ASSIGNMENT No.

1
(Units: 1–4)
1. What is meant by philosophy? Explain its definitions
provided by the different philosophers

Ans
Philosophy is 99 per cent about critical reflection on anything you care to be
interested in.

Philosophy is the study of the costs and benefits that accrue when you take up a
certain position. For example, f you’re arguing about free will and you’re trying to
decide whether to be a compatibilist or incompatibilist — is free will compatible
with causal determinism? — what you’re discovering is what problems and what
benefits you get from saying that it is compatible, and what problems and
benefits you get from saying it’s incompatible.

Different philosophers define philosophy

According to Aristotle - "Philosophy is a science which discovers the real nature of

supernatural elements".

According to Levison - "Philosophy is mental activity".

According to Karl Marks - "Philosophy is the interpretation of the world in order

to change it".

According to Hegel - "Philosophy is that which grasps its won era in thought."
Kant Immanuel Regards philosophy as "the science and criticism of cognition."
According to Russel - "Philosophy proper deals with matters of interest to the
general educated public, and loses much of its value if only a few professionals
can understand it."

According to Henderson - "Philosophy is a rigorous, disciplined, guarded analysis

of some of the most difficult problems which men have ever faced."

According to John Dewey - "Philosophy is not a panacea (remedy for all kinds of
diseases/troubles) for the problems of men, but is that which emerges out of the
methods employed by them to solve their problems."

Aristippus thinks that philosophy is "the ability to feel at ease in any society."

According to Socrates - "Philosophy is a daily activity".

According to Phenix - "Science attempts only at the discovery of facts. Philosophy

is not interested in the discovery of facts. Rather, it is interested in facts insofar as
to provide an attitude towards them. It tries to organize, interpret, clarify and
criticize the already discovered facts of science."

D.J. Connar defines philosophy "as an activity of criticism or clarification."

According to Plato "He who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is
curious to learn and is never satisfied may be justly termed as a philosopher."

According to G.T.W Patreck - "Between science and philosophy the very closest
relationship exists. They spring from the same root, the love of knowledge and
they aspire to the same end, the knowledge of reality. While science describes the
facts, philosophy interprets them."
According to Brubacher - "Science is interested in the proximate or efficient
causes of the facts, while philosophy is concerned with its ultimate or final
causes."

Henderson thinks that philosophy is a research for "a comprehensive view of

nature, an attempt at a universal explanation of the nature of things."

Millard and Bectrocci defined philosophy as the presistent, critical and systematic
attempt to discover and consistently formulate in relation to each other the basic
characteristics, meanings and values of our experience in its widest perspectives."

According to Ludwig Wittgenstein - "The object of philosophy is the logical

clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not a theory, but an activity. A
philosophical work consists essentially of elucidations. The result of philosophy is
not a number of ‘philosophical propositions’, but to make propositions clear.
Philosophy should make clear and delimit sharply the thoughts which otherwise
are, as it were, opaque and blurred."

According to Raymont - "Philosophy is an unceasing effort to discover the general

truth that lies behind the particular fact, to discover also the realities that lies
behind appearance."

According to Carlies Lamont - "philosophy is the tenacious attempts of reasoning

men to think through the most fundamental issues of life, to reach reasonable
conclusions on first and last things to suggest worthwhile goals that can command
the loyalty of individuals and groups."

According to Kilpatric - "Philosophy is a point of view, outlook on life."

According to Dr.Radhakrishnan - "Philosophy is a view of life. It gives a direction
to life, offers a design for living."

According to Existentialists - "Philosophy is not a search for truth, but a trail of

truth".

According to Hiryana - "Philosophy is a emerged as a result of reflection over the

experiences and problems of everyday living."

According to Cicero, Marcus Tullius - "Philosophy is the mother of all arts and "the
true medicine of the mind."

According to George Berkeley - "Philosophy, being nothing but the study of

wisdom and truth..."

According to Brightman - "Philosophy may be defined as an attempt to think truly

about human experience or a whole or to make out whole experience
intelligible." Kant regards philosophy as - "the science and criticism of cognition."

According to Fichte - "Philosophy is the science of knowledge." Coleridge, Samuel

Taylor defined it as the "Science of science."

According to John Armstrong - "Philosophy is the successful love of thinking."

According to Marilyn Adams - "Philosophy is thinking really hard about the most
important questions and trying to bring analytic clarity both to the questions and
the answers."

According to Edger S. Brightman - "Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of

approaching experiential rather than a body of conclusions about the
experience."
According to Richard Bradley - "Philosophy is 99 per cent about critical reflection
on anything you care to be interested in.”

According to Bramold - "Philosophy is a persistent effort of both ordinary and

persistent people to make life as intelligible and meaningful as possible."

According to Herbert Spencer - "Philosophy is concerned with everything as a

universal science."

According to Don Cupitt - "Philosophy is critical thinking: trying to become aware

of howone’s own thinking works, of all the things one takes for granted, of the
way in which one’s own thinking shapes the things one’s thinking about."

According to Joseph A. Leighton - "Philosophy like science, consist of theories of

insights arrived at as a result of systematic reflection."

According to Simon Blackburn - "[Philosophy is] a process of reflection on the

deepest concepts, that isstructures of thought, that make up the way in which we
think about the world. So it’s concepts like reason, causation, matter, space, time,
mind, consciousness, free will, all those big abstract words and they make up
topics, and people have been thinking about them for two and a half thousand
years and I expect they’ll think about them for another two and a half thousand
years if there are any of us left."

According to R.W. Sellers - "Philosophy is a persistent attempt to gain insight into

the nature of the world and ourselves by systematic reflection."

According to C. J. Ducasse - "Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I

should say that philosophy is a general theory of criticism."
According to Humayun Kabir - philosophy "seeks to give knowledge of the whole."

According to Anthony Kenny - "Philosophy is thinking as clearly as possible about

the most fundamental concepts that reach through all the disciplines."

Huxley, Aldous observes "Men live in accordance with their Philosophy of life."

H. Dumery defines philosophy as a "critical reflection on concrete action."

According to Plato - "Philosophy is the acquisition of knowledge."

According to Clifford Barrat - "It is not the specific content of these conclusions,
but the spirit and the method by which they are reached, which entitles them to
be described as philosophical..."

Curtis, George William states "During the course of centuries, the meaning
attached to philosophy has undergone many changes, and even in the present
day, thinkers, are not in complete agreement about the aims and subject-matter
of this branch of knowledge."

According to Michael S. Russo - PHILOSOPHY = "A critical examination of reality

characterized by rational inquiry that aims at the Truth for the sake of attaining
wisdom."
2. Define the term ‘Idealism’. Which aims does idealism
achieves through education
Ans
The oldest system of Philosophy known Toman is said to be idealism whose origin
goes back to ancient India in the east and to Plato in the west.

Idealism as a school of philosophy believes in mind and idolizes it. This philosophy
seeks to explain and interpret man and universe in terms of spirit or mind. It gives
its priority to spirit, which is real and as such the entire universe is the extension
of the mind or spirit. Idealism shifts its emphasis from the scientific facts of life to
the spiritual aspects of human experiences and activities.

It asserts that material world is not the manifestation of reality. It, therefore,
attaches supreme importance to the study of man and his mind. Besides, this
school of philosophy places emphasis on the ideas and ideals than the full fact of
matter which guides the actions of men in the every aspect.

Idealism in Education:

It can be conceived and perceived that education helps a man to realize his
spiritual realm because man is born with a spiritual-self or realm. Rusk writes,
“Education is expected to enlarge the boundaries of the spiritual realm.”

This education is a spiritual necessity. Further, education is a social necessity as

idealists assert from the stand point that the ideals of race and its cultural
patterns are preserved, transmitted and modified subsequently in the light of
new situations and experiences. The Purpose of education is the development of
mind and self of the child. It is unfolding of what is already enfolded.
Idealistic philosophy pervades various aspects of education which are as follows:

Aims of Education:

The following aims are stressed by idealists which are said to be the chief
contributions of the idealistic philosophy to the field of education.

(i) Exaltation of Human Personality:

Idealists consider the development of human personality as the supreme

idealistic objective of life. Exalt the personality is the core philosophy of idealism.
According to Ross, “Human personality is the supreme value and constitutes the
noblest work of God.”

So, men is believed “the roof and crown” of all creations of God. Therefore, the
chief aim of education should be the exaltation of self which implies the
realization of the highest potentialities of the self in a social and cultural
environment. Hence, the aim is to enable each one to become his true self.

(ii) Self-realization:

Since individual is spiritual being and the supreme creation of God, education
should aim at providing every sorts of help to realize the self and unity within
himself and to try to link himself with the universal self. In other words, it is
meant as the liberation of soul or attainment of Mokshya as stressed by Indian
idealism. Thus, spiritual realization of ultimate reality is prized goal of education.

(iii) Realization of Spiritual Values:

Spiritual values are the supreme and higher values which have universal validity
and cm be attained by spiritual activities-intellectual, moral and aesthetic. One
should do the right thing, know the truth and desire beauty. Therefore, education
aims at helping the pupils to realize these’ cardinal supreme values of life.

Truth, Goodness and Beauty are mutually inter-woven. All the social virtues and
skills acquired are to be judged by the yard-stick of spiritual values.

(iv) Development of Morality:

Development of moral sense is another important aim of education which,

according to idealistic philosophy, enables the child to differentiate between just
and unjust, good and evil, right and wrong and beauty and ugliness. Education
helps the child by nurturing his will power which can be ignited by the correct
appreciation of truth, goodness and beauty.

(v) Universal Education:

Idealism lays stress on self-realization which can be possible by providing

education to all without any differences and discriminations. It should be
universal because all human beings are equally the children of God. As such, the
aim is to provide opportunities to realize the self.

(vi) Development of Inventive and Creative Powers:

The important aim of education according to this school of philosophy is to

develop and foster the inventive and creative powers of the child so that he can
mold the environment to suit to his needs and purposes. He should harness the
forces of nature in such a way that these should render him the best possible
service.
(vii) Enrichment of Cultural Heritage:

Since man is the creator of his own culture by dint of his creative activity, he
should try to preserve, transmit and improve it according to the best of his
capacity. Thus, education helps him/her to contribute the best to the enrichment
and refinement of his/her culture.

(viii) Sublimation of Instincts:

The chief aim of education according to idealist is to sublimate the animal

instincts of the child into spiritual and social qualities for the development of
personality and adjustment in the society.

(ix) Development of Complete Man:

The aim of education, according to idealists, should be the fullest development of

child and man which implies harmonious and all-round development-physical,
intellectual, social, moral, spiritual and aesthetic aspects of individuality.

(x) Simple Living and High Thinking:

Simple living and high thinking should be the aim of education according to
idealists. A person who lives a simple and docile life thinks high which paves a way
for his personal development and refinement.
3. the curriculum based on idealism with that of pragmatism
Ans
The education philosophy can be broken down into four main schools of thought:
Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism and Existentialism. Each school of thought has at
least one philosopher who would be considered the forerunner of the school.
Idealism, for example, is based on the early writings of Plato. Realism is based on
the thinking of Aristotle. Pragmatism s based on the thoughts of a number of
nineteenth-century American philosophers. Existentialism is based on the writings
of Jean-Paul Sartre. Each school also discusses what and how we should teach
students.

Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms

of the success of their practical application. This philosophical tradition developed
in the United States in the late nineteenth century. Charles Sanders Peirce is
considered to be the founder of this tradition. William James, George Hubert
Mead and John Dewey are also considered as its major proponents. For
pragmatists, thought is a guide to prediction, problem-solving and action. The
practical consequences of an action or thought are the main components of
pragmatism.

According to pragmatists, most philosophical topics such as nature of knowledge,

concepts, science, beliefs, and language can be viewed in terms of their practical
applications. Pragmatism emphasizes on this practical application of thoughts by
acting on them to test them in human experiments.

According to Ozmon and Craver (2008) the most central thread of realism is the
principal or thesis of independence. This thesis holds that reality, knowledge, and
value exist independently of the human mind. The world of ideas and matter
defined in idealism by Plato and Socrates do not exist separately and apart from
each other for realists. Realists contend that material things can exist whether or
not there is a human being around to appreciate or perceive them.

Realists believe that the study of ideas can be enhanced by the study of material
things. They believe that knowledge is power, and acquiring knowledge allows
individuals to deal with problems and to face life effectively. If the mind is a blank
slate, then knowledge comes from sources other than the mind, those things
gained from sensation and reflection. Moreover, realists hold that the essence of
things is objectively given in nature, and that our classifications are not arbitrary.
As such, realism is contrasted with nominalism, the theory that universals are
merely names or general terms.

More generally, realism is any philosophical theory that emphasizes the existence
of some kind of things or objects, in contrast to theories that dispense with the
things in question in favour of words, ideas, or logical constructions.

In particular, the term stands for the theory that there is a reality quite
independent of the mind. In this sense, realism is opposed to idealism, the theory
that only minds and their contents exist. To understand this complex philosophy,
one must examine its development beginning from the classical times up to the
nineteenth century. Philosophers like Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon,
John Locke, Alfred North Whitehead, and Betrand Russell have contributed much
to realism ideology

Pragmatism Vs idealism
Pragmatism and idealism are two opposing philosophical approaches. Pragmatism
is a philosophical approach that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms of the
success of their practical application. Idealism, on the other hand, refers to any
philosophy that asserts that reality is mentally constructed or immaterial. The key
difference between pragmatism and idealism is that pragmatism considers
practical consequences of an action as its main component whereas idealism
considers mental entities or thoughts and ideas as its main component.

The Difference Between Pragmatism And Idealism?

Definition:

Pragmatism is a philosophical doctrine that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms

of the success of their practical application.

Idealism refers to any philosophy that asserts that reality, or reality as we can
know it, is mentally constructed or immaterial.

Major Components:

Pragmatism considers practical consequences of an action as its main component.

Idealism considers mental entities or thoughts and ideas as its main component.

Thought:

Pragmatism considers thought as a guide to prediction, problem-solving and

action.

Idealism considers thoughts and ideas as the only real entities.

4. Explain the different forms of naturalism

Ans
Naturalism is a philosophical doctrine. It is opposed to idealism in its
interpretation of reality.

Naturalism is concerned with “natural self” or “real self”. It contends that the
ultimate reality is matter, and not mind or spirit.

According to naturalism, the material world is the only real world. It is the only
reality. This material world is being governed by a system of natural laws and the
man, who is the creation of the material world, must submit to them. The
naturalists have regard for actual facts, actual situations and realities. For them
nature is everything. It is the whole reality.

Behind everything there is Nature. It denies the existence of anything beyond

nature. Naturalism believes that everything comes from nature and returns to
nature. Nature, according to naturalism, is a self-sufficient entity. It is self-
determined and governed by its own laws.

The naturalists see things as they are. They apprehend reality as it is in its own
nature. They do not believe that there are any spiritual values or absolute truths.
Naturalism takes recourse to such concepts as appetites, emotions, instincts and
evolution. According to naturalists, instincts are responsible for all our activities
— biological, psychological or social. To them there is no absolute good or evil in
the world. Values of life, according to naturalism, are created by the human
needs. Man creates them when he reacts to — or interacts with — his
environment. He must adapt himself to the environment.
Naturalistic philosophy defines life in terms of material and chemical laws and
emphasizes the relationship between power, speed and matter as of the nature
of casual relationship.

Ward:

Naturalism is a doctrine which separates nature from God, subordinate spirit to

matter and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme.

Joyee:

Naturalism is a system whose silent characteristics is the exclusion of what ever is

spiritual or indeed whatever is transcendental of experiences from our philosophy
of nature and man.

Ross:

Naturalism is a term loosely applied in educational theory to systems of training

that are not dependent on schools and books but on the manipulation of the
actual life of the educated.

Sum Total Meaning of Naturalism:

i. Life of man comes out of dead matter which combines both physical and
chemical reactions.

ii. Man has innate and inherent nature.

iii. Man is the supreme and superior most animal.

iv. The present life is real life for making happy and comfortable.
v. Reality of the external nature can’t be changed.

vi. Change of human life are due to bliss of discoveries of science and inventions.

vii. Matter is the ultimate reality but soul, God, mind. Heaven, Hell, freedom of
will, moral values, prayers are illusion.

Forms of Naturalism:

Naturalism is of the following forms:

i. Physical Naturalism:

It studies the process of matter of external world. It explains human activities in

terms of natural laws and material objects. So external nature has influenced on
the life of human being. It emphasizes on physical science.

ii. Mechanical Naturalism:

Mechanical naturalism has given stress on modern Psychology-Behaviorism. It

deals conditioned response and effective principles of learning by doing. This
universe is a lifeless big machine but it is man who manipulates the machine
through mailer and motion.

For this movement mental activities are required. No spiritual power is required
to run this machine as per idealism. This machine comes to move by external
stimuli and forces of nature.
iii. Biological Naturalism:

Based on Darwin’s theory of evolution, man has evolved from lower animal by a
gradual process of development to present man. Man is the supreme product of
this evolution.

Biological naturalism emphasizes that man comes to earth due to influence of

heredity and temperament of man which comes from generation to generation
through a natural process i.e. in born tendencies. It is based on three principles
like adaptation to environment, struggle for existence, survival of the fittest.

Teacher is an observer. He is a stage fitter who understands the nature of the

child. He is the supreme authority who gives reverence to truth. Teacher remains
behind the scenes. Teacher is the giver of information, ideas to the students.
Nature is the supreme teacher of child.

Curriculum is based on the nature of the child. It lays stress on the subject that is
helpful in self preservation. It lays stress on basic science. It emphasizes on
natural sciences like physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, mathematics, home
science and other science subjects language and literature.

Naturalism emphasizes discipline according to natural consequences. Nature will

punish the child if he violates laws of nature. The child will be allowed full
freedom to indulge in the activities of his choice.

Modern system of education lays emphasis on the freedom, nature, truth, beauty,
goodness of the child which is the basic structures of naturalism. Struggle for
existence is given much emphasis in present system of education. Child is the
central position of education which one can’t avoid it.
Since naturalistic view of life is scientific and true and it regards this central aim of
education as the autonomous development of the individual, such ideals should
be accepted in the education system of the emerging pakistan society.

5. What are the limitations of natural knowledge? It is of any

use to Muslims today?

Ans
the baics tenets of Islam and the Islamic view of nature that were influential in
the development of science in the so-called ‘Golden Age of Islam’. These findings
have been the catalyst for present day Muslim scholars, who have emphasized
the importance of Islamic science, as the means of understanding Western
science. There is also a strong body of opinion within researchers of Islamic
science that the abandonment of Islamic values and the rapid adoption of
Western science and technologies have led to conflict in social, educational and
scientific fields in Islamic countries. The article examines how these two views can
be reconciled in order to build bridges between modern science and Islamic
science.

Islamic science, tenets of Islam, Islamic values, modern science, view of nature
Contemporary Muslim and non-Muslim scholars have recognized that scientific
knowledge is not necessarily neutral and objective, but instead carries values and
concepts that are explicit to modern Western culture. Therefore this has resulted
in a concerted effort by contemporary Islamic scholars to call for an ‘Islamic
science’ or the ‘Islamization of knowledge’. Islamic scholars have also been calling
for an investigation to reflect back to the so-called ‘Golden Age of Islam’ when
there seemed to have been development in science; and an acceptance of
harmony between religion and science. This topic examines how the tenets of
Islam, and the Islamic view of nature facilitated the development of science in the
so-called ‘Golden Age of Islam’; how the Western view of nature conflicts with the
Islamic view. And how common or universal values can help build bridges
between modern science and Islamic science.

Islam is not just a way of life but a civilization, in which the way of life may vary
“from one Muslim country to another, but is animated by a common spirit far
more humane than most Westerners realize” (Mazrui, 1997, p. 118). The religious
life of Muslims in Islamic countries is governed by the tenets of Islam. Very briefly
these tenets are considered, along with the values that they exemplify, in the
following section.

At the core of the belief system of Islam are the five pillars of Islam, along with
core values, laws, and behaviours outlined in both the Quran; and the practice
(Sunna) and teaching (Hadith) of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUM5) .
Monotheistic in nature, Islam claims that human beings believe in the “same God,
have similar needs, wants, and experiences, and can relate to a set of universal
moral principles” . Thus the Islamic set of moral principles is good for all mankind,
regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, or origin. Islam’s rapid expansion in the
seventh and eighth centuries, as well its vigour today, lies in its claim of universal
validity across time and space.

Individuals can convert to Islam by practising the Five Pillars of Faith and adhering
to the core values, laws, and behaviours outlined in the Quran and the Hadith,
teachings of Prophet Muhammad (PBUM). The first pillar of Islam is called
Shahadah (the act of bearing witness).

The Shahadah requires that a Muslim declare his or her devotion to Allah or God
by declaring “there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the messenger of
Allah”. Therefore by this profession of faith Muslims assert that Allah is the only
God, and not part of the pantheon. Thus clearly Islam rejects the concept of
‘Trinity’ and presents a direct theological challenge to Christianity. For 14
centuries this has been at the heart of the tension between Christianity and Islam
(Smith, 1999) with intractable views held by both religions that prevent any
compromise.

The second tenet or pillar of Islam requires Muslims to pray at five specified times
during the day. The establishment of prayers is stated in the Quran and was
demonstrated by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUM) during his lifetime (Sunna).
While performing prayers Muslims must face the Great Mosque (Holy Kaaba) in
Mecca, the holiest city of Islam (Cornell, 1999).Prayers or alsalat are viewed as a
vital component of submission to the will of Allah, and “involve a variety of
important rituals, each signifies the centrality of prayer in Islamic life”. By
performing the prayers five times a day, “Muslims acknowledge humanity’s total
dependence on the will of Allah”

The third pillar of Islam is Zakat or charity, giving of one’s wealth for the benefit of
the poor. The Quran mandates this as 2.5 percent of the individual’s saving, to be
used to help the less fortunate in the society. The Zakat reflects the importance of
charity and emphasizes the Quranic view of social justice and compassion.
The fourth pillar of Islam involves fasting or al-saum from sunrise to sunset in the
month of Ramadan7. During Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food, drink, and sex
during the day. By fasting, Muslims develop a deep sense of devotion to Allah,
and that helps them participate in, and be responsible to, a larger moral
community (Cornell, 1999).

The fifth pillar is the hajj or annual pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The hajj
must be preformed by every healthy and financially able Muslim once in their
lifetime. It is undertaken in Dhul-Hijjah, the twelfth month of the Islamic lunar
calendar. The pilgrims perform hajj repeating the rituals that were performed by
the Prophet during his last pilgrimage. The hajj symbolizes the believer’s entry
into the earthly House of God in Mecca, a replica of the cosmic House of God in
the Seventh Heaven.

From the idea of cosmic order and laws created by God through His Will and
applicable to both men and nature to the idea of ‘laws of nature’ discoverable
completely by human reason and usually identified with mathematical laws,
divorced from ethical and spiritual laws, there is a major transformation that
played a central role in the rise of modern science. This new idea of laws of nature
also eclipsed the earlier Christian understanding of the subject, although later
theologians tried to ‘Christianize’ the seventeenth-century scientific concept of
laws of nature.

Interestingly enough, such an event did not take place in other civilizations with a
long scientific tradition such as the Chinese, Indian, and Islamic, and this is of
great significance in the parting of ways between the modern West and other
civilizations as far as the understanding of the order of nature and its religious
significance are concerned.