Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.

1200

Lesson: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the

Regional Styles (North India)

Lesson Developer: Anisha Saxena

College/ Department: History , Lady Shri Ram

College , University of Delhi

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Table of Contents

Chapter 19: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200

Introduction

19.1 Metaphysical origins of a Brahmanical temple

19.2 Plan and elevation of an early medieval temple

19.3 Schools of North Indian Style of Architecture

19.3.1 Western Indian School of Architecture

19.3.2 Central Indian School of Architecture (Khajuraho)

19.3.3 Kalinga Style School of Architecture (Orissa)

19.3.4 Architecture of Kashmir

19.4 Sculpture

19.5 Exercise

19.6 Glossary

19.7 Further Readings

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Introduction

The early medieval period (750-1200 CE) witnessed a remarkable growth in the
development of regional art and architecture. Each region developed its own style of
architecture and sculpture under patronage of different political dynasty in different parts of
India. The Chandellas in Madhya Pradesh created their own vocabulary of sculpture and
architecture, while a different style of art and architecture flourished in Rajasthan and
Gujarat under the patronage of various Rajput dynasties. Pallavas, Pandayas and Cholas in
the southern India created large edifices that were completely different in style and form
the temple architecture of northern India. Regional style of architecture also developed in
Orissa, Bengal and Kashmir. In the Deccan under the patronage of the Chalukyan rulers a
synthesis of both north Indian and south Indian temple styles emerged and hence, art and
architecture of this period should be understood in terms of dialogues between different
regional styles.

Temples in the early medieval period were not merely places of worship; they were
important social, economic and political institutions. R. Champakalakshmi in her Trade,
Ideology and Urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300 while discussing the growth of
urbanization in the region of Tamilakam discusses the importance of Brahmanical temple as
a ceremonial center and symbol of concentration of social and political power derived from a
sacral authority. According to her temples were royal projects undertaken by the rulers for
legitimization of political authority. B.D.Chattopadhyaya in his Studying Early India has
suggested that temples acted as social, cultural and political institutions in the early
medieval India.

A number of architectural texts or vastu texts were also composed during this period.
Samaranaganasutradhara was composed in the tenth century CE in central India,
Aparajitapriccha was composed in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries in western India. The
period also witnesses growth in temple building activities among the Jains, especially in
western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan). From the available architectural texts the style of
architecture that prevailed in this period can be divided into three styles- Nagara, Dravida
and Vesara. Nagara or the North Indian style of architecture flourished from the Himalayas
to Vindhyas. The Dravida architecture essentially refers to the temple built in south of
Krishna River and Vesara or Karnata-Dravida is the term used to describe temples built in
the Deccan and was a confluence of styles of Nagara and Dravida architecture.

19.1 Metaphysical origins of a Brahmanical temple

A Brahmanical temple is conceived as a cosmos in miniature,
it brings alive the cosmic man or purusha. The plan of each
temple is based on vastupurushamandala. The essential plan
of a vastupurushamandala is a square-divided into further
smaller squares. Each square in the mandala is reserved for a
deity, a planet, a star or the guardians of the directions. The
minor deities occupy the periphery squares of the plan and
the central space or squares are reserved for the central
deity, his/her avataras or form or rupa and family. Like the
mount meru the structure of a Brahmanical temple rises from
this square. Largely, a Brahmanical temple faces east-
direction of the rising sun, but there are exceptions like
vastupurushamandala

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

temples dedicated to Vishnu might sometimes face west.

19.2 Plan and Elevation of an Early Medieval Temple

The essential elements of an early medieval temple were-a garbhagriha (sanctum

sanctorum), a pradakshinapath (circumambulatory path) running along the garbhagriha, a
mandapa (hall) or a series of mandapas and a porch. By the early medieval period the
temples in India had become grand both, in its elevation and plan, patrons and architects
adding several mandapas between the garbhagriha and the porch like the-nrittya mandapa
(dancing hall), sabha mandapa (meeting hall), maha-mandapa (the great hall) and ranga-
mandap(color hall).

Like in its plan, even in its elevation a temple was conceived as a man, a standing man, the
prasada or the main shrine composed of a pada (wall), leading to a shikhara (curvilinear
superstructure)which stood over the garbhagriha. The shikhara was composed of a griva
(neck), amalaka and a finial.

Some of the significant stylistic differences that appeared between the Dravida and Nagara
style of temple architecture are:

 A Dravida temple is surrounded by a wall (prakara).

 Dravida temples are also known for their massive gateways or gopurams, missing in
the Nagara architecture.
 The shikhara of a Dravida temple is of pyramid shaped composed of kuta (square),
sala (rectangle) and chandrasalas (arched window motif). The Nagara temple shikara
is curvilinear in nature.

Temple plan A
Source: M.A.Dhaky

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Temple plan B
Source: http://www.kamit.jp/02_unesco/08_khajuraho/kha_eng.htm
Compare carefully the two temple plans, plan A is a Gupta period temple and consists of a
sopanam (staircase), a porch, a mandap and a garbhagriha. Plan B is of Kandariya
Mahadeva temple, Khajuraho, the temple was constrcted in tenth century CE and is a
mature Nagara style architecture and its plan consists of a staircase, porch, followed by a
mandapa and a maha-mandapa, a garbhagriha and a pradakshinapath.

SLIDE MISSING, WILL BE SCANNED FROM M.A.DHAKY’S WORK

Temple Elevation B

Exercise 1. Similar to the two temple plans given above, can you make out the difference
between the two types of elevations? Can you point out the Gupta period temple out of the
two?

19.3 Schools of North Indian Style of Architecture

19.3.1 Western India school of Architecture

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Grand temples were created in Gujarat and Rajasthan in the early medieval period under
the patronage various Rajput dynasties that emerged in the western Indian from the
seventh century CE. Both the Brahmanical and the Jaina temples were constructed under
the patronage of the Guhilas of Mewar, the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Solanki (Chalukyas
of Gujarat). Undertaking projects of temple construction was not limited to kings, Jaina
merchants got several temples constructed in western India. Jaina merchant brothers
Tejapala and Vastupala patronized the famous marble temples of Mount Abu in Rajasthan.
Samar Shah, a Jaina merchant from Patan is also credited with construction and repair of
several Jaina temples.

Eminent art historian M.A.Dhaky has studied in detail the architectural style of the western
Indian temples and have divided them into three-sub categories- the Maha-Maru and Maha-
Gurjara style of architecture that existed in western India between the eighth and tenth
century CE. The Maha-Maru refers to the architectural style that flourished in the region on
Marwar and is recognized by their high and moulded terrace or jagati and multi turreted
spire and ornamental sculpture (examples can be seen at Chittor, Osia, Sikar and Mandor),
the Maha-Gurjara style of architecture flourished in Gujarat and was characterized by
pyramidal roof and sparse sculptural ornamentation (examples can be seen at Roda, Kutch
and Shamalaji) and lastly the Maru-Gurjara style of architecture that evolved by the
eleventh-twelfth century and combined the architectural styles of Maha-Maru and Maha-
Gurjara. The rang mandapa of the Luna Vashi temple, one of the Jaina marble temples at
Dilwara marks the zenith of the Maru-Gurjara style of architecture.

Eleventh century Nagara style Shiva temple, Roda (Gujarat)

shikhara of Sacchiya Mata temple, Source: http://www.william-
Osian. (Jodhpur, Rajasthan) voirol.ch/In/10/10/0/G.html?lng=0
Source: Author

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Shiva temple at Roda is an example of Maha-Gurjara style of architecture, notice the pyramidal roof
and amalaka on the top.

The Sun temple at Modhera was constructed in the eleventh century CE under the
patronage of Solanki ruler Bhima I (1022-63). The temple faces east, where lies a large
kunda or water tank. On the western end of the tank stands an ornamented freestanding
torana, which acts as a transition between the tank and the temple. The temple itself
consists of a porch followed by an assembly hall (gudhamandapa), a grabhagriha and a
pradakshinapath.

Sun Temple, Modhera (Gujarat)

Source:http://www.esamskriti.com/photo-detail/Sun-Temple-Modhera.aspx

9.3.2 central India school of architecture (Khajuraho)

Constructed under the patronage of the Chandella rulers between the tenth and the twelfth
century, the temples of Khajuraho represent the epitome of Nagara style of architecture.
Chandellas were originally feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers and by the ninth
century CE they had established their independent rule in the Bundelkhand region. The
Chandellas traced their lineage to the Moon god and claimed a Kshatriya-Rajput status.
According to the oral tradition eighty-five temples stood at Khajuraho, but today only
twenty-five survive.

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

The Chandella temples

stood on large platforms
and the school of
architecture developed
most remarkable style of
Nagara shikharas
composed of several
miniature shikharas.

The eleventh century

Kandariya Mahadev temple
is dedicated to
Brahmanical lord Shiva.
The temple stands on a
high platform and consists
of a porch, a mandapa, a
Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho (Madhya maha-mandapa, a
Pradesh) grabhagriha and a
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandariya_Mahadeva_Temple pradakshinapath. The
shikhara of the temple
symbolizes Mount Kailash, abode of Shiva and consists of eighty-four smaller shikharas.

19.3.3 Kalinga Style of Architecture (Orissa)

The Kalinga school of architecture developed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries
in Orissa. The temple construction in Orissa began under the Shailodbhavas, who ruled till
the second half of the eighth century, later the patronage was primarily provided by the
Somavamsi and the Ganga rulers. The early temples of Kalinga style had simple curvilinear
tower over a square garbha griha
and a mandapa called the
jagamohan with flat roof, the best
example of early Kalinga style
architecture is the seventh
century Parashurameshvaram
temple in Bhubanshwar (Orissa).
Dedicated to Shiva, the temple
consists of a mandapa
(jagmohan) and a garbhagriha,
topped by a curvilinear shikhara
(know as rekha deul), with an
amlaka on top.

The Mukteshvara temple in

Bhubaneshwara, constructed in
the tenth century under
patronage of Somavamshi
dynasty marks the transition

Parashurameshvaram temple, Bhubanshwar (Orissa)

Source: art-and-archaeology.com/india/bhubaneshwar/pr01.html

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

between early and late Orissan style architecture and beginning of mature phase of temple
architecture in Orissa.

The temple faces west and is enclosed within a short wall. The entrance is through a free
standing beautifully carved torana (arched gateway). The plan of the temple consists of a
jagmohana with a phamsana roof and a garbhagriha with a rekha deul.

The Mukteshvara temple, Bhubaneshwara (Orissa)

Source:http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata
0700_0799/bhubaneshwar/mukteshwar/mukteshwar.html

The best-known example of the later style of Kalinga school is the eleventh century
Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwara and thirteenth century Sun temple at Konark.

19.3.4 Architecture of Kashmir

Brahmanical temples constructed in Kashmir during the early medieval period were
combination of Nagara style of architecture and Buddhist architecture. The best example of
architecture from Kashmir is the eighth century Martand Sun temple, near Anantnag in
Jammu and Kashmir. Constructed under the patronage of Karkota dynasty, today the
temple lies in ruins. The temple stands on a high plinth and is placed inside a rectangular
column surrounded by series of beautiful Greco-Roman inspired columns.

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Entrance to the Martand Sun temple,

Anantnag (Jammu and Kashmir)
Source: ignca.nic.in

19.4 Sculpture
Similar to architecture of the period, the sculpture in the early medieval period varied in
style from region to region. The sculpture was essentially part of the temple architecture,
the exterior of the temple walls were decorated with sculpture both, secular and sacred
subjects appeared on walls. The Nagara style of architecture allowed for more projections
on the outer walls of the temples and hence more space was available for sculptural
decoration. In Dravida temples niches were created on the outer walls where sculptures
were placed. Even in Nagara style diversification occurred, for example, the temples of
western India and central India were decorated profusely with sculpture, but Orissan and
Himalayan architecture was more restrained in matters of sculptural decoration.

Sculptures were largely carved in stone and metal, but few pieces in ivory and wood also
survive. One of the most prominent schools of sculpture that developed between the eight
and the thirteenth centuries was under the patronage of the Palas and Sens rulers in
eastern India (Bengal and Bihar). Palas were patrons of Buddhism, third Pala ruler Devapala
(810-850 CE) is credited with founding the monasteries of Vikramshila and Paharpur. The
Senas who succeeded the Pala rulers in eastern India were Brahman-Kshatriya rulers.

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

A large number of Buddha

and Bodhisattva images were
created under the patronage
of the Palas, by tenth century
Pala Buddhism came under
the influence of tantrism, and
so did their sculpture. Images
of Brhamnanical gods and
goddesses were carved under
the patronage of Sena rulers.
Richly ornamented sculpture
carved in black stone is the
primary characteristic of Pala-
Sena sculpture; they retained
the poise and grace of the
Gupta sculpture. The metal
images usually had a stele-
like format, with the central
figure often depicted
surrounded by a throne.

Similar to the building of the

temples, patronage and
consecration of images
became an important social,
political and religious activity
in the early medieval India.
Images were created and
installed after wish fuilfilment,
celebration of important
social, political and religious
events. This particularly
became an important activity
for the Jaina merchants in
western India.

Avalokiteshvara,
eleventh century, Pala
sculpture
Source:
http://www.trezza.com/exhibi
tions/2011-03-16_nancy-
wiener-asia-week-2011/

Images of both stone and metal were created by the Jainas of not only of the twenty-four
tirthankaras, but also of major and minor Jaina gods and goddess, like the goddesses
Sarasvati and Lakshmi.

Images of Brahmanical gods and goddesses were also created under the patronage of
various Rajput dynasties. The tenth century Ambika temple at Jagat, (Rajasthan) boasts on
its outer walls some of the finest example of western Indian sculpture.

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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Seated Buddha, tenth century, bronze, Pala Nayika, Ambika Mata temple,
period Jagat (Rajasthan)
Source: Metropolitan Museum of art, New York (USA) Source: Dr. V.S. Chouhan,
https://www.panoramio.com

The western Indian sculpture

retained the elegance and poise
of the Gupta period sculpture, but
the outlines of the sculpture were
not always fluid and smooth,
there also appeared excessive
ornamentation of the figures. The
bodies and other details were
carved with great precision and
finesse.

A royal court scene,

Lakshmana temple,
Khajuraho (Madhya
Pradesh)
Source: Author

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

The Chandella sculptures from central India have more clearly defined outlines, the exterior
walls of the temples were decorated with myriad of scenes, among which scenes of dancing
and music and nymphs in various sensual poses were particularly common, enhancing the
dramatic quality of the sculpture. The images in the principal niches of Brahmanical gods
and their families appear much larger and receive more detail and attention.

19.5 Exercise/Quiz
1. Out of the following which element does not appear in both Nagara and Dravida style
architecture?

a. Garbhagriha b. Shikhara c. Gopuram d. Mandapa

Ans. Gopuram

2. Match the following

Shikhara Science of architecture

Mandapa Hall
Dravida North Indian style architecture
Torana Spire
Nagara South Indian style architecture
Vastu Sashtra Gateway

Ans. Shikhara Spire

Mandapa Hall
Dravida South Indian style of architecture
Torana Gateway
Nagara North Indian style of architecture
Vastu Shashtra Science of architecture

3. What are the basic components of early medieval Brahmanical temple architecture?

Ans. Mandapa, Grabhagriha, Pradhakshinapath, Shikhara.

4. Name two architectural texts that were composed in the early medieval India.

Ans. Samaranaganasutradhara and Aparajitapriccha

6. True or False

a. Jagannath temple, Orissa stood on a large platform. False

b. Vesara temple architecture includes architecture styles from both North and South
India. True
c. The sculpture from Rajasthan had well defined fluid lines. False
d. No Buddhist and Jaina sculpture were produced in the early medieval period. False
e. Pala rulers of eastern India patronized Buddhism. True

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

7. Mark the following on the diagram below.

a. Amlaka
b. Shikhara
c. Mandapa
d. Garbhagriha

Amalaka

Shikhara
Mandapa

Garbhagriha

5. Differentiate between Maha-Maru and Maha-Gurjara style of architecture.

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 Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200

Ans. The Maha-Maru refers to the architectural style that flourished in the region on Marwar
and is recognized by their high and moulded terrace or jagati and multi turreted spire and
ornamental sculpture (examples can be seen at Chittor, Osia, Sikar and Mandor), the Maha-
Gurjara style of architecture was characterized by pyramidal roof and sparse sculptural
ornamentation (examples can be seen at Roda, Kutch and Shamalaji)

19.6 Glossary
Amalaka – “myrobolan fruit”ribbed crowing of Nagara temples
Avatara - divine recantation
Bhadra - central offset, wall divisions
Caitya-gavaksha - dormer window (decorative motif)
Candrashala - dormer window (decorative motif)
Devakulika - minor shrine
Garbhagarha - womb house, sanctum
Griva - neck; recess between the shikhara and crowning amalaka
Gudhamandapa - a closed hall
Jagati - plinth, platform
Kuta - square
Dravida
Latina - North Indian shikhara tyle with curved vertical bands
Mandapa - hall with columns
Pradakshina path - circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha
Sala - rectangular chamber
Sabhamandapa – rectangular hall
Shikhara - tower, spire (North India); crowning dome (south India)
Vastu Sasta - science of architecture
Torana - gateway , archiform gateway pattern

19. 7 Further readings

Hardy, Adam. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation, IGNCA, 1995.
Huntington, L. Susan and John C. Huntington. Art of Ancient India, University of Michigen,
1985.
Kramrisch, Stella. The Hindu Temple, 2vols., University of Calcutta, 1946.
Meister, W. Michel, M.A.Dhaky and Krishna Deva. Encyclopedia of Indian temple
Architecture (multiple volumes), AIIS, New Delhi.
Pal, Pratapaditya. Indian Sculpture Vol I and II, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1986.

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