB technique by one of the following generally accepted maneuvering
methods. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, and its advocates.

Figure Eight:

Taught by ASA sailing schools for years. Sail away from the victim on a beam reach for 5-7 boat
lengths, tack, and drop back onto the same track or lower. Approach the victim from leeward, round the
boat into the wind to slow down and make contact.

• Advantages: Boat is under control the entire time, and

does not jibe. Crew has time to react. Distance sailed away
allows speed control on approach.
• Disadvantages: Boat sails too far away, and can lose sight
of victim.

Fast Return:

Taught by Modern Sailing Academy in Sausalito, CA. If upwind, boat goes to a beam reach, then tacks
in a few boat lengths. If reaching/downwind, boat heads up to a close reach and tacks. In both cases, as
boat crosses the eye of the wind, helmsman cries BANG!, so that a reference of the boat when it is
head to wind vs. victim is established. Boat continues to tack and leaves jib aback, and either reaches
off to drop behind victim, or continues slightly upwind to victim. As boat gets close, helmsman stuffs
boat into wind, eases the sheets, and sails slowly by victim.

• Advantages: Short time before boat is beside victim.

Maneuver is similar upwind and down. No jibing.
• Disadvantages: Can be so quick that speed is not under
control. Crew must be ready all the time. Must sail close
by to make contact.

Quickstop/Lifesling:

Taught by US Naval Academy Sailing Squadron, Sailing Foundation, US Sailing, and others. Involves
throwing flotation immediately, tacking with jib aback, and circling victim. If crewed, drop jib on
downwind part of circle. If short-handed, deploy Lifesling by dropping in water. If single-handed,
leave jib strapped in. Continue in circle around the victim until

1) you come alongside, or

2) victim gets Lifesling.

Stop the boat, drop sails, haul victim to boat, cleat off. Arrange lifting tackle,
or use a halyard and a powerful halyard winch, to hoist victim out of water.

• Advantages: If crewed, rescue takes about 2 minutes, upwind or

down. If single-handed, rescue takes 4-20 minutes, but works well
if remaining crew has modest boat handling skills.
• Disadvantages: Requires jibing. Requires Lifesling if short handed.
Multi-step process is not as quick as the Fast Return.

Conclusions
1. Having participated in hundreds of mock rescues, in various conditions, we
have the following conclusions and recommendations:

2. You cannot depend on throwing flotation to the victim in the water, or deploying gear in close
proximity. pfd's drift faster than a person can swim in winds over 10-15 knots. Crew members
have to wear flotation at all times-period.

3. Rescues where the helmsperson takes control and directs the rescue are much more successful.
Leadership makes a giant difference. Talking and explaining what would happen next REALLY
allowed the crew to do the right thing. Basic communication contributed to the success of the
recovery.

4. You must practice rescue skills to be good at them. Panic is a common reaction when a person
falls overboard, and the best way to deal with panic is to drill your crew so that they a) know what
to do instinctively, and b) have confidence in the process.

5. Knowing how to handle a boat make a significant difference. It's important to be aware of boat
speed and turning ability, and to be comfortable maneuvering a boat close by someone in the
water.

6. Crew overboard recovery is a combination of

a) returning to the victim,

b) b) making contact, and
c) c) getting the victim back on deck.

When you compare methods and techniques, make sure that they address all three aspects of the
problem. Partial, inadequate solutions abound. We believe that the Lifesling is the best overall
solution.
Emergency Beacons (EPIRBs)
Safety

What They Do

EPIRBs (Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons) are small transmitters that send out an
emergency signal to rescue services. If you are a boater in need of assistance, and are out of range of
VHF communication, an EPIRB may be the only way to summon help. Their use is limited to Mayday-
type emergencies, where your vessel is in danger of sinking, or you have a medical emergency and all
other measures of rescue have been exhausted.

How They Work

EPIRBs transmit on internationally recognized distress

frequencies, monitored by some aircraft, satellites, land
stations, and rescue vessels. In the last decade,
COSPAS/SARSAT global weather and mapping satellites
have joined in monitoring for signals from EPIRBs. If the
satellite detects an EPIRB signal, it relays this message to
ground stations, which in turn relay the message to rescue
agencies in many countries. The satellites can compute a
"fix" on the signal, so that rescue agencies can divert ships or
aircraft to attempt a sighting or rescue.

Class A & B EPIRBs

Conventional EPIRBs transmit on two recognized emergency

frequencies in the VHF band: 121.5 MHz (civilian) and
243.0 MHz (military). These EPIRBs are either Class A,
which automatically float free and activate, or Class B,
which are manually deployed and activated.

While satellites monitor the 121.5 MHz frequency, they cannot store the EPIRB signal-they just
retransmit it when they hear it. This means that the satellite must be able to detect the beacon and be
over one of several receivers on the ground, a condition called "mutual visibility." Because most
receivers are in the Northern Hemisphere, a satellite may not be able to retransmit your signal if you
get into trouble in the Southern Hemisphere or mid-ocean.

406 MHz EPIRBs

A more sophisticated class of EPIRB, the "406", transmits on 406 MHz. There are four important
differences between Class A and B units and 406 MHz units: 1) SARSAT satellites listen and store the
406 MHz EPIRB's emergency message until they are over a ground station, making it possible to
provide worldwide coverage; 2) the 406 signal has an embedded code which contains your vessel's
ID#, thus allowing rescue agencies to try to contact you before they send out helicopters and cutters; 3)
the precision and power of the transmitted signal allows the satellite to calculate the position of the
sender to about a two-mile radius, instead of 12 miles, resulting in less costly and faster rescue
response.

And now for the latest advancement...

It was inevitable that two hot technologies would eventually be married together: 406 MHz EPIRBs
and GPS receivers. The reason this is important is that several geostationary satellites are capable of
detecting 406 MHz signals and retransmitting them to the ground, but they have not been able to locate
the signal since they don't move relative to the transmitter. But since the RapidFix can transmit a GPS
position in addition to the normal data, geostationary satellites can immediately relay your plight and
position to Mission Control Centers around the world. Thus, you don't have to wait for a lumbering
weather satellite to show up on the horizon. This can reduce your time to rescue by an hour, and it also
provides a more accurate fix than formerly available from Doppler shift calculations.
Registering your 406 EPIRB
Safety

You no longer have to register your 406 EPIRB with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
on Form 506 if you are a "Voluntary Ship". That is the FCC's name for a vessel not required by law to
carry a radio, using no transmitting equipment other than marine VHF, radar and EPIRB and not
visiting any foreign countries other than Mexico and Canada.

You are required to register your 406 EPIRB with NOAA/SARSAT. This is important because they are
the people who will coordinate the rescue should your beacon begin transmitting a distress signal.
There is no fee for the registration; you simply complete and mail the NOAA form packaged with your
EPIRB.

According to NOAA, the most common registration problem is failure to include the EPIRB ID
number on the registration form. The ID number is found on stickers on the EPIRB itself, on the
packaging and on the instruction manual. Make certain you write it on your registration form.

The most frequently asked question of NOAA is, "How long will it take to get my Proof of
Registration decal?" The answer: NOAA enters all registration forms into the data base within 48 hours
of receipt and mails the decal within 7–10 business days. When it arrives, put the decal in the place
labeled "Decal Goes Here" on the EPIRB. Registration is good for two years, and a reminder will be
mailed to your address of record six to eight weeks prior to expiration.

You should plan carefully to avoid forcing prospective searchers to deal with the problem called
"emergency contacts unavailable or unaware of vessel activity." Choose the two contacts you list on the
form with care. Select people who can most likely be reached by phone—at home or work—and who
generally know your boating plans. The rescue will start right away whether or not they can be
contacted but they can help the rescue effort enormously by conveying information such as how many
passengers and crew are aboard and whether they include children or people with medical conditions.

Other questions? Contact NOAA toll-free at 888-212-SAVE or visit NOAA's search & rescue website
at: www.sarsat@noaa.gov.
EPIRB Comparison Chart
Safety

ACR ACR ACR

ACR 406
Mini Magnum RapidFix Notes:
MHz
B2 B 406
Category Category
Designation Class B Class B See definitions below.
I/II I/II
Application:
Life rafts X Small enough to pack in a raft.
Coastal Any of these units are appropriate for
X X X X
Cruising/Racing recreational use.
Ocean We strongly recommend 406 MHz
X X
Cruising/Racing EPIRBs for offshore use.
Commercial Varies by type of boat, distance
Cat I Cat I
Vessels offshore, and other variables.
Power Output, Cat I and II also transmit at 25 mW on
75 mW 75 mW 5 watts 5 watts
watts 121.5 MHz.
Cat I and II transmit a unique code to
Encoded Signal? No No Yes Yes
satellites.
Encoded GPS RapidFix uses IR link to your onboard
No No Yes Yes
Position? GPS for faster rescues.
Civilian distress frequency, aircraft, also
121.5 MHz Yes Yes Yes Yes
satellite.
243.0 MHz Yes Yes No No Military distress frequency, aircraft.
Satellite frequency with worldwide
406.0 MHz No No Yes Yes
coverage.
Frequency ppm = parts per million, ppb = parts per
50ppm 50ppm 2ppb 2ppb
Precision billion
Automatic Turn- Does EPIRB turn on without
No No Yes Yes
on intervention?
Is EPIRB designed to float free of
Float-free bracket? No No Cat I Cat I
sinking vessel?
Battery Battery replacement interval for
6 6 5 5
Replacement (Yrs) inspected vessels (not recreational).
Battery Useful
12 12 11 11 Actual useful storage life of battery.
Life (Yrs)
Height w/o Flexible antennas are 5 3/4" high, w/o
6" 9" 9" 9"
antenna brackets.
Width 2.6" 4.8" 4.8" 4.8" w/o brackets
Weight (ounces) 9.2 27.9 35.2 35.2

Types of EPIRBs (Designation):

Class A: Transmit on 121.5 and 243.0 MHz, float free and turn on automatically.
Class B: Transmit on 121.5 and 243.0 MHz, manually deployed and turned on.
Category I: Transmit on 406 and 121.5 MHz, float free and turn on automatically.
Category II: Transmit on 406 and 121.5 MHz, manually deployed and turned on.

Notes: Category I and II models used to be available with moderate temperature and really low
temperature batteries. We have standardized our offering, and only supply 406 MHz EPIRBs
with cold temperature batteries, good to -40°F (-40°C).
Personal Flotation Devices
Safety

The Regulations
Pfd's, or Personal Flotation Devices (life jackets), are divided into five categories, Type I through Type
V. The U.S. Coast Guard regulations regarding life jackets on pleasure boats are pretty simple:

If you have a boat under 16', you need to have a Type I, II, III, or V for each person on board. If you
operate a boat between 16' and 65', you must have a Type I, II, III or V for each person on board, and a
Type IV throwable device. According to the Coast Guard, the Type I, II and III pfd's must be readily
accessible and wearable by the intended user, while Type IV pfd's must be immediately available. Type
V hybrid pfd's (not inflatables) must be worn to be counted in the vessel's pfd inventory.

The Different Types of pfd's

Type I Offshore Life Jacket: The most buoyant and effective pfd for abandoning ship in rough water.
Type I jackets provide at least 22 lb. of buoyancy and turn wearers face up, even if unconscious. Bulky
size makes them clumsy to wear. Either a Type I or a 33.7 lb. buoyancy inflatable is required in
offshore sailboat races.

Type II Near Shore Life Vest: While "calm water" Type II vests are extremely economical, we
recommend you invest in a Type III, which is much more comfortable to wear. Type IIs do have
reasonably good buoyancy distribution, but we find them uncomfortable, unattractive, and completely
undesirable. For the sake of your crew, consider better pfd's.

Type III Recreational Vests: Comfortable, vest-style designs with an emphasis on "wearability" and
moderate cost. 15.5 lb. of buoyancy. Poor righting ability and head support. Recommended for inland
waters and active boaters who can swim. If your watersport activities include skiing and riding
personal watercraft, we recommend impact speed-rated Type III Watersport Vests, which add a better
fit and increased numbers of belts to ensure that the vest remains on the body during high speed
impacts.

Type III Float Coats: These offer some important advantages when boating in colder climates. First,
they are more likely to be worn because they look like jackets, not like safety gear. Second, they
provide extra warmth on deck and reduce the threat of hypothermia. Depending on design, they can
also greatly reduce heat loss in cold water and extend survival time.

Type III Inflatable Vests - Inherently superior to typical Type III vests due to their added buoyancy
and lightweight comfort, Inflatables are still rated as Type III pfd's because they do not provide
flotation without inflation and they require occasional maintenance by the wearer. They provide from
22.5 to 33.7 lb. of flotation upon inflation (which is normally activated by the pull of a ripcord).
Inflatable vests provide greater buoyancy, better righting ability, and better head support than all but
some Type I foam pfd's. We are strong supporters of inflatable pfd's (in either belt or vest styles)
because of their high buoyancy and the freedom of movement they allow, which increases the
likelihood that they will be worn. However, manual-inflation models are not recommended for non-
swimmers, children, and high speed water sports.

Type IV Throwable Devices: Designed to be thrown to a person in the water up to 40' away. Can be a
cushion (18 lb. of buoyancy), ring (16.5 lb. of buoyancy) or horseshoe buoy (20 lb. of buoyancy). We
do not recommend "life rings" except for pools, because the swimmer cannot wear or attach himself to
the ring and they are tiring to hold onto. We like horseshoe-style devices the best because they are the
easiest to grasp and provide the most buoyancy. Note: boats under 16' must carry wearable pfd's for
every person on board, and Type IV devices do not meet this criteria.

Type V Special Use Device, Inflatable Vest with Harness: These are similar to Type III inflatables,
but they have an integral safety harness. They are appropriate for offshore boaters, primarliy sailors,
because they combine two pieces of gear commonly worn at the same time. They do not have to be
worn to meet Coast Guard requirements (unlike Type V Hybrids, which are required to be worn.)
Automatic (Water-Activated) Inflatables: Similar to the Type III ripcord-activated vests mentioned
above, but are not currently USCG-approved. A water-activated mechanism causes the jacket to inflate
when immersed in water. Can also be inflated manually. They provide the same great buoyancy,
righting ability, and head support of manual inflatables. Despite the lack of Coast Guard approval, we
think they are highly effective and recommend them.

Note: All inflatable buoyant products must be maintained by the user to ensure they will work as
designed when needed. This means checking the CO2 cartridge and air-holding ability of the bladder
each season, and replacing the auto-inflate bobbin every 6-12 months, if so equipped.

Note: We use the actual Coast Guard buoyancy numbers (33.7 and 22.5 lb.) when describing inflatable
pfd's. Actual buoyancy can be 20% greater in some products, but we feel that other factors influence
choice more.
Factors Affecting pfd Performance
Safety

There are many factors that determine how well a pfd will float you. This is a highly subjective look at
how we think the various USCG Type pfd's compare with inflatable pfd's:

Characteristic Type I Type II Type III Type III 22.5 lb. 33.7 lb. Foam
Jackets Vests Vests Float Coats Inflatables Inflatables Coveralls
Wearability Poor Poor Very Good Very Excellent Excellent Varies!
Good
Total buoyancy Very Fair Fair Good Very Excellent Excellen
Good Good t
Reserve Very Poor Poor Good Very Excellent Very
buoyancy Good Good Good
Freeboard Very Fair Fair Fair Good Excellent Varies
Good
Righting force Very Fair Poor Poor Good Excellent Varies
Good
Body angle Very Fair Poor Fair Very Excellent Very
Good Good Good
Hypothermia Good Poor Good Excellent Poor Good* Outstand
protection ing

Wearability is a qualitative term describing how much the pfd restricts your activities.
Total buoyancy is how much force it takes to submerge a pfd; more is better.
Reserve buoyancy is how much force it takes to submerge you, while wearing the pfd in the water.
Freeboard is the distance from the water to your mouth.
Righting force is the tendency of the pfd to turn you face-up.
Body angle should be face up, at a 45° angle.
Hypothermia protection is how much the device reduces heat loss, or allows you to act to prevent
heat loss.

* Note that inflatables allow you to assume the Heat Escape Lessening Position, in which you cross
your arms over your chest, draw your legs up to your torso, and lock your ankles together.

Since pfd designs are necessarily a compromise, each type of pfd will have varying scores in these
categories. The correct pfd for your use will score well in categories that are important to you. For
example, a Type I life jacket is very buoyant, provides good freeboard, etc., but is too bulky for active
boating. A Type III will generally score poorly on each of these except wearability, but since it is much
more likely to be worn by active boaters, you are more likely to have it on when you need it.
Choosing a Personal Flotation Device (pfd)
Safety

Type III
Type of Type Float Type Type 33.7 lb 22.5 lb.
Boating5 I Type II Type III Coat IV V Inflatable4 Inflatable4 Coveralls

Power
General
OK Marginal Yes Yes Yes1 Yes Yes Yes No
Powerboat
Waterskiing,
No No Yes6 No No No No No No
water sports
Personal
No No Yes6 OK No No No No Yes
Watercraft
Inland
No Marginal Yes Yes Yes1 Yes Yes Yes No
Fishing
Offshore
OK No OK Yes Yes1 Yes Yes No Yes
Fishing

Sail
Day Sailing No Marginal Yes Yes Yes1 Yes Yes Yes No
Inshore
OK No OK Yes Yes1 Yes Yes Yes No
Cruising
Offshore
Yes No Marginal Marginal Yes1 OK Yes No Yes
Cruising
Inshore
OK No Yes OK Yes1 No Yes Yes No
Racing3
Offshore
Yes No No No Yes1 No Yes No No
Racing2

Kayaking, Canoeing, Racing Shells, Boardsailing. Use specialized devices approved for each sport.
1
Required on boats over 16' long in addition to wearable pfd
2
Defined as Categories 0, 1, 2, and 3
3
Defined as Category
4
May or may not be USCG approved, depending on style
5
In cold water, take additional precautions against hypothermia. 6 50-mph or above impact rating
Safety Harnesses and Jacklines
Safety

What They Do
Safety harnesses are webbing assemblies that allow you to connect yourself to your boat to prevent
falling overboard, or being separated from the boat if you do fall overboard.

Jacklines (also called trolley lines or jack stays) are lengths of rope, webbing or wire which run fore
and aft, or athwartships, to which safety harness tethers are attached. They can be on the centerline of
the vessel, run along each side deck, or used inside the cockpit.

How They Work

If there were a Murphy's Law for rough-water sailing, it would probably be that "Crew members tend
to fall overboard when recovery will be the most difficult." Since recovering a crew overboard is
difficult in rough seas and at night, even with specialized devices like the Lifesling, you should do
whatever you can to keep your crew on board.

A safety harness system consists of webbing that goes around your chest
and over your shoulders, and a tether (sometimes called a lanyard). The
ORC specifies that the chest webbing must be at least 1 1/2" in width, and
have a breaking strength which exceeds 3,300 lb. (working load of over
1,575 lb). Tethers must have a breaking strength of over 4,950 lb. These are
the minimum requirements for ocean racing, and we think they are good
guidelines for any recreational use.

Increasingly, inflatable pfd's have integral harnesses, which really makes

sense. When it is rough enough for a pfd, it is
rough enough for a harness-and vice-versa.

Some foul-weather jackets have built-in

harnesses that make it easy to don all your gear
at one time. Otherwise, it can take 20 minutes or
more to get ready to come on deck. The downside is that foul weather gear
may be too warm for comfort in warm climates.

Jacklines should be as strong as a safety harness,

since the strain on them is just as great. They are
commonly made from nylon webbing that is
treated to resist UV degradation. While some
boaters leave them in place whenever they are on
the water, others prefer to stow them until needed to protect them against
exposure. We like to mechanically fasten the forward end to a secure point,
and use several turns of 1/4" yacht braid to adjust the aft end. This is strong,
easily adjusted, and requires very little hardware.

What to Look For

ORC Specifications
While some vendors actually submit their harnesses to UL or a similar agency for testing, most simply
attest that their harness would meet the tough ORC specifications. While testing is expensive, we like
the idea of having independent verification by a lab.

Tether Design

The tether must have snaps at both ends so you can release the harness at your end. The snaps must be
easy to connect, yet not disconnect accidentally. We like snap shackles at the chest end so that you can
release yourself from a sinking or capsized boat, and we understand the Coast Guard requires them.

Tethers should not be more than 6' in length. A popular option is to have a Y-shaped double tether so
that you can snap onto two locations at once. Consider either Gibb or Wichard snaps for increased
security at the "boat end".

Women and Harnesses

Harnesses should be easy to put on and easy to adjust. The chest strap should ride about 1"-2" below
your armpits, which frequently interferes with female anatomy. It is critical that women not wear the
chest strap below their bust line, due to the upward load that is placed on a harness when it comes
under tension. Some women prefer vest-type designs which spread the load over more area, or integral
harnesses in foul-weather gear jackets.

What will the future bring?

The Coast Guard was dragged into the harness arena when they began to approve designs for inflatable
pfd's. This slowed down the approval process since they Coast Guard became worried about standards
for harnesses when their expertise was really in flotation. At one point, we were going to have to sell
harness model inflatables with a tether included, since the Coast Guard wanted to make sure that a
proper tether was used.

Cooler heads prevailed, and we now sell Coast Guard approved Type V inflatable vests with harnesses
without tethers. They are NOT required to be worn like the old Hybrid inflatables, and we believe that
they are the single most important piece of offshore sailing gear. As the person in charge of your
vessel, you have an obligation to set a good example by wearing an inflatable/harness when conditions
warrant it, and especially at night. Define the times when wearing this gear is mandatory on your boat,
and then enforce the rule.
Visual Distress Signals
Safety

What They Do
Visual Distress Signals are designed to do two things: alert people so that they know you're in trouble,
and provide a homing signal so that rescuers can "home-in" on you.

Standards
Two standards organizations regulate flare design: the U.S. Coast Guard, and SOLAS, which is a
subdivision of the International Maritime Organization. SOLAS-grade flares were designed for
commercial vessels but they are excellent for recreational boaters as well and they meet all USCG
requirements. The performance of SOLAS-grade flares is so far superior to conventional flares that we
recommend them for all Great Lakes, coastal, and offshore use. In the descriptions which follow,
SOLAS measurements are shown in parentheses for comparison.

Flare Types
Hand flares are long-duration, low-altitude signals. They burn for 120 seconds (60), at 500 candela
(15,000). They allow rescue vessels and aircraft to locate your position.

Smoke flares are approved for use during the day only since their orange smoke is invisible at night.
They last for 50 seconds (180). SOLAS versions are tossed into the water, and will not ignite oil or fuel
on the water, while non-SOLAS flares are handheld.

Meteor flares are short-duration, medium-altitude signals that rise from 250' to 400' in the air, and last
up to 8 seconds. They are available in 10,000 candela to 35,000 candela intensities. They fall quickly
so rescuers must be looking in your general direction. They are often launched in pairs: the first flare
attracts attention, and the second confirms the first.

Parachute flares are medium-duration, high-altitude signals that reach to 1,000' in altitude. They are
the best for attracting attention, since they can be seen at great distances, and they stay in the air for a
long time. They burn for at least 25 seconds (40) with brightness of at least 10,000 candela (30,000).
Non-SOLAS parachute flares require a launcher. SOLAS flares have built-in launchers.

Distress flags and SOS lights are non-pyrotechnic options which we think are much less effective. We
prefer the use of pyrotechnic devices whenever possible. However, for a compact, waterproof daytime
signal, a small signal mirror is a good companion to flares.
Recommendations
USCG minimum equipment requirements specify that all recreational vessels over 16' long must carry
at least three day-use and three night-use signals, or three day/night combination signals. Like all Coast
Guard minimum requirements, this amount is really minimal. Three six-second meteors meet the
requirement, but only provide 18 total seconds of signaling power, which doesn't amount to much
during a 12-hour (43,200-second!) night. If you find yourself in distress, you'll want all the signaling
power you can get, so we recommend that all boaters carry more than just the "minimums."

Inland Boaters
Inland boaters should have a minimum of three handheld flares. We recommend that you augment
handheld flares with meteor flares. They attract the attention of boaters who are farther away. On larger
bodies of water, you might buy one SOLAS parachute flare and two SOLAS handheld flares. This
combination gives you two styles of superior flares.

Coastal Boaters
We suggest that coastal boaters have at least one smoke flare, three handheld flares and three parachute
flares. Better yet, carry twice that many. We recommend that you have an equal number of aerial and
handheld flares and fewer smoke flares, since smoke flares are daylight use only.

Offshore Boaters and Ocean Racers

A good source for offshore outfitting information is the Offshore Racing Council Special Regulations,
which sailboat racers use to equip their boats for offshore racing. The ORC requires lots more flares
than USCG minimum requirements, all of which must meet SOLAS requirements. ORC requirements,
for races from local and protected (Category 4) to "Round the World" (Category 0) are:

Catagory: HH Red HH White Smoke Red Parachute

0,1 4 4 2 12
2,3 4 4 2 4
4 4 4 0 0

We advise offshore fishing vessels, cruisers, and any vessel that operates in open water to use the ORC
guidelines for distress signals.

Flare Useful Life

By law, flares "expire" 42 months after the date of manufacture printed on the outside of the flare. Flare
inventory must be current to pass a USCG inspection. It's a great idea to keep out-of-date flares on
board as spares, as many will still work well after their expiration date.
When are SOLAS flares required?
Safety

In some instances you must use SOLAS flares instead of conventional Coast Guard-approved flares.
One is commercial fishing, and the other is sailboat racing organized under the Offshore Racing
Council. Commercial fishing boats that venture more than 50 miles offshore must carry a modest
inventory of SOLAS flares. including 3 parachute flares, 6 handheld red flares, and 3 smoke flares.
Vessels operating from 3-50 miles offshore aren't required to have SOLAS-grade flares, but we sure
think it's a good idea.

Racing sailboats in sanctioned events need a modest inventory, too. For Category 4 races (day sails in
protected waters), you are required to have 4 red handheld flares, 4 white handheld flares, and 2 orange
smoke flares. For Category 2 and 3 races (races of extended duration along or not far removed from
shorelines where a high degree of self-sufficiency is required), you must add 4 red parachute flares to
the above assortment.

For those with a real taste for adventure, the Category 0 and 1 racers (up to and including Round the
World racing), the requirements are 12 red parachute flares, 4 red handheld flares, 4 white handheld
flares, and 2 orange smoke flares. The racing rules require that you store the flares in a waterproof
container.

Note: White flares are intended for non-emergency signaling, as when crossing a finish line, and are
not actually distress signals. If you are in danger of being run down by a freighter, we recommend that
you do whatever you have to do to get their attention, including white flares, red flares, or spotlights.

Offshore Racing Council regulations allow you to use SOLAS grade flares for up to six years, but you
still need to meet the applicable USCG requirements of 42 months from the date of manufacture.
Therefore, always have at least three flares that are less than 42 months old whether you race or not.
On Medical Sea Paks
Safety

On Medical Sea Paks

Boaters who are not medical professionals face a daunting task when someone becomes injured on a
boat. While medical attention may only be a few hours away, it becomes the responsibility of someone
onboard to render appropriate first aid. Even if you've received Red Cross training or other emergency
medical instruction, it can still be intimidating to help an injured crewmember.

Medical Sea Paks give us dramatically more confidence that we will be able to assist someone on
board, due to their well-thought-out design. More than just an assortment of sterile dressings, the Paks
supply the following necessities:

• An excellent manual, printed on waterproof Tyvek, which describes various treatments in

simple English, without medical jargon or body part names you've never heard before.

• Color-coded bags of medical supplies, which apply to specific medical problems Rather than
dig through a tackle box of mysterious bandages and potions, the Paks use the philosophy of
Divide and Conquer. The Coastal Cruising Pak, for example, has eight bags of quality
supplies, arranged by type of injury. That greatly decreases the chance of applying a
tourniquet when someone has a headache, or splinting an upset stomach.

• The equipment is all top-notch, and the Paks come with an inventory card, so that you have a
modest chance of replenishing the Paks with the appropriate gear after using them. Prior to a
cruise or race, simply verify that the contents are complete, and order the items you lack.

• Finally, for small boats and specific maladies, the Day Pak Modules provide quality gear at an
affordable price
Selecting a Life Raft
Safety

A life raft is designed to keep the crew of a boat alive until they can be rescued. Life rafts provide
minimal environmental protection and create a target for rescuers.

How They Work

Life rafts are inflated by compressed gas, usually nitrogen and CO2, stored in a high-pressure
cylinder. When the inflation lanyard is pulled, a valve releases the gas into the inflatable chamber(s).
The inflated shape may be square, oval, pentagonal, hexagonal, octagonal, elongated octagonal, etc.

Most have a protective canopy, supported by one or more inflatable tubes. Some rafts, like the Rescue
Pod, use an inflated canopy which is self-supporting. Doors allow occupants to board, and to vary the
amount of ventilation according to the conditions.

The floor of the raft may be a single layer of fabric, or a double layer inflated with air to provide
insulation, or a separate inflatable floor may be tied in place.

Raft Types
Note: There is little standardization of terminology among manufacturers. Make sure you look at the
selection criteria presented here when comparing rafts of the same type.

Inflatable Dinghy: While not legitimate life rafts, inflatable dinghies can be pressed into service in an
emergency. For coastal boating to nearby islands, or trips along the coast, a readily available dinghy is
a viable alternative to treading water. It must be kept inflated and in a location where it can be launched
quickly. The addition of a 3' sea anchor to keep the bow into the wind and waves, a waterproof VHF
radio, and 5 gallons of water will greatly improve the survival chances of the crew.

Rescue Platform or similar Inflatable Buoyant Apparatus: These are flat, unballasted disks that can
keep a large number of persons only modestly drier than if they were treading water. The key is that
occupants are not immersed in the water, greatly extended their survival time.

The Rescue Pod provides a cocoon of inhabitable space for 2-4 individuals, with minimal equipment,
ballast, and personal space. Intended for the coastal boater, and the fisherman who ventures offshore on
day runs.

Coastal Life Raft: Coastal rafts have the greatest range of properties, from really minimal to "I'd cross
an ocean in that!" Most rafts have a single buoyancy tube and a manual or automatically erected
canopy. Ballast systems are also varied, ranging from a single ballast bag about the size of a loaf of
bread, to the Switlik's four large bags.

Who needs a life raft?

The greater the likelihood that you will be rescued quickly, due to boating traffic and/or rescue
agencies in the vicinity, the less you need a life raft. Warm water extends your survival time, and
reduces the need to get out of the water for protection from hypothermia.

Inland, warm waters: You probably don't need a raft, but you might consider having an inflatable or
rigid dinghy available for rapid deployment.

Inland, cold waters: Strongly consider having a means of keeping your crew out of the water-either a
rescue platform, or coastal life raft, or large inflatable dinghy.

Coastal cruising/racing: One of the myths about boat use is that "coastal waters" are somehow less
threatening and require less rigorous safety gear. While it is true that your proximity to the coast may
allow you to get to shelter before a storm, or to get assistance more quickly than if you were further
offshore, coastal sea conditions are frequently worse than those offshore, especially near points of land.
Chances are that you'll spend less time in a raft when close to shore, either due to washing ashore, or
due to being found sooner. Rafts used for coastal boating need to be seaworthy, but can include less
gear for long term survival than offshore rafts. Therefore, we recommend either premium coastal rafts,
or offshore rafts.

Offshore cruising/racing: Far from land, rescue agencies, and safe harbors, you must have a raft in
which you can survive for a week or more. Rafts for offshore use should be more commodious, and
should have greater stability to survive storms at sea. Offshore and SOLAS rafts are recommended.
What to Look For

Inflatable Floors are desirable in all rafts, even in warm water, due to the discomfort that comes from
sitting on sub-body temperature surfaces. Although many record-breaking life raft survival episodes
have occurred in single floor rafts, all survivors wished they had the insulation of an inflatable raft
floor. If you use your boat in waters less than 65-70°, we strongly recommend this option.

Valises or canister storage. If you are going to store your raft on deck, you must use a canister
version. We recommend that you also use a hydrostatic release, which will allow your raft to float to
the surface if you can't get to it before the boat sinks. If you store the raft below decks, make sure you
can launch it in 15 seconds or less, and get a valise raft. It will be lighter, somewhat cheaper, but much
less waterproof than the canister model.

Emergency Equipment. Rafts do not come with lots of gear that can save your life. It is up to you to
supply EPIRBs, water makers, and extra flares. This is an economic decision on the part of the
manufacturers, but they also realize that you will want to augment basic inventories with your own
gear. An Abandon Ship Bag is vital to your survival. A common minimum assortment of gear will
include only those products that pertain to repairing the raft, while better kits will contain those items
required for sailboat ocean racing. Mandatory items for every Abandon Ship Bag:

• EPIRB, preferably 406 MHz type

• Watermaker, PUR Survivor 06
• SOLAS red parachute flares and hand flares
• Prescription medicine and old prescription glasses
• Handheld VHF radio with extra alkaline batteries
• Fishing kit (Datrex)
• Emergency rations (Datrex)
• Seasickness medications
Fume Detectors and Alarms
Safety

The same hull that you depend on to keep water outside also acts to keep fumes and gases inside.
There are two primary concerns: explosions or fires due to concentrations of explosive gasoline vapor
or propane gas which are heavier than air and settle into low areas of the hull, and poisonous fumes like
Carbon Monoxide (CO).

Fume detectors (sometimes called "sniffers") monitor enclosed spaces for these gasses. Common
sniffers detect propane, gasoline or carbon monoxide (CO), and do so at concentrations that indicate a
brewing problem, but prior to the danger point. For example, fuel vapor sensors commonly sound the
alarm if the percentage of explosive gasses reaches 10%-20% of what is required for an explosion. This
gives you ample time to correct the problem before your boat blows up.

Diesel, although explosive when hot, is not volatile enough to have explosive fumes (although high
concentrations can make you nauseous). Compressed natural gas (CNG) can be explosive, but is a gas
at room temperature and is lighter than air, so it rises out of enclosed spaces. These fumes typically are
not monitored.

Carbon monoxide (CO) poses a different problem. This colorless and odorless gas isn't as heavy as
propane or gasoline vapor, but we are frequently exposed to it on board since it results from almost any
fuel combustion. Our blood has a strong affinity to CO (200 times that of oxygen), so both exposure
time and concentration levels contribute to its effect on our bodies. The result is dizziness, nausea,
grogginess, and eventually death. The cumulative effect of CO can render a victim unconscious in a
matter of several hours or several minutes, depending on the concentration.

There are two technologies in use for measuring CO detection and warning. One is called time
weighted averaging, and it measures the cumulative effect of CO exposure on your body by
integrating the concentration and duration of exposure. In other words, alarms using this technique can
be triggered by intense concentrations over short periods of time, or low level concentrations over
longer periods of time, based on a model of how your body reacts to CO.

The other technology is to sound an alarm whenever a potentially dangerous concentration is reached.
To reduce the likelihood of maddening false alarms, set point alarms commonly re-set themselves after
initial detection for a period of time to insure that the CO concentration is continuing, before setting off
their alarm.

To minimize the danger of CO accumulation, start by taking the following precautions: 1) ensure that
all combustion devices are operated in well-ventilated areas, 2) supplement natural ventilation with
fans or forced air if necessary, 3) avoid idling for long periods of time while not underway, 4) take care
while motoring in a following sea, and 5) inspect your exhaust system regularly. Even small leaks can
allow fatal concentrations of CO below decks. The ABYC recommends placing a CO detector in every
sleeping area on board. It's cheap insurance against a potentially fatal problem.
Fire Extinguishers
Safety

Types of Fires
Class A - Ordinary Combustible Materials. This includes wood, paper, cloth, rubber, and some
plastics-almost anything that leaves an ash.
Class B - Flammable Liquids. This includes gasoline, oil, kerosene, diesel fuel, alcohol, tar, paint and
lacquers.
Class C - Live Electrical Fires. The heat source is a live electrical circuit which is arcing or hot due to
overloading. Turning off the electricity will usually result in a Class A fire.

Ratings & Requirements

Ratings reflect an extinguisher's ability to combat particular types of fires. UL (Underwriters
Laboratory) uses letters to denote the type of fires the extinguisher is capable of fighting, and numbers
to refer to the fire fighting "capacity" relative to other extinguishers. For example, a 1-A;10-B:C
extinguisher is effective on Class A, B, and C fires, and a 40-B:C extinguisher has four times the
extinguishing capacity of a 10-B:C extinguisher.

The Coast Guard has chosen to quantify extinguisher abilities differently from UL, and they use the
terms B-I and B-II. The difference is that the Coast Guard looks only at the weight of the extinguishing
agent, while UL looks at the fire fighting ability.

The Coast Guard requires from one to three extinguishers on pleasure boats, depending on whether
they have an engine, and whether there is a permanently-mounted fixed extinguisher system in the
engine room. For more information, see the chart, "US Coast Guard Minimum Equipment
Requirements" earlier in this section. Like all Coast Guard requirements, these are really minimal. Buy
enough to satisfy the requirements, and then address the needs of your particular boat. Remember that
extinguishers are only effective if you can get to them. We recommend at least one in the cockpit, one
in a forward cabin, and one in the galley area, reachable even if the stove is on fire. Legally, three small
dry chemical extinguishers will meet the requirements of boats to 20 meters (65 ft.). Although
individual requirement may differ, one small dry chem (B:C) or tri-class (A:B:C) extinguisher per
cabin is a logical minimum, plus one accessible from the cockpit.

Portable extinguishers must be mounted in a bracket which has a strap to prevent it from falling when
the boat pounds or heels. Although some plastic brackets are Coast Guard approved, we recommend
beefier metal brackets for added security. "Hang type" brackets that rely on gravity are not Coast Guard
approved, and should not be used.

Types of Extinguishing Agents

Water - Good for Class A fires. Extinguishers are heavy, difficult to store, and are NOT for use on
flammable liquid or electrical fires.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Good for Class B and Class C fires. No clean-up. Easy to use. Useful only in
confined interior spaces. Does not cool fire.
Halon - No longer produced as a result of the environmentally hazardous CFCs (chloroflourocarbons)
it produces.
FE-241, FM-200 - Relatively non-toxic Halon replacements are effective on all fire classes. Not as
effective as Halon. Expensive.
Dry Chemical - Low toxicity. Inexpensive. Effective on Class B and Class C fires. Not effective on
Class A fires. Difficult to clean up.
Tri-Class Dry Chemical - Low toxicity. Inexpensive. Effective on Class B and Class C fires.
Moderately effective on Class A fires. Difficult to clean up. Corrosive to metal and electronics; not a
good choice for helm or nav station.
Aqueous Foam - This relatively new technology is extremely easy to use effectively on Class A, B,
and C fires. Toxicity testing still in progress.
Safety Equipment Inventories for Sail and Power Boats
Safety

The Coast Guard Minimum Requirements shown on opposite page are just that: the minimum gear you
are required to have to go boating. And while it is a great place to start, many boaters will need to have
additional safety-related gear on board to suit their individual type of boating. Your needs will depend
on where you operate your boat, proximity to potential rescuers, the type of boating you do, and your
desired degree of self-sufficiency. The following is a brief description of various categories of safety
gear and how your needs might differ depending on whether you are sailing on a lake in Kansas,
powering over to Catalina Island, or fishing off the Georges Bank. While the requirements for sailboats
and powerboats boats are similar, you'll note some differences. The ORC Regulations, our Model
501304, is a great checklist for offshore cruisers and racers, as well as coastal sailors and powerboaters.

Equipment: Sail/Power Inland Coastal Offshore

Lifesling Both On boats over 24' Absolutely Absolutely
Yes, depends on
Life jackets Both Type I or Inflatable Type I or Inflatable
activity
Heaving line Both Yes, 50-70' Yes, 50-70' Yes, 50-70'
Life raft Both No Coastal Life raft Offshore/SOLAS raft
Safety harnesses Sail Possibly One per crew One per crew
Safety harnesses Power No No Yes
ORC ORC requirements +
Bilge pumps Sail Add electric bilge pumps
requirements* Electric
1 manual/1
Bilge pumps Power 1 manual/2 electric Add engine-driven
electric
3 handheld/3 3 handheld/3 SOLAS 6 handheld/6 SOLAS
Flares Both
meteor parachute parachute
Emergency CB, cell phone,
Both VHF, Class B EPIRB 406 MHz EPIRB, Inmarsat E
communications VHF
CB, cell phone, SSB or Ham, VHF, handheld
Communications Both VHF, backup antenna
VHF VHF
Medical kit Both First aid kit Trauma kit Trauma kit w/drugs
Drag Device Both No Possibly Strongly recommended
Storm sails Sail No Double reef, storm jib Trysail, storm jib
If ship traffic
Radar reflector Both Yes, temporary Yes, permanent and large
present
USCG minimums + 1 per USCG minimums + 1 per
Fire extinguishers Both USCG minimums
cabin cabin
Emergency water Both Gallon water jugs Gallon water jugs Manual watermaker
Reliable fuel supply Both Second tank Second tank, good filters Two + tanks, excellent filters
Compass, radar, depth,
Navigation Both Compass, depth Compass, depth, GPS, radar
GPS
2 storm anchors, 1 working
Ground tackle Both 1 working anchor 1 storm/1 working anchor
anchor
High Seas, WFAX, Inmarsat
Weather information Both Weather radio VHF radio
M
Fume, fire, depth, carbon Fume, fire, depth, carbon
Alarms Power Fume, depth
monoxide monoxide
USCG Minimum Safety Requirements
Safety

How to comply with the regulations

There are actually very few items you have to put on the average pleasure boat for it to be in
compliance with Federal (Coast Guard ) regulations for safety gear. Most of us do a pretty good job
when it comes to PFDs, horns, fire extinguishers, etc. And most boat builders supply boats with legal
head installations, ventilation, backfire arrestors, and navigation lights.

However, we suspect that many boats would fail an inspection of their safety gear for one of the
following reasons:

• Omission of one of the plaques (which make up three of the required items)
• Omission of the Rules of the Road (which only applies to boats over 40’ LOA)
• Out of date flares

When you are preparing for the next boating season, make sure that your boat complies with Coast
Guard requirements in the less obvious areas listed above.

Who are the regulations aimed at?

The vast majority of boating in the U.S. takes place on relatively calm inland waters in small
powerboats. Coast Guard requirements are aimed at that type of boating, which makes sense due its
popularity. For boaters who venture offshore or operate their boats in consistently rough waters, a
necessarily higher standard is called for, which moved us to write the companion West Advisor
"Beyond the Coast Guard Minimum Requirements."

Some last words of wisdom

• Regardless of where you boat, the following items should be considered first when outfitting
your boat for safety:
• Buy comfortable, wearable PFDs with the correct impact rating;
• Make sure your running lights shine accurately in the right direction, and do not cause glare
for the driver;
• Consider extra fire extinguishers: they're cheap and effective;
• Carry double the number of meteor or hand flares required: they're cheap, and you'll be
grateful if you ever need to attract attention;
• Label the locations where safety equipment is stowed on board; and
• Have a high-quality, reliable VHF radio aboard so you can summon help

USCG Minimum Safety Requirements

• Boats Less Than 16', Canoes, Kayaks

• Boats 16' to 26'(8m)
• Boats 26' to 40'(12m)
• Boats 40' to 65'(20m)
• Boats 65' to 165'(50m)
 Boats Less Than 16', Canoes, Kayaks
Personal Floatation
Devices
One Type I, II, III, or V per person. PFDs must be CG approved,
wearable by the intended user and readily accessible.

Fire Extinguishers
One B-I, any type. Fire extinguishers required on boats with
enclosed engine compartments (not outboards), enclosed living
spaces or permanent fuel tanks.

Visual Distress Signals

Night signals required when operating at night; dated within 42
months of mfr date.

Sound Producing Devices

Horn or whistle recommended to signal intentions or signal position

One CG-approved device on each carburetor of all gasoline-powered

Backfire Flame Arrestor
engines built after April 1940, except outboard motors
Ventilation
CG-standard system required on gasoline powered vessels with
enclosed engine compartments built after August 1980

Pollution Regulation "Honor system" (no plaques required)

Vessels with installed toilet facilities must have an operable, CG-
Marine Sanitation Devices certified Type I, II or III Marine Sanitation Device (MSD). Subject
to local laws!
Navigation Rules Familiarity with rules recommended, but not required
Navigation Lights:
Boats under 12m may combine the masthead and stern light into a
Under Power
single "all-round" light.
Sailboats under sail and rowboats under 7m and under 7 knots can
Under Sail
substitute a white lantern or torch in place of the required lights.
Rowing Same as "Under Sail"
All-round light, 2nm (at night) or black anchoring ball (during the
At Anchor
day) when outside a designated anchorage
Visibility Range 1nm Sidelights, 2nm all others
 Boats 16' to 26'(8m)
Personal Floatation
Devices One Type I, II, III, or V per person, plus one Type IV throwable.
PFDs must be CG approved, wearable by the intended user and readily
accessible.

Fire One B-I, any type. Fire extinguishers required on boats with enclosed
No Fixed
Extinguishers engine compartments (not outboards), enclosed living spaces or
System
permanent fuel tanks.

Fixed
No Portables Required
System

Pyrotechnic Signals: Minimum of three-day-use and three-night-use

Visual Distress Signals or three day/night combination pyrotechnic devices. Non-pyrotechnic
substitutes: 1 orange distress flag (day-use) and 1 electric SOS signal
light (night-use). Pyrotechnic signals must be dated within 42 months
of the mfr. date on the label.
Sound Producing Devices
Horn or whistle recommended to signal intentions or signal position

One CG-approved device on each carburetor of all gasoline-powered

Backfire Flame Arrestor
engines built after April 1940, except outboard motors
Ventilation
CG-standard system required on gasoline powered vessels with
enclosed engine compartments built after August 1980

Pollution Regulation "Honor system" (no plaques required)

Vessels with installed toilet facilities must have an operable, CG-
Marine Sanitation Devices certified Type I, II or III Marine Sanitation Device (MSD). Subject to
local laws!
Navigation Rules Familiarity with rules recommended, but not required
Navigation Lights:
Sidelights, Stern Light and Masthead. Sailboats operating under
engine power are considered power driven and must follow the "Under
Power" rules. During the day, motorsailing vessels are required to fly a
Under Power
motoring cone. Boats under 20m can substitute a single bi-color light
for sidelights. Boats under 12m may combine the masthead and stern
light into a single "all-round" light.
Sidelights and Stern Light. Sailboats operating under engine power
are considered power driven and must follow the "Under Power" rules.
During the day, motorsailing vessels are required to fly a motoring
Under Sail cone.Sailboats under sail and rowboats under 7m and under 7 knots
can substitute a white lantern or torch in place of the required lights.
Boats under sail under 20m can substitute a tri-color light for separate
sidelights and stern light.
Rowing Same as "Under Sail"
All-round light, 2nm (at night) or black anchoring ball (during the
At Anchor
day) when outside a designated anchorage
Visibility Range 1nm Sidelights, 2nm all others
 Boats 26' to 40'(12m)
Personal Floatation Devices
One Type I, II, III, or V per person, plus one Type IV throwable. PFDs
must be CG approved, wearable by the intended user and readily
accessible.

Fire No Fixed
One B-II or two B-I.
Extinguishers System

Fixed System One B-1

Pyrotechnic Signals: Minimum of three-day-use and three-night-use or

Visual Distress Signals three day/night combination pyrotechnic devices. Non-pyrotechnic
substitutes: 1 orange distress flag (day-use) and 1 electric SOS signal
light (night-use). Pyrotechnic signals must be dated within 42 months of
the mfr. date on the label.
Sound Producing Devices
Horn or whistle recommended to signal intentions or signal position

One CG-approved device on each carburetor of all gasoline-powered

Backfire Flame Arrestor
engines built after April 1940, except outboard motors
Ventilation
CG-standard system required on gasoline powered vessels with enclosed
engine compartments built after August 1980

5" x 8" Oil Discharge placard and 4" x 9" Waste Discharge placard.
Pollution Regulation
Vessels over 40' with a galley must have a Waste Management Plan.
Vessels with installed toilet facilities must have an operable, CG-
Marine Sanitation Devices certified Type I, II or III Marine Sanitation Device (MSD). Subject to
local laws!
The Inland Navigation Rules ("Rules of the Road") must be kept on
Navigation Rules
board
Navigation Lights:
Sidelights, Stern Light and Masthead. Sailboats operating under engine
power are considered power driven and must follow the "Under Power"
rules. During the day, motorsailing vessels are required to fly a
Under Power
motoring cone. Boats under 20m can substitute a single bi-color light
for sidelights. Boats under 12m may combine the masthead and stern
light into a single "all-round" light.
Sidelights and Stern Light. Sailboats operating under engine power are
considered power driven and must follow the "Under Power" rules.
During the day, motorsailing vessels are required to fly a motoring
Under Sail cone.Sailboats under sail and rowboats under 7m and under 7 knots can
substitute a white lantern or torch in place of the required lights. Boats
under sail under 20m can substitute a tri-color light for separate
sidelights and stern light.
Rowing Same as "Under Sail"
All-round light, 2nm (at night) or black anchoring ball (during the day)
At Anchor
when outside a designated anchorage
Visibility Range 3nm Masthead, 2nm all others
 Boats 40' to 65'(20m)
Personal Floatation
Devices One Type I, II, III, or V per person, plus one Type IV throwable. PFDs
must be CG approved, wearable by the intended user and readily
accessible.

Fire No Fixed
Extinguishers System One B-II and one B-I, or three B-I

Fixed
Two B-I or one Class B-II
System

Pyrotechnic Signals: Minimum of three-day-use and three-night-use or

Visual Distress Signals three day/night combination pyrotechnic devices. Non-pyrotechnic
substitutes: 1 orange distress flag (day-use) and 1 electric SOS signal
light (night-use). Pyrotechnic signals must be dated within 42 months of
the mfr. date on the label.
Sound Producing
Devices One bell, and one whistle or horn required to signal intentions or
position

One CG-approved device on each carburetor of all gasoline-powered

Backfire Flame Arrestor
engines built after April 1940, except outboard motors
Ventilation
CG-standard system required on gasoline powered vessels with enclosed
engine compartments built after August 1980

5" x 8" Oil Discharge placard and 4" x 9" Waste Discharge placard.
Pollution Regulation
Vessels over 40' with a galley must have a Waste Management Plan.
Vessels with installed toilet facilities must have an operable, CG-
Marine Sanitation
certified Type I, II or III Marine Sanitation Device (MSD). Subject to
Devices
local laws!
The Inland Navigation Rules ("Rules of the Road") must be kept on
Navigation Rules
board
Navigation Lights:
Sidelights, Stern Light and Masthead. Sailboats operating under engine
power are considered power driven and must follow the "Under Power"
Under Power
rules. During the day, motorsailing vessels are required to fly a motoring
cone.
Sidelights and Stern Light. Sailboats operating under engine power are
Under Sail considered power driven and must follow the "Under Power" rules.
During the day, motorsailing vessels are required to fly a motoring cone.
Rowing Same as "Under Sail"
All-round light, 2nm (at night) or black anchoring ball (during the day)
At Anchor
when outside a designated anchorage
Visibility Range 3nm Masthead, 2nm all others
 Boats 65' to 165'(50m)
Personal Floatation
Devices One Type I, II, III, or V per person, plus one Type IV throwable.
PFDs must be CG approved, wearable by the intended user and readily
accessible.

Fire No Fixed
Extinguishers System
One or more B-II (depends on weight)
Fixed
System

Pyrotechnic Signals: Minimum of three-day-use and three-night-use

Visual Distress Signals or three day/night combination pyrotechnic devices. Non-pyrotechnic
substitutes: 1 orange distress flag (day-use) and 1 electric SOS signal
light (night-use). Pyrotechnic signals must be dated within 42 months
of the mfr. date on the label.
Sound Producing Devices One bell, and one whistle or horn required to signal intentions or
position
One CG-approved device on each carburetor of all gasoline-powered
Backfire Flame Arrestor
engines built after April 1940, except outboard motors
Ventilation
CG-standard system required on gasoline powered vessels with
enclosed engine compartments built after August 1980

5" x 8" Oil Discharge placard and 4" x 9" Waste Discharge placard.
Pollution Regulation
Vessels over 40' with a galley must have a Waste Management Plan.
Vessels with installed toilet facilities must have an operable, CG-
Marine Sanitation Devices certified Type I, II or III Marine Sanitation Device (MSD). Subject to
local laws!
The Inland Navigation Rules ("Rules of the Road") must be kept on
Navigation Rules
board
Navigation Lights:
Sidelights, Stern Light and Masthead. Sailboats operating under
engine power are considered power driven and must follow the "Under
Power" rules. During the day, motorsailing vessels are required to fly
Under Power
a motoring cone. Boats under 20m can substitute a single bi-color light
for sidelights. Boats under 12m may combine the masthead and stern
light into a single "all-round" light.
Sidelights and Stern Light. Sailboats operating under engine power
are considered power driven and must follow the "Under Power" rules.
During the day, motorsailing vessels are required to fly a motoring
Under Sail cone.Sailboats under sail and rowboats under 7m and under 7 knots
can substitute a white lantern or torch in place of the required lights.
Boats under sail under 20m can substitute a tri-color light for separate
sidelights and stern light.
Rowing Same as "Under Sail"
All-round light, 2nm (at night) or black anchoring ball (during the
At Anchor
day) when outside a designated anchorage
Visibility Range 5nm Masthead, 2nm others

Additions to theses requirements are prescribed by some individual state laws. Check your state's
Boating Safety Handbook for a complete list
Sailboat Hardware

Headsail Controls
Headsail Furling/Reefing Systems
How to Select Running Rigging
Snatch Blocks
Mainsheet Traveler Systems
Stainless Steel Rigging
Sailboat Winches
Winch Maintenance
Understanding Rail Fittings
Whisker Poles
West Advisor
Headsail Controls
Sailboat Hardware

Adjustable Genoa Leads

Most production sailboats have aluminum T-track to allow genoa leads to be moved fore and aft,
depending on the size of the sail and the wind velocity. A neat improvement is to have genoa leads that
can be moved while sailing upwind, so that you don't have
to tack to benefit from your changes. There are three ways
to do this: 1. Use a ball bearing lead block system (the best
because it's easily adjustable under load), 2. Use other
genoa lead blocks that have slippery plastic inserts (good,
although more difficult to move under tension), or 3. Use
two cars on the leeward side so you can reeve a "short
sheet" in a new location (old fashioned). We like Option 1,
but to complete the installation you'll need a small
purchase system to pull the blocks into the new location.
Cruisers with headsail furling systems are strong
candidates for adjustable genoa leads, because the leads
should move every time the sail is rolled up.

If you think that adjustable genoa leads are a frill,

remember that adjustments that are easy to make tend to
get made, while inconvenient adjustments are frequently
left alone. You'll find that your jib trimmer can really help
the boat to accelerate after a tack if he/she moves the lead
forward to increase the power of the sail. As the boat picks
up speed, he/she can let the lead slide aft to reduce backwinding, and produce a nice, twisted shape.

Continuous Support Luffs

If you are still using a hanked-on jib, you probably wonder what it's like to use a smooth, hankless
headstay system like those from Tuff Luff (located later in this section). For performance sailing, it's
really nice to avoid the scallops and
windage that plague hanked sails. You
can change sails easily without going
"bald-headed" by hoisting one sail in
one groove and dropping the other sail
down the other groove. About the only
time headstay systems are a
disadvantage is when sailing short-
handed: hanks are nice when you want
a sail to drop and stay put on the
foredeck! Some cruisers also like to
store their headsails conveniently
hanked-on, using a headsail bag.
Headsail Furling/Reefing Systems
Sailboat Hardware

What They Do
Headsail furling/reefing systems accomplish two critical tasks:

1. They allow you to quickly and easily set or strike your headsail.
2. 2. They allow you to increase or reduce the sail area of your headsail while underway.

These benefits have changed how many of us use our boats. The main advantages are to those of us
who want to dash out for a quick sail, but hesitate because of the hassles of dealing with a genoa. It can
be a struggle to pull an ungainly sail on deck, bend it on, possibly have to change to a smaller headsail
if the wind comes up, unbend it, and figure out how to fold it properly alone, or with inexperienced
guests. It's frustrating enough to force us to cruise the harbor under power, or to dink around with only
the main up!

Furlers can also allow older or short-handed crews to

sail a larger boat than they would otherwise be able
to handle. It's not uncommon to see couples double-
handing 55-60' yachts, which would have been very
rare prior to furling (both headsails and mains).

And, when that black squall line shows up in the

afternoon, the crew can strike furling headsails in
seconds, leaving only the main to contend with.

(However, we always have to stress conservatism

when relying on mechanical devices which could
"pack it in" at an inopportune moment. An older
couple we know were bareboating a Morgan 46 in
BVI about 15 years ago double handed. When a
large squall descended upon them, they tried to furl
the genoa, which inevitably jammed, forcing them to
enter Virgin Gorda Harbor with a wildly flapping,
partially furled sail. They were very lucky to find a
slip that was unoccupied and upwind!)

How They Work

Continuous improvement of headsail furler/reefers by Harken, ProFurl and Schaefer has made these
systems affordable and reliable, without relegating your boat to the back of the fleet. After living with
Harken and Schaefer furlers on our Santa Cruz 40 ProMotion for twelve years, we can't imagine being
without a jib furling system on any but the most high tech race boat, or most traditional cruiser. The
main difference between having one and not is that you are much more likely to head down to the boat
and go for a quick sail when you have a headsail furler. We still race in club-level events and the West
Marine Pacific Cup with the furling drum removed, and we are competitive (or at least it isn't the
furler's fault if we're not).

Sail Selection
One area of caution: we think you can effectively reduce your headsail area by about 30%-from a
130% to a 100%-but not much further. We've all seen ads in sailing magazines which imply that your
150% genoa can be rolled into a storm jib, but that is nonsense. If you sail in an area where the
prevailing winds are light in one season and heavy in another, you'll probably want two furling
headsails: a 135% and a 110%, for example.
On the other hand, one of our associates completed a 35,000-
mile circumnavigation in a Freya 39, and used the same sail
for the entire voyage: a 135% high clew genoa, so maybe you
can cruise with only one sail....

For winds of widely varying velocity, you may want to

consider having a furling genoa on the stem, and a furling
stays'l inboard. This provides a wide range of sail area, and
doesn't force the genoa to do the work of a small heavy
weather jib.

Although you can convert an existing genoa to work with your

new furler, you will be much happier if you spring for a new,
properly designed headsail. Sailmakers have steadily
improved their furling sail design, resulting in very durable
genoas that have great shape when fully unrolled or partially
deployed. Some include a small piece of foam, which is sewn
into the luff of the sail just aft of the furling extrusion,
allowing the sail to roll up much more smoothly.

Some sails have tri-radial construction so that they look better over a wider range of deployment, or use
fabrics that shrug off UV radiation without a large blue leech cover. Talk to your sailmaker about
which furler you are buying and how you intend to use it.

What to Look For

Ease of Installation

All of the systems we sell have very good instructions included with them, but installation can be a
handful for the amateur. All models fit over your existing headstay, with only slight modifications.
However, we think that the services of a professional rigger would probably be justified, especially
when it comes to measuring, removing, and re-installing your headstay.

Racing Efficiency

You don't have to give up club racing and ocean racing when you add a furler. In general, your furler
should have an efficient foil cross-section with two aft-facing grooves, and one where the drum is
easily removed and replaced. The Harken and Schaefer models with a standard split drum allow easy
removal. With the drum removed, they can use normal racing sails, do inside-out changes, and compete
pretty effectively. In more casual racing, use your best furling sail, and enjoy the simplicity of mark
roundings when all you have to do is pull a line to get rid of the jib, and pull a sheet to "deploy" it.

Before you write off serious racing with a furler, read the articles on the Around Alone (formerly BOC)
World Race, or the Vendee Globe Challenge. Those boats, capable of speeds over 20 knots, generally
have two or three furling headsails in place at all times.
How to Select Running Rigging
Sailboat Hardware

What It Does
Running rigging is a general term for rope (line) or wire on sailboats, used to hoist and trim sails. It
consists of halyards, sheets, guys, control lines, and assorted specialized lines. By creating tension on
the corners of sails and other sail controls, running rigging is used to shape sails and propel the boat
forward.

Running Rigging Characteristics

Almost all line used on modern boats is constructed from synthetic fibers: nylon, polyester, Kevlar®,
Technora®, Spectra®, Vectran® polypropylene. Synthetic line has many advantages over organic
fibers, including rot resistance, strength, and more desirable stretch characteristics.

There are two primary constructions of marine line: three-strand and braided. Due to its stretch
characteristics, three-strand line is more commonly used for dock and anchor lines, but polyester three-
strand is favored by traditionalists who want a twisted line that has a knobby texture for handling.

In the family of braids, single braid line consists of twelve sets of fiber strands woven together, with
no cover. The construction makes it very supple and gives it a knobby surface texture. Double braid
line has a braided cover over a braided core, and is used for almost all running rigging applications.
The strength of the rope is shared by both the cover and core fibers. Parallel core line has a core that
consists of parallel fibers running the entire length of the line, and a braided cover. Although initially
stiffer than double braid, parallel core lines have lower stretch. New England Ropes makes high-quality
single braids (Regatta Braid, SpecTwelve, and Regatta Lite), double braids (Sta-Set, T-900, Spect-Set
II, and V-100) and parallel-core lines (Sta-Set X, Sta-Set X Lite and Sta-Set X+).

Line used for running rigging must combine strength, flexibility, low stretch, and abrasion resistance.
Each rigging application emphasizes certain qualities in the line, which is why there is such a diversity
of line available. The constructions compare as follows:

Construction Strength Flexibility Stretch Abrasion Resistance

Three-strand Medium Low High High

Single Braid Med-high High Medium Medium
Double Braid High Medium Low Med-high
Parallel Core High Med-low Very Low Med-high

In almost all running rigging, less stretch is better, but some applications are more critical. In general,
lines which act directly on the corner of a sail, like halyards, sheets and guys, require the lowest stretch
and the greatest strength. Control lines that are adjusted frequently are less affected by stretch. For lines
like mainsheets, vangs, outhauls, etc., good handling characteristics (flexibility) and good abrasion
resistance are more important than low stretch.
Snatch Blocks
Sailboat Hardware

Snatch blocks are one of the most useful rigging items to have on board, because they can be placed on
a line without reeving (threading) the line through the cheeks. One cheek opens up to accept a line from
the side, so you don't need the bitter end. Most snatch blocks also have a snap shackle, so you can
move and attach them almost anywhere quickly.

Snatch blocks are commonly used for quick rigging adaptations, not permanent applications. Turning
blocks, deck-mounted blocks, jib fairleads, etc. all do their jobs better than snatch blocks. But snatch
blocks shine when you want to change something already in place, like a jib sheet or spinnaker sheet.

Varying wind conditions require you to "tweak" your headsail fairleads. You can point higher with a
small jib if you can pull the lead inboard to narrow the sheeting angle, or depower the same sail in too
much wind by pulling the lead outboard. Changes in wind strength can require fore-and-aft changes in
lead location. When your genoa sheet has loads of pressure on it and you can't afford to tack to make
adjustments, run the sheet through a snatch block and use it to take the load off the original sheet. Then
you can adjust both sheets, and move the fairlead to the new desired location.

What you cannot do is use a snatch block as a turning block. They aren't intended to take those types
of heavy loads. The line passing though a snatch block should not turn sharper than 135° to keep loads
down.

Spinnakers fly free of the boat, so it's hard to anticipate exactly where to place their leads. Most boats
have an afterguy block mounted at the point of maximum beam, and a spinnaker sheet block mounted a
few feet forward of the transom. There will be times when you'll want to use a snatch block to pull the
sheet down to the rail to reduce oscillations downwind and to keep the sheet from abrading on the
boom. You can also snap a snatch block on the end of the boom to increase the sheeting base on
spinnakers (and high-clew headsails).
A trunnion is a pivoting axis that allows the block to pivot on two planes to maintain correct load
orientation where shackle movement is restricted, such as on a perforated toe rail or low-profile
padeye. Standard (non-trunnion) snap shackles that align with the load freely are used for for
attachment to padeyes and bails.

On boats with robust bow pulpits, you can snap a snatch block to the lower rail and lead an anchor rode
through it to keep line off the deck and let the sheave reduce chafe. A snatch block can also make the
anchor easier to retrieve by supporting the rode away from the topsides when weighing anchor. We've
also used snatch blocks to replace failed halyard blocks-especially spinnaker halyard blocks. They
work great, and are plenty strong in a pinch.
Mainsheet Traveler Systems
Sailboat Hardware

Control mainsail shape for more efficient, more comfortable sailing

Mainsheet travelers let you carefully control the athwartships location of the main boom without
changing leech tension. In heavy weather, or when a puff hits, easing the traveler to leeward can reduce
heel, yet avoid upsetting the sail shape and losing the forward drive. In light air, raising the traveler
above the centerline allows a close sheeting angle and a center-lined boom without excessive leech
tension.

Harken introduced recirculating ball bearing travelers, which place the balls in direct contact with the
track. They move freely and will not bind, even under high non-vertical twisting loads, so they can be
adjusted in all conditions and under any load. All Harken traveler components, including control
blocks, sheaves and cam cleats, are ball bearing. Harken travelers offer other unique features that make
them the lowest, freest running and most versatile travelers in the world.

Low-Profile Variable Bolt Track

Harken's low-profile track for mid-range and big boat traveler systems has two very impressive
features. The first is its low profile: the track protrudes only 1/2" above the deck surface reducing
windage and weight. The second great feature is the unique variable bolt fastening system. Bolts ride in
a channel in the bottom of the track, allowing you to install it as replacement track without drilling new
holes. Simply bolt the new track into existing holes and secure the bolts from the bottom with nuts.

Boat Track Wt(oz) Fasteners Model HARKN# ShWt Only

Size Length

27'-34' 47 1/4" 22 1/4"HH 301294 1610.1.2M 2 $46.99

27'-34' 70 3/4" 33 1/4"HH 301260 1610.1.8M 3 $74.99
27'-34' 94 1/2" 44 1/4"HH 301120 1610.2.4M 4 $99.99
32'-43' 70 3/4" 48.4 5/16"HH 301070 1846.1.8M 4 $69.99
32'-43' 94 1/2" 65.9 5/16"HH 300940 1846.2.4M 6 $94.99

We carry Harken traveler systems exclusively, since they make configurations for every boat, and they
offer five ranges to fit boats of all sizes, from the smallest dinghy systems with Delrin ball bearings, to
big boat systems with double cars and heavy-duty Torlon ball bearings. Harken traveler car bodies are
aluminum with replaceable end caps and balls, so you
can rebuild the car when needed for many years of
service. Choose from car-mounted controls or deck-
mounted controls, and create a purchase system that can
really help you control the main on breezy days. We
carry low profile variable bolt track for mid-range and
big boat systems that can be installed without drilling
new holes, and hi-beam track designed to span cockpits
or companionways without a support bridge. Harken's
complete range of control blocks and accessories makes
choosing a new traveler for your boat a pleasure.
Stainless Steel Rigging
Sailboat Hardware

Stainless steel is an alloy that contains at least 50% iron and 10% chromium. The chromium inhibits
corrosion and thus plays a part in defining stainless steel. The more chromium, the more corrosion-
resistance, up to a maximum of about 30%. But chromium is not the only factor in corrosion resistance.
Many other elements are added to enhance the properties of a particular grade and type of stainless
steel.

Stainless steel alloys are grouped according to the structure of their crystals. Adding nickel creates the
structure used in marine applications, called austenitic. Austenitic stainless steels are identified by their
300-series designation. Types 302 and 304 stainless are widely used for rigging, fasteners, fittings and
propeller shafts.Type 302 is a general purpose stainless steel with good strength properties, which is
resistant to many corrosives. Most of the stainless produced today is type 304, a low-carbon variation
of 302, also called 18-8, because it's made of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. There are many 304 sub-
alloys formulated for specific applications. Type 304 has good resistance to corrosion by a great
number of chemicals. Consequently, it satisfies a broad demand for adequate performance at an
affordable price. But there are a number of marine applications where 304 and other 300-series types
are inadequate. For instance, 303, which contains sulfur or selenium for easy machining, has poor
corrosion resistance in the marine environment.

By adding more nickel and 2% molybdenum to 304 stainless, you get type 316, which has the best
corrosion resistance among standard stainless steels. It resists pitting and corrosion by most chemicals,
and is particularly resistant to salt water corrosion. There is a trade-off, however. Type 316 is only
about 85% as strong as 302 or 304. Among the best austenitic stainless alloys for rigging are the "super
stainless" variants: Nitronic 50 (also called 22-15-5) and Aquamet 22, which contain nitrogen and
vanadium. Their "super" status is, of course, reflected in their price.

When stainless steel is produced, the chromium forms an outer oxide later. As long as that layer
remains intact, the stainless remains passive. Stainless steel that has been passivated is immersed in a
heated bath of phosphates or salts which form an oxide film to seal off the iron to prevent it from going
into solution in water, which is what produces corrosion. Once the oxide layer begins to break down,
the stainless steel becomes active and its corrosion resistance is reduced. Rust is the obvious, visible
evidence of corrosive activity.

There are a variety of ways in which the oxide layer is compromised. These include pitting and crevice
corrosion caused by microscopic water-retaining cracks or scratches, microscopic impurities, galvanic
corrosion, corrosion fatigue and stress fatigue cracking. For rod rigging, corrosion fatigue is the biggest
enemy. Stress on rod rigging is concentrated at the rod head, which eventually suffers cracks you can't
see without disassembling the rig, so failure is difficult to predict. In wire rigging, the stainless wire is
subject to stress and fatiguing every time the boat rolls which, over a 10-year average lifespan, adds up
to literally millions of stresses on the rig. The insides of the lower terminals of swaged-on fittings and
the insides of barrel-type turnbuckles collect water. The corrosion that results will likely be invisible or
difficult to detect. Unfortunately, a failure may be the first indication that your stainless is
deteriorating.

Rigs constructed of 316 stainless will generally outlive those built of 302 or 304, especially in warm
tropical waters, where salt water corrosion is a formidable adversary. If you select 316, consider
increasing your wire one size to make up for the reduction in strength. But price carefully. Stepping up
one size in wire will increase your rigging strength 15-16%, but your cost may increase exponentially,
since the wire is not the expensive part of the bargain. The larger turnbuckles, jaws, eyes, clevis pins,
etc. required by the larger diameter wire can wreak havoc on your budget.

Regular inspection is the best prevention (as usual on a boat). Use a 50x pocket magnifier if you really
want to see what's happening on the surface of your stainless rigging and fittings. For preventive
maintenance, polish the surface of your stainless with a stainless steel polish like Wichard's Wichinox.
Wichard achieved its reputation for superior polished stainless finishes by polishing their hardware
twice as long as anyone else in the industry. Polishing creates a smooth metal surface and helps
minimize the number of pits, valleys and microscopic cracks where moisture can reside and create the
environment corrosion loves.
Sailboat Winches
Sailboat Hardware

What They Do
Winches allow you to exert force on lines by combining gear reduction and leverage. By using a longer
handle which turns a smaller diameter drum, and by utilizing ratchets to keep the drum from turning
the wrong way, winches let you tame sails which would otherwise be too hard to control.

How They Work

Most sailors can produce fifty pounds or more of tension on a line by pulling on it. When "jumping" a
halyard, you can generally exert as much tension as your weight. But even with strong (or heavy)
individuals, that amount of tension may not be enough. Large cruising and racing boats may have sheet
loads in the 500 to 5,000 lb. range, which requires us to multiply our otherwise inadequate strength.
Therefore, we use tackles (pronounced tay-kuls) or winches to increase effectiveness.

Winches use both leverage (difference between the drum radius and the winch handle radius), and gear
reduction (the number of times the handle turns for every rotation of the drum) to increase power. The
combination of these two effects results in Power Ratio, the theoretical mechanical advantage that
comes from the gear ratio times the difference in the radii of the arcs that act on a line. We say
"theoretical" because, as with almost everything in life, friction reduces overall efficiency.

Therefore, on a winch with a 10" handle length, 5" drum diameter, and a 6:1 gear ratio, the power ratio
is (10/2.5) x 6 = 24:1. Higher numbers mean that your strength is multiplied more, and that the line will
come in slower.

Types of gearing
One-speed winches: Turn one drum revolution for every handle revolution. Limited to small winches,
these offer limited mechanical advantage. Least expensive of all winch types.

One-speed geared winches: The handle acts on the drum through a series of gears to increase
mechanical advantage. The gear reduction allows the winch to exert more power than a non-geared
winch. Handle ratchets in the other direction.

Two-speed winches: Increase power available by changing speeds when the handle is rotated in the
opposite direction. Turn the handle clockwise for a 1:1 gear ratio; turn it the other way for 5:1 or 6:1. A
less expensive way of getting two power ratios in the same winch. NOTE: Jumps between first and
second speed of 5:1 or 6:1 are generally considered too large, and two speed winches are notorious for
this.

Two-speed geared winches: Use gear reductions in both directions. First gear might have a 2:1 ratio
and second speed might be 7:1. First speed (the fast speed) can be clockwise or counter-clockwise, so
watch out.

Three-speed winches: Popular on racing boats, expensive and complicated. Three speeds
accommodate both fast trimming and high power ratios.

Drum Materials
Anodized Aluminum: Lightest and cheapest, and lasts reasonably long unless used with wire rope,
which gouges it. Black color looks good on many boats, but gets really hot in the tropics.

Chrome on Bronze: The durability of bronze with the good looks of chrome. Weighs up to 20% more
than aluminum. Looks good until wire rope takes off the chrome plating.
Bronze: Durable, long lasting, but requires frequent polishing to stay looking bright. Seen on
traditional boats, but increasingly rare. Special Order only.

Stainless Steel: Expensive, but the most durable of any drum material. It looks great indefinitely.

Self-tailing winches
We recommend self-tailers for all applications, especially when sailing short-handed, because they
make almost every job on board easier. Mount the stripping arm so that it points at the person grinding
the winch, somewhere between the 5 o'clock and 7 o'clock positions.
Winch Maintenance
Sailboat Hardware

Winches require a modest amount of care if they are to work as efficiently and safely as possible.
Without regular maintenance, pawls can stick, causing the winch to lose its ability to ratchet in one
direction, and friction will increase. Follow these simple guidelines:

1. Insure that water can drain from the base of the winch, especially with aluminum bases. Caulking
and flug frequently clog drain holes.

2. Wash winches with fresh water after each sail.

3. Several times each season, remove the winch drum and clean the drum bearings in kerosene,
stoddard solvent or a safe degreaser. Dry thoroughly and lubricate with winch grease. Clean the
inside of the drum and winch spindle (the bronze surface that the bearings slide over) with a rag
dipped in solvent. Reassemble the winch.

4. Every season, take the winch apart completely and clean and lubricate it. Do not use grease on the
winch pawls (the flappers that make the clicking sound); use machine oil instead to reduce
sticking. If you are not sure how to reassemble it, leave its twin assembled so that you have an
example to follow.

5. Drum bearings can stick to the inside of the drum and inadvertently fall overboard. Be careful!
Understanding Rail Fittings
Sailboat Hardware

Rail fittings are used to construct rigid rail systems that provide secure handholds and/or rigid barriers
around a boat's perimeter. They come in a variety of shapes so they can accommodate the many
configurations possible on a boat. They meet the industry standards for round rail tubing of either 7/8"
dia. or 1" dia.

Rail fittings are constructed of two materials: zamak (a zinc-aluminum alloy) and stainless steel.
Zamak fittings have a highly polished look when new, but only a modest amount of corrosion
resistance. They are recommended for fresh water environments only. Stainless steel fittings are
stronger and have outstanding corrosion resistance, at a premium price. Match materials between
system components to minimize the effects of galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals.

For safety, rails fittings should be thru-bolted to the deck, using substantial backing plates. Plenty of
sealant around the fastener holes will help prevent leaks and water damage to the hull material.
Whisker Poles
Sailboat Hardware

Whisker poles support the clew of the genoa away from the boat while running downwind. This
projects more area to the wind, and reduces the tendency of the genoa to collapse and fill repeatedly. A
properly-sized pole is equal to the length of the sail's foot. Jibs come in a variety of sizes, so whisker
poles are adjustable in length. We offer two types of adjustable poles: twist lock and line control.

Twist Lock Poles use a special offset insert which requires a quarter turn to loosen, and a quarter turn
to lock the pole at a desired length. Similar mechanisms are used in telescoping tiller extensions and
boat hooks. For sailboats up to about 25', twist lock poles are sufficiently strong and easy to use. The
twist-lock mechanism requires no maintenance other than rinsing, and Forespar recommends against
the use of lubricants because they may jam the mechanism.

Line Control Poles have an internal outhaul which allows you to extend the pole while standing at the
mast. These are a good choice for large boats because they have a more positive locking mechanism.
You are also more likely to fine-tune the pole's length for different points of sail since you can adjust it
with the pole in place. This is a safer, more practical approach.

Whisker Pole Size Selection Chart

Boat Length Working Jib Genoa
Up to 16' ADJ 4-8* or ADJ 6-12 ADJ 6-12 or HD 6-12
Up to 22' ADJ 6-12 or HD 6-12 HD 6-12 or LC 8-14
Up to 25' HD 6-12 LC 8-14
Up to 28' LC 8-14 LC 8-14 or LC 10-18
Up to 33' LC 10-18 LC 10-18 or LC 12-22
Up to 35' LC 12-22 LC 12-22 or LC 13-24
Up to 46' LC 13-24 LC 13-24 or LC 15-27
Up to 55' LC 15-27 LC 15-27*

Suggested pole length is 100% of the foot of the headsail. Recommendations are based upon masthead
rig sloops. Fractional rig boats may require smaller poles. Boats with heavy displacements or bowsprits
may require larger poles.

Light to medium winds only

Technical Apparel

Foul Weather Gear

West Advisor
Foul Weather Gear
Technical Apparel

What it Does

Foul Weather Gear has the challenging task of keeping active boaters dry from rain, spray, and solid
water, but there are additional requirements that sometimes get overlooked in the selection of gear. In
addition to external water protection, foul weather gear must also offer a wide latitude of ventilation
options due to varying exertion levels, must offer mobility for active wearers, must be durable to
withstand the marine environment (including rough nonskid, chemicals, and salt), and should be
comfortable to live in for extended periods of time.

Matching Gear to Your Needs

We've divided our foul-weather gear into four major categories: Dinghy/Sportboat, Inshore, Coastal,
and Offshore/Ocean. So, which type of gear is best for your needs? Dinghy/Sportboat gear is
lightweight-designed to provide waterproof protection, while allowing greater freedom of movement,
which is essential aboard more "athletic" craft. Inshore gear offers inexpensive, lightweight protection
for mild and short-term weather conditions, but where there is a good chance of a hot shower in your
immediate future. Coastal gear is medium weight and may lack the insulating and safety features
found in Offshore gear. Offshore/Ocean gear is designed for the most severe conditions and extended
day-to-day comfort.

Be realistic in assessing the kind of weather you expect to encounter and the number of times per
season that you are likely to wear the gear. While it's a serious mistake to go ocean racing wearing
lightweight Coastal gear, it is possible to over-buy foul-weather gear. If your activity is limited to day
trips or buoy racing in fair weather, a lightweight breathable suit will be far more comfortable than
heavy, offshore voyaging gear. Though the occasional squall may give you a soaking, you can be back
at the dock before real discomfort sets in. On the other hand, if you plan to engage in long distance
racing or cruising-or if your local conditions tend to be harsh, the investment in a top-quality suit, like
Henri Lloyd's Breathing Ocean or Musto GORE-TEX Ocean gear can be a literal lifesaver.

Waterproofing

Keeping water out of foul-weather gear is accomplished by coating a fabric substrate with a water-
impermeable material such as urethane, PVC, or neoprene-or using a breathable coating on fabric that
has pores large enough to allow water vapor to pass through, but too small to allow liquid water to
pass. Each of these coating materials has strengths and weaknesses that make them suitable in different
applications as described below.

PVC - A durable, abrasion-resistant material, which may be applied to the inside or outside surface of a
garment. When used on the exterior of the substrate, such as in the Stearns or Helly Hansen Highliner
gear, it has the advantage of being easy to wipe clean of fish blood and scales, grease, and diesel fuel.
PVC garments can be fabricated with "heat welding" seams, which eliminate the possibility of water
finding its way into the garment via needle holes created by stitching.

Urethane - A synthetic polymer that's lighter and more flexible than PVC. It is usually applied to the
substrate on the interior of the garment because it lacks the abrasion resistance of PVC. Urethane is not
as likely as some PVC formulations to become stiff in cold weather. Seams in urethane-coated
garments must be taped or sealed to prevent water getting in through stitch holes. Seam tape is
generally heat bonded to the coating, creating entirely waterproof seams.

Neoprene-Found primarily in Ocean/Offshore gear, neoprene is very waterproof, durable and flexible.
Neoprene tends to result in heavier garments because it is a heavier material than urethane.

Breathable Fabrics-These waterproof garments utilize the fact that a drop of water is larger than a
molecule of water vapor to seal out external rain and seawater while letting the moisture caused by
perspiration to escape from inside the garment. The result is a garment that stays warm and dry on the
inside, no matter how many times it is soaked on the outside. The best known and most proven of these
fabrics is the breathable GORE-TEX brand.

Granted, foul weather gear crafted in GORE-TEX fabric does require a major financial investment.
And that may, or may not be justified, depending on your needs. However, if you live in your foul
weather gear for more than a day or two at a time, and staying warm and comfortable ranks high on
your list of foul-weather requirements, then there's not a better option to be found.
Trailers

Trailer Lighting
West Advisor
Trailer Lighting
Trailers

The damage inflicted by bad driving, road grime and water make trailer lights and wiring among the
most frequently replaced trailering accessories. To keep
your lighting system in good working order, remember
to inspect all wiring at least twice a season, use
submersible lamps for lights that will be submerged, and
give bulb contacts and connectors an occasional dab of
waterproof grease. When it is time to rewire a standard
four-wire system, the brown wire goes to the taillights,
the yellow wire goes to the left-hand stop and turn light,
the green wire goes to the right-hand stop and turn light
and the white wire is grounded to the trailer frame.

Required Motor Vehicle Lighting Equipment1

Function Quantity Color Mounting Position

All Trailers
1. Tail Lights 2 Red One on each side of vertical centerline. Same height,
15"-72" above road.
2. Stop Lights 2 Red One on each side of vertical centerline. Same height,
15"-72" above road.
3. Turn Signal Lights 2 Red or Amber One on each side of v
4. Rear Reflectors 2 Red One on each side of vertical centerline. Same height,
15"-60" above road.
5. Side Reflectors (Front)2 2 Amber One on each side of v
6. Side Reflectors (Middle) 2 Amber One on each side of v
7. Side Reflectors (Rear) 2 Red One on each side of vertical centerline. 15"-60" above
road. As far to the rear as possible.
8. Side Marker Lights (Front)2 2 Amber One on each side of v
9. Side Marker Lights (Middle)3 2 Amber One on each side of v
10. Side Marker Lights (Rear) 2 Red One on each side of v
11. License Plate Light 1 White At the license plate to illuminate it from the front or
side.
Trailers Over 80" Wide Only
12. Identification Lights 3 Red As close as possible to top of vehicle and vertical
centerline. Lamp centers 6"-12" apart.
13. Clearance Lights (Front) 2 Amber One on each side of v

14. Clearance Lights (Middle)4 2 Red & Amber One on each side of v
Placed to indicate overall width. Same height. As
close to top of vehicle as possible.
15. Clearance Lights (Rear) 2 Red One on each side of v

1
This table is adapted from the National Marine Manufacturer's Association Trailer Lighting Standards
Basis, Table IV. Legal requirements may vary by state.
2
Not required on trailers less than 6' long.
3
Not required on vehicles less than 30' long.
4
An optional light that can substitute for separate front and rear clearance lights.
Ventilation

Boat Ventilation
Air Conditioning Your Boat
West Advisor
Boat Ventilation
Ventilation

Why Ventilate?
Many older boats came from the factory with only a passive ventilation system and many new boats
don't come with ventilation of any kind. It is easy to upgrade to a proper, active ventilation system or
add ventilation to any boat with the products we offer.

This illustration shows how typical inflow and outflow of air would appear on a well-ventilated
sailboat or powerboat:

Proper ventilation is not just important for the maintenance of your boat; it is necessary for the comfort
of you and your crew. A good ventilation system will:

• Reduce moisture and humidity below decks when the boat is left unattended.
• Reduce the chances of mold, mildew and musty air development caused by trapped moisture
and humidity in the boat.
• Helps electronics and fabrics last longer by maintaining a drier climate.
• Reduce the likelihood of blisters caused by moist air saturation of the hull.

Types of Vents
Vents fall into two basic categories: passive or active. Passive ventilators, such as cowl vents,
clamshell vents, louvers, grilles, ventilating sails, ports, hatches and the Nicro Air Vent 2000 simply
provide an access path for air to enter or leave the interior of the boat. As long as either the boat or the
air itself are moving, they work just fine. Of course, on those hot, still days when the only things
moving are the mosquitoes; they're not much help.

Active ventilators, such as Nicro's Solar Powervent, Day and Night Solar Vent, Mini Vents and 12
Volt Vents, all incorporate a fan to keep air moving even when the boat or breeze is still. Solar energy
or ship's power is used to power the fan depending on the ventilator. These vents come with both intake
and exhaust fan blades for flexibility in creating your ventilation system.

Designing an Appropriate Ventilation System

A properly designed ventilation system provides adequate air circulation throughout the boat without
adversely impacting the operation of the vessel. Experts recommend that your ventilation system
should provide at least one air change every hour. This means provisions must be made for both the
intake of new air and the exhaust of old air. Set up your system to provide a "cross flow" of intake and
exhaust ventilation wherever possible. If you only add one active ventilator, use it for exhaust.

A typical 30-footer has about 800cu.ft. of below decks interior volume. Unfortunately, this space is
often broken up into distinct cabins or compartments that may restrict the free movement of air
throughout the boat. Therefore, simply installing a pair of vents rated for 800cu.ft. per hour of airflow
may not be adequate to get the total ventilating job done.

Each cabin and head should have some kind of ventilation, especially if the space can be closed off
from the rest of the boat. Louvered doors, or vent grills in solid doors, help air circulate into lockers,
forepeaks and other isolated areas of the boat.

During wet or rough weather, you'll need to be able to shut off or remove vents to prevent water from
finding its way below. Racing boats may need to use vents that can be removed while the boat is in use
in order to keep the decks free of possible snags.

In Conclusion
Try to ventilate with intake and exhaust vents for optimum circulation. Larger 4" vents are about twice
as effective as the conventional 3" vents-if you have the room for them, we recommend their use.
Ventilation is also important when at sea in lousy conditions-ensure that you do not have a "fair
weather" ventilation system that does not include water baffles, because under those conditions the
hatches will be shut tightly.
Air Conditioning Your Boat
Ventilation

Adding a built-in air-conditioning system to boats up to about 50' is easy with “self-contained” kits.
With the compressor, condenser, evaporator and fan in one unit, they're easy to mount.
Simply mount the main unit, run some ductwork, and install a seawater pump and thru-hull.

Step #1: Choose Heating/Cooling or Cool Only

Marine Air A/C systems have different capabilities. The Reverse Cycle unit cools or heats
cabin spaces. Seawater removes heat from the system for cooling, or provides heat during
the heating process. Though affected by water temperature, it can cool boats in 80° waters
and heat boats in waters as low as 40°.

Step #2: Determine Cooling Capacity Needed

The following formula and table will help you size an air-conditioning system that is right
for your boat:

A = Cabin Area Below Deck: L x W x 7' (average height) x 14 Btu’s

B = Cabin Area Above Deck: L x W x 7' (average height) x 17 Btu’s
A + B = total Btu’s required.

Choose a unit that most closely equals your Btu requirements, but do not downsize to a lesser Btu-
capacity unit. This will only limit the system’s cooling of your boat. More than 16,000-Btu’s, requires
a multiple unit system.

Step #3: Choose a Ducting Kit

Single-duct kits are good for small boats or for other installations that don’t require a single
A/C unit to cool/heat multiple cabins. A dual-duct kit allows the boat owner to use one A/C
unit to cool/heat two separate areas within their boat.

Step #4: Choose a Control Option

Cabin Mate Reverse Cycle includes a programmable digital control for easy temperature
adjustment and fan control. The Cool Only and Cool Mate systems include manual/non-
programmable knob controls.