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Examining the Language of Drama Texts with a Reference to Two Plays: A

Stylistic Study

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Volume 3 Issue 1 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND
June 2016 CULTURAL STUDIES ISSN 2356-5926

Examining the Language of Drama Texts with a Reference to Two Plays: A Stylistic
Study

Eman Adil Jaafar

Department of English
College of Education for Women
University of Baghdad
Iraq, Baghdad
Email: eman_jafer2000@yahoo.com

Abstract

Analyzing the language of drama texts stylistically can be somehow challenging, due to the
fact, dialogues need certain tools and techniques to be used. Therefore, the fundamental
purpose of conducting this work is to show how to analyze plays stylistically. This paper
focuses on two plays, namely, Major Barbra by G.B. Shaw, specifically, act (1) and knuckle
by David Hare. In addition, showing a kind of comparison between the two playwrights'
writing style, their choices and the linguistic variations, which the two texts have. Mainly, the
analysis is based on Thornborrow and Wareing's (1998) model. This model applies methods
of stylistics to analyze the aesthetic side of the language of the selected texts. This model also
allows researchers to refer to certain tools related to pragmatics and discourse analysis to
investigate the dialogues in order to reach to rightful interpretation. Since the language of
drama texts shows diversity in its form, this methodology looks at a drama text as a
combination of different genres which they need different tools from linguistics. In this way,
readers can gain an understanding of the texts by following rational and tangible evidences
from the language of the texts.

Keywords: stylistics, conversational analysis, dramatic dialogues, aesthetic language,

everyday language.

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1. Introduction
This research intends to make readers aware of the nature of the language that has been
used in writing plays. Language as a tool or a way of expressing certain ideas related to
playwrights. There are many outstanding works including books, papers, articles and journals
are written by famous contributors to this field like Mick short(1996), Paul Simpson(2004),
G. Leech(1969) and other researchers.
Their works have paved the way to write this research with the goal of continuing
whatever they have started that enriched this area concerning the stylistic analysis of dramatic
texts. In fact, there is a noticeable gap in this particular area need to be enhanced by more
knowledgeable contributions. It is necessary to mention that tremendous work and piles of
books have been written for the sake of examining and analyzing the language of poems and
novels. In contrast, little is paid to dramas.
To start with, the language of plays consists of turns or dialogues among characters of the
text, stylistics as a tool used to examine such a language may apply different techniques to
check how it works.
First of all, the readers should know what is meant by drama. Short (1996: 168) defines
drama as the literary genre that is similar to an ordinary daily conversation with certain
differences. He also adds that drama "consists of character –to –character interaction".
Further, he explains the discourse structure of drama and points out that there are two
levels of discourse: the author-audience/ reader level and the character-character level as
illustrated in the diagram below:

Addresser 1 (playwright) Addresser 2 (reader/ audience)

Message

Addresser 2 (character A) Addresser 2 (character B)

Diagram (1) based on (Short, 1996:169)

Short (Ibid) also mentions that there are plays that have more than two levels mentioned
above. These examples of plays that have a character who narrates the events of the play
without participating in the actual action of the play.
Short (1996:168) asserts that drama texts contain characters who interact with each other,
due to this fact, researchers can benefit from the tools of linguistics to analyze face to face
interactions and how context play an important role to the overall meaning of the
conversation.
Moreover,Verdonk (2002:18) points out that discourse refers to a process in which readers
connect texts with their contexts. In other word, readers cannot understand the meaning of
text unless they know the context. Verdonk asserts that through the contextualization of texts
readers try to reconstruct the author's implied message "his/her communicative act or
discourse"( Ibid).

2. Model of Analysis
The model that has been chosen for analyzing the selected plays is based on what is
proposed by Thornborrow&Wareing's (1998) work. They provide researchers with an

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approach with the main endeavor to find the suitable and reliable interpretation to dramatic
texts.
This approach suggests a way of looking at a dramatic text as a tri-genre piece of art. In
other words, readers / researchers can look at a play as a combination of poetry, fiction and
conversation (play). Therefore, the interpretation will be executed by following the rules that
are specified or written for examining the above-mentioned genres. The chosen stylistic
model is considered as a holistic one because it borrows tools and techniques from different
linguistic branches (i.e. discourse analysis and pragmatics).
This is the rightful solution to do justice to the language of the dramatic text. In order to
show its unrivaled uniqueness comparing to the other genres.

3. Scope of the Study

This study seeks to find the aesthetics points and the salient features of the language of
two plays. Act(1) of Major Barbra by George B. Shaw and the second is knuckle (1974) by
David Hare. The reasons for choosing these texts are quite reasonable. Selecting act (1) of
Shaw's play by the researcher for the belief that the author did his best to exhibit his brilliant
choices of words and structures as it represents the opening part of the text, in order to peruse
readers to know about the rest of the play. As for the second play, it has been chosen for being
a modern, rather short and simple text to be analyzed.
4. Dramatic Dialogue vs. Everyday Language
Readers cannot understand the language of drama texts unless they work out the
differences between drama language and everyday language. Thornborrow&Wareing
(1998:97-104) have summarized the differences between real (everyday language) and script
conversation (written dramatic dialogues). They can be illustrated in the following table (1):

Points of differences Real conversation Script conversation

1-Pauses and pauses fillers Pauses and pauses They are created by the
Usually used in conversation to fillers occur in our writers deliberately in a
arrange the ideas and thoughts in daily language in a controlled, organized
the speaker's mind. Examples of spontaneous natural method.
pauses fillers include (umm, uh, way.
mmm and er)

2- unclear speech The speech of The speech is created

speakers cannot be to be performed or to
understood due to be read to people.
the situation in which Therefore, this problem
they are engaged in. can hardly be seen in
that may include the script dialogue
whispering,
muttering or even
speaking in a very
quick way.
3- Repetition and Recycling When people talk, This issue is done on
they may repeat purpose by playwrights

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certain words. This to give credibility to

happens either to the dialogue of the text.
emphasize an idea or
it is a matter of "a
production error"
4- overlaps and interruptions in Speakers can expose While writing dramatic
turn- taking in such case as dialogues, writers pay
Speaking at the same time can be overlapping in special attention to
defined as interrupting or conversation avoid vagueness in turn
overlapping. accidentally. If that taking. They usually
These terms are different in depth happens deliberately, minimize overlapping
and length but they are highly this can give an and interruptions for
related to each other(Yuan et example of the sake of clear
al,2007) uncollaborative understanding of the
conversation. dialogues.
5- Discourse markers (so, right, These words are In dramatic texts,
okay) Certain words are used to used by interlocutors these markers are used
show an attitude or express a spontaneously or written with the
feeling. These markers can be used without paying so main aim of making
to start, end a conversation. much attention to the dialogues near to
their use. the real conversation.
To put it differently, to
give a soul to the
speech.

Table(1): Based on Thornborrow&Wareing's (1998) A Comparison between Everyday

Language and Script Conversation

5. The Analysis
In this part of the paper, there is an endeavor to analyze the two different drama texts
with the main aim of finding the ornaments of the language used in writing these works.
The reason for choosing the two texts is to show how each text is quite unique from the
other, this uniqueness due to the playwrights' different styles or ways of presenting their
ideas and thoughts.
The first chosen play is Major Barbra act (1) by G.B. Show. The language of this
play is based on finding the deviant phrases and rules of the language such as the figures
of speech including (similes, paradox, repetition, personification and metaphor).
Moreover, shedding the light on the prominent deviated grammatical aspects in the play
concentrates especially on the use of subjunctive mood and adjectives.
5.1 Example (1) : A Stylistic Analysis of Major Barbra
Shaw is known by his rich language as his writing style. He is famous for his
idiomatic and witty language in writing his conversation dialogues. In fact, he is one of
the finest playwrights in the realm of drama (Saxena, n.d.:108-109).

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Major Barbra is a three-act play written by Shaw in 1905. The two main themes of
this play are poverty and religion. The characters are Shaw's mouthpieces. The idea is
poverty is the worst crime because it leads men to be sinful and irreligious. So, there is a
conflict between religion represented by the leading heroin Major Barbra and her father
Undershaft representing the rich businessman (Ibid:103).
Figures of speech in this text include:
1-Simile: the simplest way to recognize similes is that they always include the words 'as'
or 'like'. The comparison between two things is meant to be clear and explicit (Gray,
1984:189). In (act I) of Major Barbra there are few similes worth mentioning:
1- "they will be as poor as church mice"
2- " who are always as mean as they are second rate"
3- "conceiving the universe exactly as if it were a large house in Wilton Crescent"
4- "Don't talk like a street girl."
2- Paradox: in the opening of the play, Shaw includes a series of paradoxes to describe Lady
Britomart's personality.
1- "well dressed and yet careless of her dress"
2- "well bred and quite reckless of her breeding
3- " well mannered and yet appallingly outspoken and indifferent to the opinion of her
interlocutory "
4- "amiable and yet peremptory, arbitrary, and high-tempered to the last bearable degree".
5- "He really had a sort of religion of wrongness" religion is a combination of rules of
rightfulness leads people to correct way, the contradiction here it is attributed to the adjective
(wrong).

3- Metaphor: Metaphors are used by writers to create an "authentic and thrilling new
combination of ideas, objects and sensation"(Gray, 1984:122). These combinations seem too
strange to be mixed together in one phrase and such kind of oddness is called mixed metaphor
(Ibid). Examples from the play include:

1-"Those two men, Andrew Undershaft and Lazarus, positively have Europe under their
thumbs". This metaphor is used to show how they have a control over a situation; they can
manage to do any possible thing to achieve their goals.

2-"So I must put my pride in my pocket", this is used to show an idea of giving up dealing
with people with pride which is quite common to lady Britomart.

4- Personification: attributing human qualities or characteristics to non-human things (Ibid).

For example: "Dumb helpless horror" in this example horror is an abstract word is joined
with the adjectives (dumb and helpless), both these words cannot describe abstract words.

Another example of personification can be found in "the lifelong struggle of a benevolent

temperament and a high conscience against impulses of inhuman ridicule and fierce
impatience". Here, opposite characteristics or qualities (temper & conscience against ridicule
& impatience) are struggling against each other as if they are human beings.

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5-Repetition: This literary device is based on repeating a word, phrase or a sentence to

emphasize a certain idea. In fact, there are many types of repetition depending on the position
of the repeated word (literary devices, 2016).

In act( I), there are many examples of repetitions:

6- Epiphora: This term refers to a type of repetition whereby a word or a phrase is repeated
at the end of successive clauses (Ibid). for example:
1- "I asked Gladstone to take it up."
"I asked The Times to take it up."
"I asked the Lord Chamberlain to take it up." (Parker(ed),2005:45).

2- "Do you mean for--for--for—"

3-"Treat me as a child…..tell me nothing….tell me everything….let me take it easy….let

me alone….tell me about this horrible business…. Set me aside….". (Ibid:46,47). This is
an example of repetition of the same structures with repeated verbs and the pronoun (me).

Deviation

After finding the figurative language of act (I) of the play, it is necessary to examine
the grammatical and semantic deviated aspects in it, concentrating especially on adjectives
and the subjunctive mood.
Deviation is one of the important tools used in stylistics. It simply means the departure
from the rules or norms of language. In fact, there are nine types as Leech (1969:42-52)
explains in his work.

1- Deviation in the Use of Adjectives

The language of the play is rich with the use of adjective and particularly the
compound ones. Shaw is famous for his intelligent style. His selection of adjectives is not
random. He creates new adjectives by using two or more nouns together to create
stupendous adjectives. In his writing, Shaw uses odd and compel attention combinations
of words. These combinations work as adjectives to nouns. Such kind of oddness is
related to the semantic level. Therefore, Shaw intentionally deviated from the norms of
meaning to create strikingly new combinations.., examples from the first act include:
- "Your everyday matter-of-course attention".
- "A pig-headed Troy one"
- "Some pretty little nobody"
- Dumb helpless horror"
- "Imperfectly suppressed laughter"
- 'He is a most implacable, determined, tenacious, intolerant person" four successive
adjectives used in one sentence.

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2- Deviation in the Grammatical Aspect

This work is conducted for the main aim of finding the most prominent stylistic features
of the texts. For this reason, it draws on the deviations not only in the meaning form but also
in the grammatical form of the plays. Here, part of the stylistics analysis is to identify the
grammatical deviations and to explain for what purpose they are used in the text.

Therefore, grammar is an important aspect that needs to be given a considerable attention.

The grammatical analysis focuses here in this part on the subjunctive and the employment of
adjectives in the text.

The Subjunctive Mood:

Here in this play, the subjunctive mood is used to give an aesthetic and pleasing flavor to
the text. This mood can draw imagery or a conditional situation in the mind of the reader of
the text or the audience who watch the actual performance of it. The situations are usually
contrary to facts (Dcuervo, 2014). In fact, there are few types of the subjunctive mood. To be
more specific, Shaw used in this text the subjunctive 'were' which is hypothetical and it is
used in "conditional and concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after optative verbs
like 'wish' it occurs as the 1st and 3rd person singular past of the verb be" (Quirk, 1973:51-52).

Examples of the subjunctive mood in the text can be shown as follows:

1- "conceiving the universe exactly as if it were a large house."(p.39)

2- "if he were not the Earl of Stevenage, he would have to give up society." (p.44)
3- "you go on as if religion were a pleasant subject"(p.67)
4- "I couldn't look you in the face--if it were true." (p.69)
5- "Anything's better than to sit there as if you wished you were a thousand miles away."
(p.69)
6- "LOMAX. [handsomely] Not that I mind, you know, if Sarah don't" (p.55)

In addition to the above analysis, the researcher wants to shed the light on certain features
related to the style of speech of two characters: Lady Britomart and her son Stephen. As a
mother, Lady Britomart leads the conversation and as a son, Stephen submits to this fact. This
is because he still has an awe of his mother though he is a young man of about 24 years old.
Shaw's asserts this is not because of a weakness of his character but because he is shy and
young. It is clear that Lady Britomart has a control over the conversation, being a mother she
scolds her son, interrupts him and prevents him from completing his turns. Her style of
speaking leads to humor and contradiction. In fact, it causes laughter to the readers of the text
or the audience who watch the performance on the stage. One example that reflects what have
been mentioned in the following turns:
STEPHEN.
[obstinately] I would die sooner than ask him for another penny.%
LADY BRITOMART.

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[resignedly] You mean that I must ask him. Very well, Stephen: It shall be as
you wish….(1,1-2)
She asks for his opinion or advice about taking money from her ex-husband (Stephen's
father). After going through arguments, Stephen gives his opinion and refuses to take money
from his father. However, his mother simply goes on ignoring his advice and repeating her
request to advise her. Finally, Lady Britomart makes up her mind to ask for the money. This
shows that she does what she only wants and never cares about others' opinion.

5.2Example (2): A Stylistic Analysis of Knuckle

After analyzing the first drama text Major Barbra, the next step in this study is to check
the language of Hare's Knuckle by following the same holistic approach. This method gives us
as readers an opportunity to arrive at a better interpretation and to have an idea of the
difference in the writing style of both playwrights.

Knuckle is written by David Hare in 1974. Hare is one of the outstanding British
playwrights in the contemporary literature. He is also considered as one of the leading post-
war writers, his works reflect the modern social and political issues in Britain (Homden, 1995:
1).
Knuckle is about the investigation of Curley Delafield about the disappearance of his
sister, Sarah. The question is whether she has been killed, or she has killed herself or she
simply disappeared. Curley did his best to find her by questioning her friends and close
people to her with the hope of finding her and to find a clue behind her disappearance.
Finally, it seems that his efforts went in vain because he could not discover anything about her
and all his questions remained unanswered.
There are noticeable differences between the two drama texts. Shaw depends on
decorating his writing with the use of adjectives. He invents new adjectives by combining
unmatchable nouns, this produced compound adjectives. The turns between the speakers are
relatively long descriptive containing full stage directions. In contrast, Hare uses short, simple
turns.

Figures of speech in this text include:

1-Similes:
''The wrists are cut. With the razor blade….so it looked like gardening shears.''
(Hare,1974:22).
"Malloy had ears like a dachshund" like the ears of a dog of a short-legged, long-bodied
breed.(Ibid)
"…the money being raked in like autumn leaves".(Ibid:23)
"The sound of money gathering like moss on the side of a west building".(Ibid)
"Slapping people on top of people like layers of lasagna"(Ibid:27).
"Money can be harvested like rotten fruit"(Ibid).
"You should see her thighs. Like putting your hands between two slices of
liver"(Ibid:28).

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2-Oxymoron: Is a figure of speech consists generally of two apparently contradictory words

with the main purpose of creating a striking effect (Wales,1989:332). Examples from the play
include:

"In the heart of sadness joy"(Ibid: 7).

"I see the living dead"(Ibid:27).

After examining the figurative expressions of the text, it is crucial to analyze and
investigate the turns or dialogues of the characters, by following the tools of discourse
analysis. Checking whether the characters of this play follow the maxims of the cooperative
principle is one of the priorities of this part of the study. Grice (1975:45) states that a speaker
must follow four rules or maxims which are called the Gricean maxims of the discourse.
These maxims are:
1-The quantity maxim, where speakers must make their conversation as informative as
possible;
2- The quality maxim, where speakers must tell the truth and which is based on evidence;
3- The relation maxim: which entails that the contribution or the answer must be relevant to
the topic or the question; and
4- The manner maxim, which entails that contributors must be "clear, brief and orderly"(Yule,
2006:130).
Another important issue is related to the concept of turn-taking is the interruption or
cutting the speech of one speaker to the other. Yule (2006, 128) mentions this happens due to
two reasons either "rudeness" or "shyness" both lead to the interruption in the conversation.
Examples from Knuckle (act1.scene1.lines 13-34) have been numbered for the ease of
reference, are shown below:
1-Curly: Did Sarah come here?
2-Jenny: You know Sarah?
3-Curly: No, I don't. That's the whole point. I hadn't seen her for twelve years. I haven't seen
anyone.
4-Jenny: What made you come back?
5-Curly: Was she friendly with men?
6-Jenny: In a way. She went for a particular kind …
7-Curly: I remember
8-Jenny: You know …
9-Curly: Still the same kind?
10-Jenny: These had a kind of Neanderthal gleam.
11-Curly: That's them. And she was only eight at the same time.
12-Jenny: Did your father ask you to do this?
13-Curly: Where was she working?
14-Jenny: She'd been working as a nurse in a psychiatric hospital.
15-Curly: Dangerous job
16-Jenny: Have you seen your father?
17-Curly: not yet. I'm staying with Patrick from tonight.
18-Jenny: I see.
19-Curly: How long's she been gone?

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20-Jenny: You take your conversation at a fair old lick.

21-Curly: I'm transistorized. How long's she been gone?
22-Jenny: (stubbing out her cigarette) Eight weeks.
The selected conversation shows how characters exchange their roles throughout the play.
This example, in fact, reflects the rest of the dialogues of the text.
As a reflection of the thematic problem of the disappearance of one of the characters of
the play and the interrogative situation in the whole play about this disappearance leads to the
awkwardness in the conversation. Characters break the rules of the cooperative principle is
obvious. For example, turns 1 &2 show how the maxim of relevance is violated, instead of
answering Curly's questions, she asks another question. In turns (4&5) (12&13), Curly does
the same thing, he violates the relation maxim by asking instead of answering.
The purpose behind his attitude is to show his carelessness and disinterest in making a
conversation by refusing to answer questions and giving the required information from him.
He plays the role of the investigator the only one to be answered. Burton(1980:74) cited in
(sacks, 1974) maintains that as interlocutors, we must follow sacks' normative rule which he
states that "A person who has been asked a question , properly speaks and properly replies to
it"
Turns (6&8) expose examples of interruption. Jenny's answers are cut deliberately by
Curly. Turn (6) is interrupted by a short comment to show that he needs to hear no more due
to the adequate information he has about the situation. Similarly, turn (8) is stopped by a
question.
In turn (14), Jenney violates the maxim of quantity; she gives more information than it is
required. She supposed to give the place of working, but she adds extra information about the
nature of her job. This shows that Jenny wants to be collaborative while interacting. In turn
(19), the maxim of relevance again is violated. Jenney comments on the way that Curley leads
the conversation instead of answering the question posed to her.

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Conclusions
Analyzing dramatic texts can be somehow challenging in terms of which model to be
followed. This difficulty arose due to the fact that, plays are considered as s holistic type of
genre, to put it in a different way, it demands certain tools and techniques to be used in order
to arrive at the righteous analysis.
Concerning the playwrights' styles, there are noticeable differences in their choices that
they have made. Shaw tends to write long descriptive sentences with a considerable and
shrewd way of employing adjectives to create an ornament to the language of the text. He
deviates from the normal combination of words. The turns of his characters are long and
informative. There are about (18-23) words per turn. In contrast, Hare's style is apparently
different from Show, in terms of sentences length and the use of adjectives. Hare, generally,
uses short sentences about (5-7) words per turn. In his play, he uses a simple language with
little use of adjectives.
Finally, the researcher arrives at the conclusion that by using a holistic stylistic model that
based on different branches and tools of linguistics to examine dramatic texts can be better
appreciated since this model combines the best of stylistics with reference to discourse
analysis and pragmatics.

Acknowledgements
The researcher of the present study is grateful to the College of Education for Women,
University of Baghdad, Al-Jadiriyya, for conducting this study.

References

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