RUNNING HEAD: RACISM & LIBERATION MOVEMENTS 1

Racism and Liberation Movements in Modern History

RACISM & LIBERATION MOVEMENTS 2

Abstract

Racism has existed in the entire history of the United States as a country. The nation was

founded on principles that undermined the minorities and canonized those who perceived

themselves as superior. Races with colonial stakes in the region made oppressive laws and

policies against slaves and, lately, aboriginals and Asian immigrants. Over time, the oppressed

formed liberation movements that protested and fought oppressive policies such as slavery,

citizenship and voting. In modern history, liberation movements such as American Civil Rights

Movement, Black Power Movement, Asian American Movement, American Indian Movement,

and Black Lives Matter Movement. These movements have been mobilized in modern history to

fight racism, discrimination, race-inspired police brutality, and equal justice. In the recent past,

an expanded spectrum of racism and liberation movement has elicited the need for an overhaul

of the entire system to ensure balance, not only on a racial basis but also on gender, sex, and

religion.
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Racism and Liberation Movements in Modern History

Introduction

Racism is a defining component in the history of the United States of America. The

nation's foundation was made on the notion that some races were superior to others and for

centuries, minorities, which comprised of black and Latinos were denied most freedoms and

rights. As history records, all the changes that have been achieved, be it political, social, or

constitutional inclusivity was achieved through action by liberation movements. Previously,

racism was defined as the racial dominance of one ethnic group over other minor groups. People

of races considered minor arose in arms to fight for a position of freedom, voting rights, and

access to education. While racism has been viewed as racial dominance in various societies,

there is a wide range of racist policies and governance that has allowed the domination of the

privileged over minorities. Liberation movements have elicited the need for an overhaul of the

entire system to ensure balance, not only on a racial basis but also on gender, sex, and religion.

Racism

While the term racism just gained currency in the 1920s, it has been used to define a wide

range of ideas from social practices to legal and scholarly ideologies. The term was predicated on

the notion that human beings exist in different entities identified as races, whose delineation is

based on a person's phenotype and descent (Sears et al., 2000). Races are regarded as static,

primordial, and homogenous. One's race is a determining factor of their physical appearance and

culture. While earlier scholars explained that races determined an individual's intellectual

abilities, recent scholars have debunked this presupposition, claiming that the intellectual
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abilities of individuals are independent of their race. It is on the construct of race that advocates

established naturalism in the social hierarchies of supposedly superior and inferior races.

The usage of the term racism has created an umbrella that covers a range of social sins.

Racist or racism have become terms of abuse and terms that define unbecoming character

towards groups that have been considered inferior. As a result of such discourse, there has been

great confusion between race and other terms of collective identities. In social stratifications, the

race has been used as a destructive social phenomenon that has differed significantly from other

collective terms. Race has been presupposed to have a great fixed, precise, and alleged scientific

objective, unlike other biologically or politically based terms such as ethnicity, linguistic, nation,

or religious group.

Discussing racism in modern history requires highlighting notable historical moments

that influenced deep-rooted racism in the social, political, and legal fabric of the United States of

America. The pre-Civil War and emancipation period was a critical era when the legal sectors

deepened their racism and racial stratifications in the corridors of law. Federal statutes such as

the 1795 Militia Act blocked non-whites from serving as soldiers (Jonas, 2005). This Act was

amended in 1862 to allow people of color to serve in the United States army. During this period,

citizenship was only granted to white individuals, while blacks were considered property for the

white people. They were not allowed to access formal education or vote. The Jim Crow laws also

marked a critical era in America's racism, where white supremacists ascended to power and

passed legislation that deprived African Americans of a right to vote through institutionalized,

systemic discriminatory policies (Schwartz, 2020). Crow’s laws promoted racial segregation,

which showed that blacks would legally talk, walk, drink, eat or rest. In racially mixed areas,

non-white individuals were to wait until all whites were served. Black people were required to
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give up their seats in buses for white passengers. The early 20 th century strengthened

institutionalized racism and systemic discrimination of blacks and Latinos to maintain pre-

existing social order. While black people were technically allowed to vote, pervasive actions

such as lynching, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses ensured that black Americans were

disenfranchised.

In modern history, racism has gained a broad spectrum. First, unlike the early racial ages

of the nation when only blacks and aboriginals were affected by the vise, most groups, including

Asians and Arabs, face the same problem. Today, there are multiple social stratifications in the

US, branding people as Arab-Americans, Asian-American, Chinese-Americans, et cetera. These

groups have faced critical racial discrimination over the years. Commendable eras include the

post-world war II when the Japanese-Americans were threatened. During this period, people of

Japanese descent were targeted by government agencies for internment. According to van Dijk

(2005), President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which demanded the internment of

120,00 Japanese Americans, including children, as possible threats.

The 21st century is still laced with visible traces of racism against non-white individuals

in the United States. Different brandings have been made to label people of different descents.

The Asians, for example, have been labeled as a model minority. They are perceived as educated

and successful and get intelligent stereotypes, but as viewed as socially inept (Yancy, 2018).

Asians receive expectations of excellence and intelligence from other minorities and whites,

which has resulted in workplace discrimination. A study by Perry (2007) demonstrated that 92%

of workplace discrimination in America is based on ethnicity. Racial stereotypes have also been

linked to obstructing career paths. Asians are encouraged to pursue computing, engineering, and

mathematics for their intelligence and are discouraged from executive occupations since there
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are perceived to have poor social skills. Yancy (2018) showed that while Asians made up 10 %

of the total professional jobs in the US, only 3 % held executive, senior, or management

positions.

Modern racism motivates hate crimes. Hate crimes have been on the rise in the 21 st

century. There have been racial profiling and racial hate, and conspiracies. A report by the FBI

reported that 65% of hate crimes were attributed to racial biases (Schwartz, 2020). In 2016, the

Seattle Police Department report noted a 40% increase in race-based crimes, with minority

groups such as African Americans and Asian Americans being victims of these vises. The police

department has also been noted to perpetuate racial discrimination and crimes.

Liberation Movements in Modern History

The acts of racism have motivated aggressive and peaceful liberation movements in their

opposition. American civil rights movements in modern history came to national prominence in

the 1950s in their protests against discrimination and racial segregation (Jonas, 2005). The

movement had been in existence for centuries, having fought against slavery and racial

oppression. While these civil rights had been previously granted through the 14 th and 15th

amendments, their rights did not have any federal protections. Liberations movements in modern

history have a critical alignment with the arrest of Rosa Parks in 1955, a black woman who failed

to give up her bus seat to a white passenger. Her arrest sparked agitation among the black

community, whose leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) – a civil

rights movement led by Martin Luther King Jr. Mrs. Parks courage encouraged the MIA to lead a

boycott of the Montgomery bus service. The boycott, which lasted for 381 days, forced the

Supreme Court to rule against the unconstitutionality of segregated seating in buses.

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There are major milestones that liberation movements in modern history have attained.

As aforementioned, these milestones include abolishing segregation, discrimination and voting

rights. By 1965, there was major civil rights legislation that had paid off the movements' efforts

(Perry, 2007). However, at this period, Black activists have a wider scope of their demands,

which were not limited by the civil rights reforms but extended to the confrontation of enduring

political, economic, and cultural consequences of past racial oppression. By this period, several

liberation movements were inspired to protest and influence a change that they desired. These

groups include the Black Power movement and Freedom Riders. The Black Power movement,

which a popular member like Malcolm X led, believed in black identity, politics, economy, and

force (Jonas, 2005). The Black Power movement was a force that influenced socialism,

nationalism, and pan-Africanism. Its contemporary events through the Black Panther Party have

influenced the decolonization of Africa and the Cuban Revolution. The Freedom Riders also

made significant efforts in fighting for equality in contemporary society. This group was made

up of activist drivers that rode interstate buses and went to the southern states to protest non-

enforcement of Supreme Court decisions against segregation. This group supported the Civil

Rights movement by challenging the status quo by driving buses in the south with passengers of

mixed racial backgrounds. These freedom rides provoked violent reactions, which reinforced the

believability of the American Civil Rights Movement.

While dominant protests such as black powder and the civil rights movement have

received a huge academic review and documentation, there has been little information on the

efforts made by aboriginals. Native Americans have been in a long struggle to maintain their

cultural identity. In 1968, a group of Native Americans such as George Mitchel, Dennis Banks,
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and Clyde Bellecourt was motivated to start the American Indian Movement (AIM) (Voigt,

2021). This group was frustrated by the abject poverty and discrimination that aboriginals faced.

During this period, the life expectancy of the native Americans was 46, while the national

average was 69. There was a higher rate of suicide among the native Americans compared to any

other race in America. More than half of the Native Americans lived on reservations and were

unemployed, living below the poverty line. By 1969, the movement was well organized and

made an effort to build a cultural center on Alcatraz. The center was to include an ecology

center, a history museum, and a spiritual sanctuary. The groups' protests gained popularity from

celebrities who publicized their course and increased the number of protestors. Simultaneously,

the group's effort was finally dissolved in 1971 when the group drifted away from the island. In

1972, AIM was involved in another struggle, which was called the Trail of Broken Treaties. At

this time, the group marched in Washington DC and presented a list of demands that required the

government to improve their education, housing, and economic opportunities (Suzack, 2021).

They demanded the return of Native American Lands and the protection of native cultures and

religions. During Nixon's administration, Native Americans were given tribal lands back, and the

government increased funding for Native American healthcare, education, housing, legal

services, and economic development.

In the 1970s, Asians also rose to protest anti-Asian sentiments. The group formed the

Asian American Movement (AAM), a sociopolitical movement to champion racial justice for

Asians. The group emphasized on Pan-Asians. The group influenced the uprisings in various

universities to champion anti-imperialism (Perry, 2007). The founders of the movement, such as

Daryl Joji, posited that the core principles of the movement were to create a political coalition

between Asians and other ethnicities such as Africans, Latinos, and Native Americans. The
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group protested against the mistreatment and abuse of Asian people in America, who were

viewed as a threat to western civilization. While the group lacked support from a wide base, it

was able to champion better working conditions and wages for the Asian communities.

Members of this group, such as Yuri Kochiyama, had participated in free speech movements and

anti-Vietnam war movements (Ho, 2021). The strength of such movements was not as strong as

black movements, and the division of Asian Americans in America before the 1960s was huge.

This movement created a source of identity for Asians.

The group also influenced other liberation movements such as Yellow Power, Asian

Americans for Action, and American Citizens for Justice. While these groups achieved little due

to a lack of unity among people of Asian descent who viewed themselves as belonging to

different cultures, the COVID19 pandemic has increased the calls to unite Asians and reignite

the movement (Ho, 2021). Racism against people of Asian descent has increased in the US due

to the economic wars between China and the US and the outbreak of COVID19. In 2020, there

was an increase in physical and verbal attacks on Asian Americans. In New York City, Midtown

Manhattan, a Korean woman was confronted by a man who called her a virus and punched her in

the face (Hahm et al., 2021). Within the same period, a new reporter of Asian descent was also

confronted in the Airport. These cases of harassment increased the urge for the revival of neo-

Asian American movements.

The Black Lives Matter movement is another liberation movement that was formed to

address racially motivated killing. The movement was formed in 2013 with the clear goals of

fighting anti-Black violence and racism (Özbilgin & Erbil, 2021). The name of the movement

condemned the unjust killings of Black Americans by the police. The group’s birth was

motivated by the acquittal of George Zimmerman, a neighborhood-watch volunteer, who shot

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and killed Trayvon Martin – an unarmed Black teenager. The movement grew international

chapters in Canada, United Kingdom, and Australia. Over the years, the movement has held

international protests against police brutality against black individuals. In 2020, the movement

staged a momentous international protest after the murder of George Floyd by the Minneapolis

police officer. The protest led to inquiries into police conduct and the need to change policing in

the country to make it safe for all Americans. Notably, the protest led to renaming institutions

named in honor of Confederate heroes (Schwartz, 2020). The movement’s further goals include

unmasking institutional laws and policies that support racial injustices and unfairness. The

political actions, non-violent protests, and letter-writing approaches that the movement uses to

address injustice have made critical milestones in reducing the vices.

Conclusion

The history of racism and the liberation movement in the US goes back to the nation's

foundation. Each generation has made its efforts to destabilize racial stratifications that benefit

those deemed superior on the toil of the inferior. In the 18 th century, the constitution had different

categorizations of American Citizens, which African Americans viewed as properties owned by

their masters. Such stratification was disenfranchised in the mid-19 th century when slavery was

brought to an end. However, continued stratifications were perpetuated through voting, access to

education, segregation, and discrimination. Enacting the Jim Crow laws to promote racial

discrimination and segregation continued the institutionalization of racism. Over time, liberation

movements such as the American Civil Rights movement were formed to fight these social

injustices. By 1965, there was more equity in civil rights, with racial segregation and

discrimination being viewed as federal crimes. While these efforts were commendable, there was

a wide perspective of racial injustices against other racial groups and a wider perspective of
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freedom. Asians and Native Americans also formed liberation groups. While these groups were

not strong enough to stage wide protests, they made score achievements such as better education,

healthcare access, and economic opportunities. In modern society, liberation movements such as

the Black Lives Matter movement have risen to addressed racial injustice and proposed an

overhaul of institutional laws and policies that promote racial injustices. The recent protests led

to the rebranding of institutions such as the Marine Corps that used the confederate flag. While

substantial efforts have been made, racism still thrives in the US's social, political, and

institutional fabric.
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