CHAPTER 4

CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
This chapter discusses the processes for developing curriculum as
presented by different scholars in curriculum development through their
models. These curriculum development models have been tried and
tested by across the globe in
different
curriculum developers developing
curricula from preschool education to graduate programs. The models in
this chapter are presented according to three categories: linear, cyclical,
and dynamic. In this chapter, you should be able t

1. analyze different curriculum models;

2. examine the strengths ahd weaknesses of a curriculum; and

3. discuss how these curriculum development models can be

applied in Philippine context.

Different Curriculum Development Models

Curriculum development models are based on a clear and consistent

understanding of various scholars of the nature of curriculum as

a discipline and as
a field of study. Different models are
described based on the different views and
offer. In this context, well-known models
processes of curriculum development they
are analyzed. These models have been
that are found in major curriculum books
curriculum scholars as effective and appropriate for
recognized and accepted by
level. In this chapter, the analysis points out various
developing curriculum in any
different models. A brief background and description of
strengths and weaknesses of models are treated as inimitable
The
the processes involved in each model is presented.
ideas or theories on how to develop curriculum.
since each represents various

Linear Models of Curriculum Development

prescribe a rational step-by-step
Thelinear models of curriculum development
development starting with objectives.
procedure for curriculum

39
 A. Tyler's Rational Linear Model
the first model of curriculum
Kalph Tyler at the University of Chicago developed of Curriculum and
development. This model was presented in his book Principles should be
Struction published in 1949. Tyler argued that curriculum development
logical and systematic.
curriculum development
His model, as shown in Figure 3, presents a process of
that follows a sequential pattern starting from objectives to content, learning
experiences, and evaluation.

Society Students Subject Matter

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www

Philosophy of Education Psychology of Learning

Selecting Objectives

Selecting Learning Experiences

Organizing Learning Experiences

Evaluation

Figure 3. Tyler's Rational Model

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL cURRICULUM

40 A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PRACTCE
 yier argued that to develop anv curriculum, curriculum workers should respona
to four basic questions:
What educational purposes should the school seek to attain
2 What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectves
3. How can these
educational experiences be organized?
4. How can determine whether these purposes are being attainea
we

ASIde trom these four questions, Tyler also identified three curriculum sources
society, students, and subject matter.
Accordingly, curriculum workers neea to Stuuy
these sources carefully in order to develop a curriculum. Tyler also pointed out the
of education and psychology of learning to screen
importance of philosophy
objectives that are included in the curriculum.
B. Taba's Grassroots Rational Model
A follower of Tyler is another curriculum scholar, Hilda Taba. Taba
presented her
model in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice in 1962. Her model is
a modified version of Tyler's Model. Taba
argued that curriculum development snouia
follow a sequential and logical process, and she suggested for more information

input in all phases of curriculum development. Taba also claimed that all curricula
are composed of fundamental elements. In her model, Taba outlined seven steps that

should be followed when developing a curriculum:

1. Diagnosis of needs

2. Formulation of objectives

33 Selection of content
4. Organization of content

5. Selection of learning experiences

6. Organization of learning experiences

Determination of what to evaluate
and ways and means of doing it
7.
curriculum development could be made successful if
Taba also suggested that
workers in understanding
needs. This would help curriculum
there was a diagnosis of the goals and objectives
selection of
It would also help in the
the needs of the learners.
contents. Taba pointed out
that the nature of the objectives
and in the selection of
determines what learning is to follow.

CHAPTER4
41
CURRICULUM DEVELCPMENT
 C. Standards-based Curriculum Development Model
development model.
curriculum
standards-based
developed the
Glatthorn
Ailan standards for any discipline
model was intended for develooing curriculum Glatthorn identified
ne in Table 2,
basic education to higher education. As shown Ihis model
rom standards-based curriculum.
phases to be followed in developing a
three sequence of
curriculum
of a linear model. It includes a prescribed
dmpie
development activities to develop standards.
Model
Table 2. Standards-based Curriculum
Development

Phase 1. Develop standards.

standards, using multiple
1. Develop a comprehensive set of content
sources.

22. Refine the comprehensive list by eliminating and combinin8

3. Secure teacher input to identify teacher priorities.

Use data to develop final draft of standards, divided into Essential
A.
Standards and Enrichment Standards.
Phase 2. Develop benchmarks.
1. Review decisions about content emphases.
2. Identify standards for continuing development (standards that will not
be benchmarked).
3. Decide how benchmarks will be identified-by taskforce or by teachers.
4. Develop initial draft of benchmarks, evaluating with criteria provided,
and secure teacher review; revise benchmarks if needed.
Phase 3. Develop final products.
1. Use standards and benchmarks to produce scope and sequence chart.
2. Decide on curriculum guide content.
3. Analyze benchmarks into learning objectives.

Glatthorn's model is example of a linear and rationale

an
development model. The model is rational and descriptive, curriculum
of standards as the first activity in curriculum stressing the development
development. The model recognizes the
importance of using multiple sources in developing curriculum
also recognizes teachers' inputs in standards. This model
also recoE in the development standards, which are
of
often
neglected curriculum in the
projects Philippines because of the top-down
to curriculum development and implementation. approach

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOoOL CURRICULUM

42 A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE
 ne use of
benchmarks to improve., to refine, and
validateto
standaras is
equally a good practice curricuui
in curriculum development. The model extenas
itselt up to the
development of scope and sequence, which is important for pld
instrucOn, and for
deciding on specific contents and objectives. Another important
feature of Glatthorn's
model is its relevance and applicability in any
instituion in
developing curriculum standards for various courses. Thiseducaiona
mode can
be very useful in the
development of curriculum standards that is one of the major
purposes of this book. The linear nature of Glatthorn's model is also one or ts
weaknesses.
Roberts (2003) stressed that in curriculum studies, as in many other domains of
human activity, one of the few constants is change. Roberts further explained his iaea
that as a field of inquiry, curriculum should allow new theories to emerge and new
insights to tlourish to make the curriculum field more vibrant and aynamic.

In this model, developing curriculum standards is a separate activity from the

overall curriculum development process. This makes the model incomplete. The
model should recognize that developing curriculum standardsintegral part is an

of the curriculum development process. This model does not include situational
analysis nor needs analysis. Unlike in other curriculum development models (see
Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967; Walker, 1972; Skilbeck, 1976; Print, 1993; Stark &

Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005),situational analysis or diagnosis of needs is included

as an important process. While the model specified the development of standards
function of situational
using multiple sources, it cannot replace the important
is helpful
analysis in the curriculum development process. Situational analysis
in understanding the context in which the curriculum is developed. Analyzing
will lead to the development
the different curriculum sources and influences
not just focused on a specific discipline, but
of curriculum standards that are
the learners and the society in curriculum
also consider the important role of
development.
D. Understanding by Design Model (UBD)
model was developed by Wiggins and McTighe
The Understanding by Design
educational system because it was
(2002). It has become a byword in the Philippine
2010-2011 before the
basic education curriculum in school year
used to design the
Curriculum was implemented.
K-12 Education
for putting emphasis on
called as the Backward Design
The model is also curriculum. The model puts
the goals and objectives in designing
starting with students in exploring and deepening
curriculum to engage
emphasis on designing

CHAPTER 4
43
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
 &
of assessments (Wiggins
understanding of important ideas and the design
their
backward design process.
MCTighe, 2002). Figure 4 shows the three stages in
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Stage 1: ldentify
desired results. Stage 2: Determine

acceptable evidence. Stage 3: Plan the

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learningexperiences
and instruction.

Figure 4. Stages in Backward Design Process

to do. It
Stage 1 includes what students should know, understand, and be able
also asks the questions about what is worthy of understanding and what enduring
understandings are desired for the learners. This calls for examining current curriculum
goals and established curriculum standards, and reviewing curriculum expectations.
Stage 2 calls for designing assessment evidence for documenting or validating whether
the desired learning has been achieved. This model encourages the
use of authentic
assessment for assessing and evaluating students' learning. Stage 3 includes planning
learning experiences that are useful in implementing the curriculum. In this stage,
teachers decide on the type of activities that the students will do and the materials
that will be needed for the planned activities.

The UbD model is prescriptive and rational, focusing on the development of goals
as the starting point ofcurriculum development process. The model is currently popular
in the Philippines because of its advocacy in focusing on enduring understanding or
central ideas (Wiggins and Mclighe, 2002) as the central goal of the curriculum.

The model stresses the sixfacets of understanding as a framework for identifying

the results or goals of learning. If this model is used in the Philippines, it can help the
Commission on Higher Education, particularly various teacher education institutions,
to revise their existing curricula to focus on higher understanding rather than just
prescribing subjects and coursedescriptions. The UbD calls for development of higher
and more relevant curriculum standards in the country.

UbD's advocacy of planning for authentic assessment before

planning learning
experiences is essential in connecting the assessment with the goals and learning
experiences of the curriculum. Analyzing what the learners should know and
understand is an important feature of the model. This principle will make the content
of the teacher education curriculum more learner-centered. Like Glatthorn's model, it
also recognizes the important role of teachers in curriculum development
processes,
which is a good practice in curriculum development.
While the UbD model puts emphasis on
analyzing what the learners need to
know and understand in formulating curriculum goals, the school authority or the
government already fixes the standards. The model is fixed at accepting what standards

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

44 A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE
are rescrioed by the government agetncy
most keiy to follow the
on education. Consequently, the goals are
prescribed content standards set by the government
E. Systematic Design Model
oDert Diamond originally developed the Systematic Design model in the early
1960S. SInce then, it has undergone maior revisions but its structure is uncnange
(Diamond, 1998). The model, as shown in Figure 5, has two basic phases: (1) project
Selecnon and design and (2) production, implementation, and evaluation. LIKe sone

theprevious models, it follows a linear process of curriculum development. Diamond

(1998) explained that ideally, some actions must precede others, and certain sions
snouia not
be made until all relevant facts are known. It is imperative that all data
must be complete before proceeding to the next step
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Phase I. Project
Selection and Design Project-Specific Factors
Curriculum Projects
Accreditation requirements
Credit restrictions
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Fiscal and staff constraints
Basic Planning Inputs Effectiveness of existing programns
(project-specific) Course Projects
Field of knowledge Goals
Student knowledge,
Time
attitudes, and priorities Resources
Societal needs
Research
Student factors
Related research
Educational priorities Grading and scheduling options
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Project Selection
Establishing needs Ideal Sequence Operational Sequence
Ensuring success

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Phase II. Production, Implementation, and Evaluation for each Unit

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Instruments and Procedures wwwww.wwwvwwwwww.wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww

Design Evaluation
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Select Evaluate and Produce and Coordinate Implement,

Determine Instructional f Select ExistingField-test New and Logistics for Evaluate, and
Objectives Formats Materials Evaluate Materials Implementation Revise
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Figure 5. Systematic Design Model

The Systematic Design model is prescriptive and rational. It presents a systematic

and linear view of curriculum development. The use of diagrams is an excellent
way of helping curriculum workers to visualize the entire curriculum development

process. As shown in its

first phase, some curriculum influences and sources are also
acknowledged in the process of curriculum development. These curriculum sources

and influences are used to determine the objectives of the curriculum.

CHAPTERR4
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 45

DAAT 70 A312IMOQ
30:1.
YAAHJ Z 3 J 0 O
 to gather necessary
ne model relies heavily data; therefore, it is important
on
curriculum practice
intormation before proceeding to each of the processes. This
a team approach
to influence curriculum processes and encourages
dows research
to curriculum development.
to design for the
h e secondphase of the model allows curriculum workers the
of
production and implementation of the curriculum and on the importance
of the
evaluation of instructional materials to ensure the smooth implementation
Curriculum. The model involves a series of tasks, which, if carefully followed, mayY
result in a relevant and effective curriculum.
of
Similar to the weaknesses of linear models presented earlier, the model
Diamond ends in Phase II. It assumes that the product, which is the curriculum, is final
and good as planned. There is no provision where curriculum workers can review their
actions and decisions in relation to the factors identified in the first phase. Probably,
the data gathered were assumed to support the curriculum and are sufficient to
ensure that the curriculum is relevant and effective. Evaluation and revision are only
done in Phase l1. But this is in the level of instruction or the implemented curriculum.

The model, if applied in the Philippines, will probably be difficult because of

the lack of research culture in our education institutions. Having a research culture
among faculty members can improve the way higher education curricula are
planned. The results of these researches can serve as basis for developing curricula
and in proposing necessary changes in the curriculum. Print (1993) and Doll (1992)
considered curriculum development as a decision-making process, emphasizing for
faculty members to conduct researches as a basis for making curricular decisions.
F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development
Murray Print published his model in his book Curriculum Development and
Design in 1988. His model, as shown in Figure 6, prescribes a sequential and logical
approach to curriculum development to provide a useful and easy-to-understand
ocess in developing curriculum.

Aims, Goals, Objectives Content

Implementation
and Modification
Curriculum Situational Learning Activities
Presage Analysis

Monitoring and Feedback,

Instructional Evaluation Curriculum Evaluation

Phase 1: Organization Phase 2: Development Phase 3: Application

Figure 6. Print's Curriculum Development Model

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

46 A GUIDE TO CURICULUM DEVELOPMENT
PRAC
DOMINICAN COLLEGE OF TARLAO
COLLEGE LIBRARY
 Ihe first phase of Print's model recognizes the nature of the curriculum worKE
invoived in the development of the curriculum. Accordingly, in this phase, it is importan
to pose the following questions that may influence curriculum development:

1. are involved in this curriculum development, and what, if anything,

Who
do they represent?
2. What conceptions of curriculum do they bring with them?
3.
wnat underlying forces or foundations have influenced the developers
thinking?
The answer to these questions will bring useful insights into the type of

curriculum that will be developed.

The second phase in this model is the task of developing the curriculum. The
procedure is cyclical, which begins with a situational analysis, and continues wn tne
aims, goals, and objectives, content, learning activities and instructional evaluation,
and then continuing to situational analysis again.
The third phase includes the actual application that incorporates three major
activities: (1) implementation of the curriculum, (2) monitoring of, and feedback from
the curriculum, and (3) the provision of feedback data to the presage group.
Print's model is also prescriptive and rational. The model starts with identifying
the aims, goals, and objectives of the curriculum. It also embraces the principles of
cyclical and dynamic models in its procedures. Curriculum workers can examine
their actions as they go through the proces of curriculum development. Print's
idea of curriculum presage recognizes the important role and influençe of various
curriculum workers involved in different curriculum activities. It also recognizes the
myriad of curriculum conceptions and ideas that various curriculum workers bring to
the curriculum development process which may influence them in making important
Curricular decisions.
The inclusion of instructional evaluation in the development process makes this
model unique. Evaluation provides necessary data regarding the implementation
of the curriculum. The result of the evaluation is valuable in examining whether
the curriculum is applicable to the students or whether the goals of the curriculum
have been achieved. The inclusion of a monitoring and feedback system in the
curriculum development is also useful when there is a need to do some revisions.
Lastly, this model can be used in any level of curriculum development-local,
or national. Hence, it
is very practical to apply this model in the
college-wide,
Philippines.
The model describes the process of curriculum development on a macro level:
of the institution and philosophy of the
however, it is not clear where the philosophy
curriculum will come into play. Philosophy is very influential in curriculum processes.
The philosophy of the school and of the curriculum embodies or reflects the kind of
curriculum offered in a particular institution. Philosophy should precede selection of

objectives.

CHAPTER4
URRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 47
 curriculum presagee
ints model should establish a stronger link between the
and the situational analysis. The model gives an impression that curriculum presage
nas no direct effect or relationship with situational analysis. Curriculum presagee is
pdrt or Situational analysis since the various curriculum workers are also part or the

context or environment of the curriculum.

Activity 19. Reflect on and address the following:

1. Review the linear curriculum development models.

2. Identify the possible strengths and weaknesses of each model when

applied to the Philippine context.

Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

cvclical models prescribe a cyclical or
The
continuous process
development. Cyclical models usually start with situational of curriculum
basis for all the succeeding process. analysis that serves as the
AAudrev Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for
Curriculum
Development
Anexample of a cyclical model for
Nicholls and Nicholls (1978). curriculum development was developed by
Ine modei emphasizes the
development. According to the cyclical nature of
a continuous process.
proponents of this curriculum
re of curriculum
model, curriculum
development
lo is

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL

48 CURRIcuLUM
A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
PRACTICE
 AS Snownin Figure 7, the model prescribes five logical and interdependent
stages that are in a continuous curriculum development process. The model starts
with a situational analysis in which curricular decisions are made, followed by the
selection of objectives and the other succeeding phases.
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Situational Analysis

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Selection of Objectives Evaluation

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Selection and Organization of
Selection and Organization of
Methods
Content ononnwsne
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Figure 7. Nicholls and Nicholls Curriculum Development Model

inclusion of situational analysis

The model is highly prescriptive and dynamic. The
enables
as part of the model is a
valuable principle in curriculum development. It
better the context in which the curriculum
the curriculum workers to understand
with situational analysis, curriculum workers
will be able
is developed. By starting various curriculum sources and
to collect data and the needed information from
in tormulating curriculum goals and objectives. Thus,
influences that are prerequisites situational analysis
taculty members need to conduct
if applied in college settings, for the
and curriculum plans. This will make it possible
before planning their syllabi
relevant and responsive
to the needs of the students and the
curriculum to be more

school.
and importance of contributing
recognizes the influence
The model also the
as philosophy,
psychology, and sociology in developing
disciplines such curriculum goals and
useful in selecting the
curriculum. These
disciplines are
experiences, and evaluation.
The importance of
contents, learning
objectives, curriculum is also recognized in the model of
disciplines in developing
these three
Tyler (1949). used in any educational setting, either
be
the potential to
The model has level. The cyclical
nature of the model also enables
a national
school-based or on changes and adjustments in the total
the necessary
curriculum workers in making helpful for teachers, administrators,
and
model is
of the
curriculum. This attribute and propose innovations and changes
to address
curricular
issues advocates curriculum
education boards Nicholls (1978) a
of Nichols and
The mod l
whenever needed. continuous
improvement.
involves
that
development activity

CHAPTER4
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
49
 There is little weakness found in this model. The possible problem that may

used to develop curricula following

a
is that many curriculum workers
cur are
inear model. In the Philippines, for example, curriculum development TOowtp
national level. The
own approach where many curricular decisions are made in the
80dis and contents of the curriculum are set by the state. In the context higher
of
of the
education, there is a for teachers not to follow this model
tendency because
tedious job of conducting situational analysis before developing any Sylaous
curriculum plan.
B. Wheeler's Curriculum Development Model
In his influential book, Curriculum Process, Wheeler (1967) presented a cyclical
process in which each element of the curriculum is related and interdependent
see Figure 8). Although this model is also rational in nature, each phase is a logical
of the preceding one. One cannot proceed to the next the
development phase unless
preceding phase is done. Wheeler also emphasized the importance of starting from
the development of aims, goals, and objectives.

1. 2. Selection of Learning
Aims, Goals, and Objectives
Experiences

5. Evaluation
3. Selection of Content

4.Organization and Integration of

Learning Experiences and Content

Figure 8. Wheeler's Curriculum Development Model

C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning
TheContextual Filters Model of Course Planning was
Lowther, Bentley, Ryan, Martens, Genthon, Wren, and Shaw in 1990
developed by Stark,
as part of their
study conducted at the University of Michigan National Center for
Research to Improve
Postsecondary Teaching and Learning. Inis model appeared
in the book
College Curriculum written by Stark and Latucca and published in 1997. Shaping the

Cantent influences encompass taculty members' background and

disciplinary and educational Delers. COntextual influences refer to the associated
Qutside of the instructor's immedlate Control that cause adjustments influences
nlans such as student characteristics or instructional reaources. in the course
Form includes the
processes that are followed
when
designing courses (Stark &es.
Latucca, 1997).
the

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

50 AGUIDE TO CURRICULUM EVELGDET PATrt
 he contextual Filters model presents a cyclical view ofcurriculum development
Ater making course decisions, the planners can check with the content considerations
and contextual filters. It describes the reality of how college faculty members design
tner courses. Hence, it is very much applicable for designing higher education
courses.

Content and Background Considerations (Content)

Influence www.w wwww**2 Purposes of

of Faculty Faculty Views of Education
w.w.wwwww
Background and Their Academic
Espoused
Characteristics Fields
by Faculty
Members
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Contextual Filters (Context)

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Goals
Students
Schedules
Campus Services
Resources
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Feedback
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Adjustment
Course Decisions (Form)
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Select Content
Arrange Content
Choose Process
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Filters Model of Course Planning

Figure 9. The Contextual
research conducted by the proponents on how faculty
The model is based on a
education institutions in the United States plan their
members in several higher
Several curriculum influences such as faculty
curriculum (see Stark & Latucca, 1997).
beliets are recognized in the model. The influence and
background and educational
members in curriculum planning and development are
the special role of faculty
factor in curriculum development
in higher education.
recognized as a main
teacher-centered. Given the influence of academic freedom,
This model is very
The
faculty plan the curriculum based on their own convenience.
members may
model can be improved by
puting students as part of the content influences. In
1949; Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967; Walker, 1971;
many curriculum models (Tyler,
Oliva, 2005), students are viewed
significant source as a
Skilbeck, 1976; Print, 1993;
college taculty members do not have
of curriculum. Considering
the
model failed to elaborate how
c o n t e n t s and
avE fact that most
process are
pedagogical training,
the
for taculty members, especially for
have been very useful
arranged. This could
not have background knowledge on education.
neophyte instructors, who do
CHAPTER 4
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 51
Activity 20. Reflect on and address the following:

1. Keview the cyclical curriculum development models.

2 ldentify the possible strengths and weaknesses of

each model when
applied to the Philippine context.

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL

52 A GUIDE TOCURRICLUM CURRIcULUM
EVELOPME NT FOACTCE
Dynamic Models of Curriculum
ne
Development
various
aynamic models describe how curriculum workers develop curricula in
educational contexts. The
dvnamic curriculum development modelsS are
usually used in
school-based settings.
A. Walker's Model of Curriculum
Decker Walker
Development
developed a model for curriculum development and hrst
published it in 1971. Walker contended that curriculum developers do not
follow tne
prescriptve approach of the rationale-linear sequence of curriculum elements when
they develop curricula (Walker, 1971; Marsh & Willis, 2007; Print, 1993). In his model,
waiker was particularly interested on how curriculum workers actually do their task
in curriculum development. As shown in Figure 10, Walker was able to identify three
phases, which he termed platform, deliberation, and design.

(Beliefs, Theories, Conceptions, Points of View, Aims, Objectives)

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Platform
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Deliberation
***

(applying them to practical situations, arguing about,

accepting, refusing, changing, adapting)
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Curriculum Design

Figure 10. Walker's Naturalistic Model

In Platform phase, sugegested that curriculum workers bring with them

Walker
values. They have their own ideas about how
their individual beliefs, knowledge, and
to discuss and argue about them. The first
to do their task and they are prepared
of Print (1993) of a curriculum presage. Deliberation phase,
phase is similar to the idea
on the other hand,
involves identifying which facts are needed for means and ends,
and considering the consequences of these alternatives. This
generating alternatives
alternative costs and consequences, and choosing the
phase is also used in weighing
curriculum task they are about to do. The third phase, which
best alternative for the
decision-making, and the actual development of the
is the design, involves planning,
curriculum.
descriptive model of curriculum development.
dynamic and
Walker's model is a
and develop a curriculum. It
how curriculum workers plan
It reflects the realities of
curriculum workers in any curriculum development
and influence of
recognizes the role
tasks.
CHAPTER4
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
 This practice
with objectives.
in addition, it avoids the obsession of starting the
Since the model is
dynamic,
IS also observed in the model of Print (1993).
curriculum process depending
Curriculum workers may commence at any point in the
curriculum workers in
developing
on their needs. This allows more flexibility among
to
decisions and actions
curriculum. Curriculum workers may review their previous
for a
correct some mistakes. According to Walker (1971),
this model can be used
school-based curriculum development.
who
other curriculum workers
Themodel, being dynamic, can be confusing to
If this model
are not aware of the necessary processes of curriculum development.
teachers are implementers of curriculum
IS applied in the Philippines, where most them.
developed by other educators, this model may not have value to
curriculum
Another weakness of Walker's model is a strong tendency of the
discussion may
development to be stuck in phase 2. According to Print (1993), too much
lead to analysis-paralysis syndrome that could penalize or prolong the process of curriculum
development. Probably, the model can be elaborated more on the design processes
involved in Phase 3 to help teachers and neophyte curriculum workers do their task.

B. Skllbeck's Curriculum Development Model

In 1976, Skilbeck came up with a model for developing a school-based curriculum
in Australia. His model presents a dynamic view of curriculum development. When
using this model, curriculum workers may start from any phase. However, as shown
in Figure 11, each phase is interrelated and follows a systematic sequence. Skilbeck's
model includes a situational analysis that involves gathering data from the school,
society, and the learners. The results of the situational analysis provide strong bases for
making curricular decisions for all the succeeding phases of curriculum development.

Situational Analysis

Goal Formulation

Program Building

wwww

***

Interpretation and
Implementation

Monitoring, Feedback, Assessment,

Reconstruction
Figure 11. Skilbeck's Curriculum Development Model

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL

54 CURRICULUM
A GUIDE TOCURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PRACTICL
C. Eisner's Artistic
Approach to Curriculum
Eliot W. Eisner was Developmen
famous curriculum scholar. In 1979,
a
he
DOOK n e Educational Imagination ne pub
where he presented his idea on how
development should be
done., Eisner curriculum
a believed that there is a need to develoP
new theory that recognizes the artistry of teaching
(1979)
that is useful in
develop those arts. In his book, Eisner outlined how this artistic
helping
used in curriculum development. approach can aiso DE
able 3. Eisner's Artistic Model of Curriculum Development
AAw.wwwwwmamww

1. Goals and their

priorities
Ihe need to consider
less, well-defined objectives as well as explicit ones
The need for deliberation in
talking through priorities
2. Content of curriculum
Options to consider in
selecting curriculum
Caveats about the null
curriculum
3. Types of learning opportunities
Emphasis on transforming goals and content into learning events that will
be of significance to students

4 Organization of learning opportunities

Emphasis on a nonlinear approach in order to encourage diverse student
outcomes

5. Organization of content areas

Emphasis on cross-curricula organization of content

6. Mode of presentation and mode of response
Use of a number of modes of communication to widen educational
opportunities for students

7 Types of evaluation procedure

Use of a comprehensive range
of procedures at different stages of the
curriculum development
process of
*
vwwwwwwwromwe

CHAPTER4
55
CURRICJLUM DEVE LOPMENI
 stressed an artful
Eisner (1979)
of the curriculum,
in
selecting the goals and objectives
about curricular priorities by
Involving the participants.
PrOcess arriving at schwab's (1971)
of a consensus
idea of platform or
participants is similar to Walker's (1971) considered
the
gingdeliberation. In selecting the content of the curriculum, Eisner (2002)
as identified by
ed or individual, society, and subject matter
nree sOurces of curriculum: Eisner strongly favored
providing students
yler (1949). On selecting learning opportunities, educational imagination
must
wide variety of learning opportunities. Accordingly,
witn
à experiences for students
(Eisner, 2002).
ranstorm 8oals and contents into high-quality

opportunities to different
sner also emphasized providing a variety of learning curriculum
that
activities. He contended
types of students using varied resources and
Eisner suggested using
content should be organized and integrated in different ways.
different strategies and methods to engage the students
in meaningtul learning. Lastly,
but rather itis
for Eisner, evaluation is not the final step of curriculum development,
pervades the entire curriculum development process (Eisner, 1985).
$omething that
development or
The model can be applied in designing school-based curriculum
or a form of
in national curriculum projects. Eisner's model is an open-ended process
a dynamic model. It is descriptive in offering a general approach
that can be followed
about
by curriculum workers, yet the model is also prescriptive in offering suggestions
what should happen when developing a curriculum.
workers
The Eisner's model recognizes the influence of various curriculum
in developing a curriculum. The model emphasizes the importance of having well-
defined goals and objectives in curriculum. It recognizes the varied activities that
teachers do in the school to attain the goals of the curriculum.
The model may be effective in the context of developing and designing courses
for higherreducation. The influence of academic freedom and the changing nature of
the disciplines in higher education require a curriculum model that is less prescriptive,
but logical enough to embrace the artistic or creative ways in which faculty members
develop their courses.
Since the processes are not procedural, curriculum workers can always modify
and improve their curricula to address certain problems and needs. The model
calls for more relevant and responsive ways of selecting and organizing contents
and learning experiences in order to respond to the diverse needs of students.

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL cURRICULUM

56 A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE
D. Pawilen's Model for
Developing Curriculum
n e Author developed this model (see Figure 12) as one of the major outputs of

his doctoral dissertation in the

Universitv of the Philippines, Diliman. It is intendedt
help curriculum workers develop curriculum that is relevant and appropriate to e
Philippine context (Pawilen, 2011).

1. Situational Analysis
Curriculum
Sources
Learners 2. Selection of Goals and Objectives

.Society
3. Development of Curriculum Standards
.Discipline a. Developing a comprehensive set of standards
wwww 05 AVOMNnunanuwh
b. Aligning standards with several criteria
C. Securing teachers' input
d. Validating of standards by experts
NRwwww wwww wwwnimummn
e. Developing final curriculum standards

Curriculum
Influences 4 .Selection of Contents or Subject Areas
.External
.Internal 5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences
Organizational
6 . Implementation

7. Evaluation ootoooooouda60e0oo.oooo

Curriculum
Figure 12. Pawilen's Model for Developing

are general factors

that influence or affect curriculum
Curriculum sources
level. Posner (1995) suggested two
and decision-making in the macro
development or overall
macro level, which includes the general
development:
levels of curriculum micro level, which focuses on specific
curriculum development, and the
process of curriculum development.

phases or on specific
context
like school-based
phase or
the model. These three sources are the
three curriculum sources in
There are curriculum sources are based on
the model
and disciplines. These
learners, society, learner as a
curriculum source is very important. Knowing
The
of Ralph Tyler (1949). styles, culture, socio-economic
needs, learning styles, thinking
their interests, data for developing curriculum.
other variables are signihcant
and for curriculum workers in making
status, gender, of learners IS helpful
nature
Understanding the decision-making (Print 1993).
curriculum
choices in
appropriate

CHAPTER4 57
CURRICLUM DEVELOPMEN
 Ocery is also considered as a source Knowledge about the society
of curriculum.
provides better understanding of the context in which the curiculum wil beimplemented
Cultural. values, beliefs, attitudes, political and economic systems, and the physical
r o n m e n t directly o r indirectly affect curriculum development because t n e eadi n e r s

are an integral part of the society. Understanding the nature of discipline is also essental
n curriculum development. It can provide data for making decisions as to what contents
Should be included in the curriculum and how to organize the contents of the curriculum.

AS shown in the model in Figure 12, the curriculum sources are considered
Vital in conducting situational analysis. Curriculum sources provide necessary data in

determining the goals and objectives of the curriculum. These curriculum sources are
also valuable in making decisions on the development of curriculum standards. In the
revised model (see Figure 12), an connects the curriculum sources to Pnase li.
arrow
Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the development of the
curriculum and decision-making in the micro level. The idea of curriculum intluences
was adopted from the model of Stark and Lattuca (1997). Accordingly, these curriculum
influences can be grouped into three:
external, internal, and organizational.
External influences are social factors that directly influence curriculum
decision
making. These factors
are
society, market demand, government, disciplinary
associations, and alumni. Internal factors are those that are related to the
like faculty members, students, school
disciplines, and program mission. organizational
influences are school factors but they concerned with the governance of
are more
the program and support like
system school resources,
leadership, governance, and
program relationship & (Stark Lattuca, 1997). These curriculum influences
important data for conducting situational analysis. provide
In the revised model, the various curriculum influences are
by an arrowconnecting the curriculum influences and the integral, as shown
development of curriculum
standards. In all phases of curriculum development, these curriculum
considered. For example, new government policies, in most influences are always
cases, need to be
immediately. Change in school leadership implemented
and programs also need immediate
Consequently, any point, curriculum intluences may have direct
at the action.
or indirect
curriculum developr t. The broken arrows
connecting the curriculum effect to
different phasesof the curriculum development show
this. This
influences with the
dynamic. It always considers the Changing nature, needs, and influence makes the model
demands of its context.
By nature, curriculum sources and
making intluences serve as bases for
decisions about the various elements of selectine and
curriculum: intent,
experiences, and evaluation. content, learning
Processes for Developing Curriculum Under
Pawilen's Model
1. Situational Analysis the
h the curriculum is nrsSt phase, starts with analyzing the
-

the different curriculumdeveloped.

sources
Ihe situational analysis context in
includes a study of
matter). and careful examinanon orstuaents, society, and disciplines or subiect
tne anerent
external, and organizational) that affect curriculum
curriculum influences (internal,
development.
THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
58 A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
PRACTICE
2 Selection
of Goals and Obiectives- results from situational analysis. In
some
E,the government or the university prescribes the curriculum goals dnd
O0ecaves, such features wilU be considered as part of the internal or externdi
influences that will be studied in
the situational analysis.
3. Development of Curriculum Standards- takes place after the
Situationai didiy
e c i o n of goals and objectives. The first phase of Glatthorn's model
Was modified to simplify the task for developing curriculum standards:
aevelop a comprehensive set of content standards by examining various
Curriculum sources and
influences; (2) align the standards to several rterla
(5) secure teacher input to revise and improve the standards; (4) ask experts to
validate the standards; and (5) develop the final draft of standards, divided into
content standards, skills standards, and values standards.
4. Selection of Content or Subject Areas phase where the developed curriculum
standards are used to select subjects or courses to be included in the curriculum.
5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences - includes selecting learning
activities, organizing instructional plans, and selecting instructional materials to
be used in implementing the curriculum.
b. Implementation involves the actual implementation of the curriculum by
faculty members. It is where the actual teaching and learning take place.
7.
7. Evaluation t h e final phase; phase where the goals and objectives of the
curriculum, including the design and selection of all the curriculum elements,
are evaluated. After the result of evaluation, the curriculum development
to reexamine the needs and include
process will go back to situational analysis
changes and demands from curriculum sources and influences.
necessary

Review the dynamic curriculum development models. Identify the

Activity 21.
possible strengths and weaknesses of each model when applied to
the Philippine context.

0KAONseconooon00ne000eo00000000aonso6000000000

CHAPTER 4
CRIJAI,AM DE VE OPMENT 59
 Analysis of Different Curriculum Development ode
Figure 13 provides a summary
gure results of the analysis
summary of the results
of the different

pment models in relation to the twooncions

Curriculum develonm suggested by
dimensions suggested by Print
(1993). All the curriculum development models are based on curriculum researches
certain theories of curriculum. Each model isniue
and are based on
unique depending on on
ne Curriculum theory advocated by the orooonents. It is therole role of the curriculum
developers to selecta model based on their
context (Print, 1993

PRESCRIPTIVE

Tyler's Model Contextual Filters Model

Taba's Grassroots Model Nicholls & Nicholls Model

Understanding by Design Model Pawilen's Model

Systematic Design Model
Print's Model
RATIONAL/ omooeg060000006 DYNAMIC/
OBJECTIVES
INTERACTION

Standards-based Model
Wheeler's Model Walker's Model
Eisner's Model

DESCRIPTIVE
Figure 13. Summary of the Analysis of Curriculum Models
The linear models
(Standards-based Curriculum
Understanding by Design, Systematic Design Model, andDevelopment Model,
Print's Curriculum
Development Model) provide a direct and time-efficient
development. These models simplify the process of curriculumapproach
to curriculum
curriculum workers will find it easy to follow. The linear development such that
and rational. They state precisely where to start in
models are highly prescriptive
the curriculum
orocess. Usually, they start with a situational
analysis development
selecting objectives.
or

cyclical model of Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) and the

The
Model of Course Planning Model Contextual Filters
present an interrelated procedure for
erriculum. These models are prescriptwe by starting with developing
thev are also dynamic. Inese modeis dre
situational analysis; yet,
applicable to
development. school-based curriculum

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

60 A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE
 ne aynamic models of Eisner Walker (1971), and nodel
(2011) are less rigid in application and (1979).
they can be used in
Pawilen s
dEvepment. These two models
reflect the school-0asedand
reality of how institutions
A a tedcne
d. EiSner's (1979) model is prescriptive; yet, it is also descriptive, while
Walker's (1971) model is highly
tach
dynamic and descripve
model of
curriculum development is based on a
curr
aeveiopea Dy various proponents. The models presented are reflections of wnat
various authors and
scholars believe about the nature of curriculum and the
of curriculum proE
development. Each has its own rightful claim.
we can
always learn some principles from these modelS
1. when developing a model for curriculum development, there is always the
need for a clear and logical process.
2 Curriculum sources and other variables that are influential in developing a
curriculum should be specified.
3. Models should reflect how educators plan and develop curriculum in any
levels.
4. Models should be based on a curriculum theory.
5. Each process in a model should specify areas where curriculum decisions
are made.
6. Each model should reflect the major phases of curriculum development
(planning, design, implementation, and evaluation).
It is also important that each model should be applicable in various contexts.

CHAPTER4
61
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
 INA NUTSHEL
on
Curriculum
velopme
Developme
Reflections

the
curriculum
development
dels,
model.

seen in
Curriculum development, as
follows a scientific and logiçal process of emphasis
represents different
areas
rriCulum development model

ESsential elements of curriculum development are

Situational analysis
Selection of objectives
Selection of content
Selection of learning experiences
Evaluation
into three:
Curriculum development models could be clustered
to curriculum
Linear Models follows a logical and sequential approach
-

development starting with curriculum objectives.

Cyclical Models they are essentially logical and sequential in terms of

ocess, however in cyclical models, curriculum development is viewed as
a continuous process.
Dynamic Models-curriculum development may begin with any curriculum
element or process. It highlights the importance of involving teachers in
curriculum development process.
Curriculum development in the Philippines needs to involve different stakeholders
and teachers.
There is a need to develop a model that is relevant and
responsive to the
jemic needs and contexts of the Philippines.

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL

62 AGUIDE TO CURRICU CURRICULUM