TYPE OF LEARNING

(INFORMATION, ATTITUDES, AND MOTOR SKILLS)

We shall be describing here the conditions applicable to these outcomes: the learning of
verbal information, the establishment or changing of attitudes, andthe acquisition of motor skills.
These three outcomes of learning are obviouslyvery different from each other and of differing
importance within particular instructional programs. For each of them, as in the previous chapter,
we need to consider three aspects of the learning situation:

1. The performance to be acquired as a result of learning

2. The internal conditions that need to be present for learning to occur
3. The external conditions that bring essential stimulation to bear upon the learner

Verbal Information (Knowledge)

Verbal information is also called verbal knowledge; according to theory, it is stored as

networks of propositions (Anderson, 1985; E. D. Gagne, 1985) thatconform to the rules of
language. Another name for it, intended to emphasizethe performance capability it implies, is
declarative knowledge. A great deal of information is learned and stored in memory as a result
ofschool instruction. Of course, an enormous amount is acquired outside ofschool as well, from
the reading of books, magazines, newspapers, and by wayof radio and television programs.

The Learning Of Verbal Information

Verbal information may be presented to the learners in various ways. It may bedelivered
to their ears in the form of oral communications or to their eyes in the form of printed words and
illustrations. Verbal information presented for learning may vary in amount and in organization.
Some variations along these dimensions appear to be more importantthan others for the design of
instruction.

Learning Labels

To learn a label simply means to acquire the capability of making a consistent verbal
response to an object or object class in such a way that it is "named."Learning the name of an
object in the sense of a label is quite distinct fromlearning the meaning of that name.
Learning Facts

A fact is a verbal statement that expresses a relation between two or more namedobjects
or events. An example is, 'The book has a blue cover." In normalcommunication, the relation
expressed by the fact is assumed to exist in thenatural world. Thus, the words that made up the
fact have referents in the environment of the learner.

Performance

The performance that indicates a fact has been learned consists ofstating, eitherorally or
in writing, relations that have the syntactic form of a sentence.

Internal Conditions

For acquisition and storage, an organized network of declarative knowledgeneeds to be

accessed in memory, and the newly acquired fact must be related tothis network (E. D. Gagne,
1985).

External Conditions

Externallv, a verbal communication, picture, or other cue is presented to remindthe

learner of the larger network of organized knowledge with which the newfact will be associated.

Learning Organized Knowledge

Larger bodies of interconnected facts, such as those pertaining to events ofhistory or to

categories of art, science, or literature, may also be learned andremembered.

Performance

The substance of paragraphs or longer passages of connected prose appears to be learned

and retained in a way that preserves the meaning but not necessarily the detailed component facts
contained in the paragraphs or passages (Reynoldsand Flagg, 1977).

Internal Conditions

As in the case of individual facts, the learning and storage of larger units oforganized
verbal information occurs within the context of a network of in- terconnected and organized
propositions previously stored in the learner's memory.
External Conditions

The external conditions that favor the learning and retention oforganized sets ofverbal
information pertain primarily to the provision of cues. Such cues enablethe learner to search
successfully for the information at a later time and, thus, toretrieve it for use. Cues need to be as
distinctive as possible in order to avoid interference amongstored propositions.

Attitudes

Attitudes are complex human states that affect behavior toward people, things,and events.
Many investigators have studied and emphasized in their writings the conception of an attitude as
a svstem of beliefs (Festinger, 1957).

Attitude Learning

The conditions favoring the learning of attitudes and the means of bringingabout changes
in attitudes are rather complex matters, about which much is yetto be discovered. A number of
contrasting views on the effectiveness of attitude- change methods are reviewed by Martin and
Briggs (1986).

Direct Methods

There are direct methods of establishing and changing attitudes, which sometimes occur
naturally and without prior planning. On occasion, such direct methods can also be employed
deliberately. At least, it is worthwhile to understand how attitude change can come about by
these means.

An Important Indirect Method

A method of establishing or changing attitudes of great importance and widespread utility

is human modeling (Bandura, 1969, 1977). We regard this methodas indirect because the chain
of events that constitutes the procedure for learningis longer than that required for more direct
methods.

Performance
 An attitude is indicated by the choice of a class of personal actions. These actions can be
categorized as showing either a positive or negative tendency toward some objects, events, or
persons.

Internal Conditions

An attitude of respect for or identification with the human model must preferably be
already present in the learner. If it is not, it needs to be established as afirst step in the process.

External Conditions

External conditions may be described as the following sequence of steps:

1. Presentation of the model and establishment of the model's appeal and credibility
2. Recall by the learner of knowledge of the situations to which the attitude applies
3. Communication or demonstration bv the model of the desired choices ofpersonal action
4. Communication or demonstration that the model obtains pleasure or satisfac- tion with
the outcome of the behavior. This step is expected to lead to vicarious reinforcement on
the part of the learner.

Motor Skills

Sequences of unitary motor responses are often combined into more

complexperformances called motor skills. Sometimes, these are referred to as perceptual- motor
skills or psychomotor skills, but these phrases appear to earn7 no useful addedmeaning. They
imply, of course, that the performance of motor skills involves the senses and the brain as well as
the muscles.Characteristics of Motor Skills Motor skills are learned capabilities that underlie
performances whose outcomesare reflected in the rapidity, accuracy, force, or smoothness of
bodily movement.In the school, these skills are interwoven throughout the curriculum at every
age and include such diverse activities as using pencils and pens, writing with chalk,drawing
pictures, painting, using a variety of measuring instruments, and, ofcourse, engaging in various
games and sports.

Performance

The performance of a motor skill embodies the intellectual skill (procedure)

thatconstitutes a movement sequence of muscular activity. When observed as a motor skill, the
action meets certain standards (either specified or implied) ofspeed, accuracy, force, or
smoothness of execution.

Internal Conditions

The executive subroutine that governs the procedure of the motor skill must beretrieved
from prior learning or must be learned as an initial step. For example,the part skills of "backing"
and "turning" in an automobile must be previouslyacquired and retrieved to enter into the skill of
"turning the car around on astreet.

External Conditions

For the learning of the executive subroutine, the instructor provides one of several
different kinds ofcommunications to the learner. Sometimes, verbal instructionsare used.

Given a jump rope, the student will execute jumping rope to the criterion of 100continuous
jumps. Part skills:

1. Jumping straight up and down with knees slightly bent

2. Swinging the rope with the wrists with the arms close to the body andwith wrists atthe
waist.
3. Timing the jump so that the rope doesn't hit the feet

Summary

The present chapter has been concerned with a description of three different kinds of
learningverbal information, attitudes, and motor skills.

1. Verbal information: Verbally stating facts, generalizations, organized knowledge

2. Attitude: Choosing a course of personal action
3. Motor skill: Executing a performance of bodily movement