A. Submarine
Bourne did not actually construct his boat, and Cornelis Drebbel (or
Submarine, any naval vessel that is capable of propelling itself
beneath the water as well as on the water’s surface. This is a unique
capability among warships, and submarines are quite different in
design and appearance from surface ships.
Submarines first became a major factor in naval warfare during
World War I (1914–18), when Germany employed them to destroy
surface merchant vessels. In such attacks submarines used their
primary weapon, a self-propelled underwater missile known as a
torpedo. Submarines played a similar role on a larger scale in World
War II (1939–45), in both the Atlantic (by Germany) and the Pacific
(by the United States). In the 1960s the nuclear-powered submarine,
capable of remaining underwater for months at a time and of firing
long-range nuclear missiles without surfacing, became an important
strategic weapon platform. Armed with torpedoes as well as antiship
and antisubmarine missiles, the nuclear attack submarine has also
become a key element of naval warfare.
Following is a history of the development of submarines from the
17th century to the present. For a history of other warships, see
naval ship. For the weaponry of modern attack and strategic
submarines, see rocket and missile system.
The first serious discussion of a “submarine”—a craft designed to be
navigated underwater—appeared in 1578 from the pen of William
Bourne, a British mathematician and writer on naval subjects.
Bourne proposed a completely enclosed boat that could be
submerged and rowed underwater. It consisted of a wooden frame
covered with waterproof leather; it was to be submerged by reducing
its volume by contracting the sides through the use of hand vises.
Cornelius van Drebel), a Dutch inventor, is usually credited with
building the first submarine. Between 1620 and 1624 he
successfully maneuvered his craft at depths of from 12 to 15 feet
(four to five metres) beneath the surface during repeated trials in the
Thames River, in England. King James I is said to have gone aboard
the craft for a short ride. Drebbel’s submarine resembled that
proposed by Bourne in that its outer hull consisted of greased leather
over a wooden frame; oars extended through the sides and, sealed
with tight-fitting leather flaps, provided a means of propulsion both
on the surface and underwater. Drebbel’s first craft was followed by
two larger ones built on the same principle.
A number of submarine boats were conceived in the early years of
the 18th century. By 1727 no fewer than 14 types had been patented
in England alone. In 1747 an unidentified inventor proposed an
ingenious method of submerging and returning to the surface: his
submarine design had goatskin bags attached to the hull with each
skin connected to an aperture in the bottom of the craft. He planned
to submerge the vessel by filling the skins with water and to surface
by forcing the water out of the skins with a “twisting rod.” This
arrangement was a forerunner of the modern submarine ballast tank.
Etymology
Whereas the principal meaning of "submarine" is an armed,
submersible warship, the more general meaning is for any type of
submersible craft.[3] The definition as of 1899 was for any type of
"submarine boat".[4] By naval tradition, submarines are still usually
referred to as "boats" rather than as "ships", regardless of their
size.[5] In other navies with a history of large submarine fleets they
are also "boats"; in German it is an Unterseeboot[6] or U-Boot
(under-sea boat)[7] and in Russian it is a подводная лодка
(underwater boat).[8] Although referred to informally as "boats", [9][10]
U.S. submarines employ the designation USS (United States Ship)
at the beginning of their names, such as USS Alabama.
B. night vision
Definition of night vision
: Ability to see in the dark
Exp: an animal with excellent night vision
Medical Definition of night vision
: Ability to see in dim light (as provided by moon and stars)
Night vision is the ability to see in (relative) darkness. All natural
vision involves reception of some light by the eye. This is true even
in the dark; vision is possible only when light is present. Often, what
appears to be total darkness is not the absence of light but rather the
poor reception of available light. To see well in the dark, humans
either enhance reception of limited available light, or provide more
light.
Many techniques and technologies for improving night vision
involve reception of certain frequency bands (colors) of light.
These frequency bands include:
 infrared light (heat)
 red light
 soft ultraviolet (UV) light (also known as blacklight)
Night vision is the ability to see in low-light conditions. Whether
by biological or technological means, night vision is made possible
by a combination of two approaches: sufficient spectral range, and
sufficient intensity range. Humans have poor night vision compared
to many animals, in part because the human eye lacks a tapetum
lucidum
Biological night vision
All photoreceptor cells in the vertebrate eye contain molecules of
photoreceptor protein which is a combination of the protein
photopsin in color vision cells, rhodopsin in night vision cells, and
retinal (a small photoreceptor molecule). Retinal undergoes an
irreversible change in shape when it absorbs light; this change
causes an alteration in the shape of the protein which surrounds the
retinal, and that alteration then induces the physiological process
which results in vision.
The retinal must diffuse from the vision cell, out of the eye, and
circulate via the blood to the liver where it is regenerated. In bright
light conditions, most of the retinal is not in the photoreceptors, but
is outside of the eye. It takes about 45 minutes of dark for all of the
photoreceptor proteins to be recharged with active retinal, but most
of the night vision adaptation occurs within the first five minutes in
the dark.[4] Adaptation results in maximum sensitivity to light. In
dark conditions only the rod cells have enough sensitivity to respond
and to trigger vision.
Rhodopsin in the human rods is insensitive to the longer red
wavelengths, so traditionally many people use red light to help
preserve night vision. Red light only slowly depletes the rhodopsin
stores in the rods, and instead is viewed by the red sensitive cone
cells[citation needed].
Another theory posits that since stars typically emit light with
shorter wavelengths, the light from stars will be in the blue-green
color spectrum. Therefore, using red light to navigate would not
desensitize the receptors used to detect star light. [5][6]
Using red light for night vision is less effective for people with red–
green color blindness, due to their insensitivity to red light. [need
quotation to verify]
Many animals have a tissue layer called the tapetum lucidum in the
back of the eye that reflects light back through the retina, increasing
the amount of light available for it to capture, but reducing the
sharpness of the focus of the image. This is found in many nocturnal
animals and some deep sea animals, and is the cause of eyeshine.
Humans, and monkeys, lack a tapetum lucidum[7][8].
Nocturnal mammals have rods with unique properties that make
enhanced night vision possible. The nuclear pattern of their rods
changes shortly after birth to become inverted. In contrast to
conventional rods, inverted rods have heterochromatin in the center
of their nuclei and euchromatin and other transcription factors along
the border. In addition, the outer layer of cells in the retina (the outer
nuclear layer) in nocturnal mammals is thick due to the millions of
rods present to process the lower light intensities. The anatomy of
this layer in nocturnal mammals is such that the rod nuclei, from
individual cells, are physically stacked such that light will pass
through eight to ten nuclei before reaching the photoreceptor portion
of the cells. Rather than being scattered, the light is passed to each
nucleus individually, by a strong lensing effect due to the nuclear
inversion, passing out of the stack of nuclei, and into the stack of ten
photorecepting outer segments. The net effect of this anatomical
change is to multiply the light sensitivity of the retina by a factor of
eight to ten with no loss of focus.
Night vision technologies
Night vision technologies can be broadly divided into three main
categories: image intensification, active illumination, and
thermal imaging.
1. Image intensification
This magnifies the amount of received photons from various natural
sources such as starlight or moonlight. Examples of such
technologies include night glasses and low light cameras. In the
military context, Image Intensifiers are often called "Low Light TV"
since the video signal is often transmitted to a display within a
control center. These are usually integrated into a sensor containing
both visible and IR detectors and the streams are used independently
or in fused mode, depending on the mission at hand's
requirements.[10]
The image intensifier is a vacuum-tube based device
(photomultiplier tube) that can generate an image from a very small
number of photons (such as the light from stars in the sky) so that a
dimly lit scene can be viewed in real-time by the naked eye via
visual output, or stored as data for later analysis. While many
believe the light is "amplified," it is not. When light strikes a
charged photocathode plate, electrons are emitted through a vacuum
tube that strike the microchannel plate that cause the image screen to
illuminate with a picture in the same pattern as the light that strikes
the photocathode, and is on a frequency that the human eye can see.
This is much like a CRT television, but instead of color guns the
photocathode does the emitting.
camera or SWIR) multispectral sensors are possible, which take
advantage of the benefits of each detection band capabilities.
Contrary to misconceptions portrayed in the media, thermal imagers
cannot "see" through solid objects (walls, for example), nor can they
see through glass or perspex as both these materials have their own
thermal signature and are opaque to long wave infrared radiation.

2. Active illumination
Active illumination couples imaging intensification technology with
an active source of illumination in the near infrared (NIR) or
shortwave infrared (SWIR) band. Examples of such technologies
include low light cameras.

3. Thermal vision
Thermal imaging detects the temperature difference between the
background and the foreground objects. Some organisms are able to
sense a crude thermal image by means of special organs that
function as bolometers. This allows thermal infrared sensing in
snakes, which functions by detection of thermal radiation.

Thermal imaging cameras are excellent tools for night vision. They
detect thermal radiation and do not need a source of illumination.
They produce an image in the darkest of nights and can see through
light fog, rain and smoke (to a certain extent). Thermal imaging
cameras make small temperature differences visible. Thermal
imaging cameras are widely used to complement new or existing
security networks, and for night vision on aircraft, where they are
commonly referred to as "FLIR" (for "forward-looking infrared").
When coupled with additional cameras (for example, a visible