ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY I LECTURE NOTES

Definition and Importance of Anatomy & Physiology

The course human anatomy and physiology I for nurse and physician assistant students is
designed to help nursing students learn and understand how the human body is organized and
function. Equipping the student nurse with the knowledge of anatomy and physiology will
further assist the student in understanding what happens and what to do when the body is injured,
diseased or placed under stress.
Anatomy is the study of structure, and physiology is the study of function. These approaches are
complementary and never entirely separable. Together, they form the bedrock of the health
sciences. When we study a structure, we want to know, what does it do? Physiology thus lends
meaning to anatomy; and, conversely, anatomy is what makes physiology possible. This unity of
form and function is an important point to bear in mind as you study the body.

The structure of a part of the body often reflects its functions. For example, the bones of the skull
join tightly to form a rigid case that protects the brain. The bones of the fingers are more loosely
joined to allow a variety of movements. The walls of the air sacs in the lungs are very thin,
permitting rapid movement of inhaled oxygen into the blood. The lining of the urinary bladder is
much thicker to prevent the escape of urine into the pelvic cavity.
Anatomy the study of form
There are several ways to examine the structure of the human body.
The simplest is inspection—simply looking at the body’s appearance, as in performing a
physical examination or making a clinical diagnosis from surface appearance. Physical
examinations also involve touching and listening to the body.
Palpation means feeling a structure with the hands, such as palpating a swollen lymph node or
taking a pulse.
Auscultation is listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as heart and lung sounds.
In percussion, the examiner taps on the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the
emitted sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of fluid or air.
But a deeper understanding of the body depends on dissection—the careful cutting and
separation of tissues to reveal their relationships. Many insights into human structure are
obtained from comparative anatomy—studies more than one species in orders to examine
structural similarities and differences and analyze evolutionary trends. Dissection, of course, is
not the method of choice when studying a living person! It was once common to diagnose
disorders through exploratory surgery—opening the body and taking a look inside to see what
was wrong and what could be done about it. Any breach of the body cavities is risky, however,
and most exploratory surgery has now been replaced by medical imaging techniques—
methods of viewing the inside of the body without surgery,
Subspecialties of Anatomy
 Embryology -The first eight weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg.
• Developmental biology- The complete development of an individual from fertilization to
death.
• Cell biology- Cellular structure and functions.
• Histology- Microscopic structure of tissues.
• Gross anatomy -Structures that can be examined without a microscope.
• Systemic anatomy- Structure of specific systems of the body such as the nervous or
respiratory systems.
• Regional anatomy- Specific regions of the body such as the head or chest.
• Surface anatomy -Surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through
visualization and palpation.
• Radiographic anatomy- Body structures that can be visualized with x-rays.
 Pathological anatomy- Structural changes associated with disease
Subspecialties of Physiology
• Neurophysiology- Functional properties of nerve cells.
• Endocrinology Hormones -chemical regulators in the blood and how they control body
functions.
• Cardiovascular physiology -Functions of the heart and blood
• Immunology -The body’s defenses against disease-causing agents.
• Respiratory physiology -Functions of the air passageways
• Renal physiology -Functions of the kidneys.
• Exercise physiology -Changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity.
• Pathophysiology- Functional changes associated with disease and aging.
Levels of Structural Organization
To study the chemical level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building blocks of
matter: subatomic particles, atoms and molecules. All matter in the universe is composed of one
or more unique pure substances called elements, familiar examples of which are hydrogen,
oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. The smallest unit of any of these pure substances
(elements) is an atom. Atoms are made up of subatomic particles such as the proton, electron and
neutron.

Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, such as the water molecules, proteins, and
sugars found in living things. Molecules are the chemical building blocks of all body structures.
A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even bacteria, which
are extremely small, independently-living organisms, have a cellular structure. Each bacterium is
a single cell. All living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of
human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells. A human cell typically consists
of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a water-based cellular fluid together with a
variety of tiny functioning units called organelles. In humans, as in all organisms, cells perform
all functions of life. A tissue is a group of many similar cells (though sometimes composed of a
few related types) that work together to perform a specific function. An organ is an anatomically
distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types. Each organ performs one or
more specific physiological functions. An organ system is a group of organs that work together
to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body.

Characteristics of life
All living organisms have certain characteristics that distinguish them from non-living forms. The basic
processes of life include organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movements, and reproduction. In
humans, who represent the most complex form of life, there are additional requirements such as growth,
differentiation, respiration, digestion, and excretion. All of these processes are interrelated. No part of the
body, from the smallest cell to a complete body system, works in isolation. All function together, in fine-
tuned balance, for the wellbeing of the individual and to maintain life. Disease such as cancer and death
represent a disruption of the balance in these processes.
The following are a brief description of the life process:

Organization
At all levels of the organizational scheme, there is a division of labor. Each component has its own job to
perform in cooperation with others. Even a single cell, if it loses its integrity or organization, will die.
Atoms  Molecules  Macromolecules  Organelles  Cells  Tissues  Organ  Organ Systems
 Organism
Metabolism
Metabolism is a broad term that includes all the chemical reactions that occur in the body. One phase of
metabolism is catabolism in which complex substances are broken down into simpler building blocks and
energy is released. Needs: Water, food, oxygen, heat, pressure - all must be regulated, the other phase is
anabolism; which involves construction of complex substances from simpler ones
Responsiveness
Responsiveness or irritability is concerned with detecting changes in the internal or external environments
and reacting to that change. It is the act of sensing a stimulus and responding to it.
Movement
There are many types of movement within the body. On the cellular level, molecules move from one
place to another. Blood moves from one part of the body to another. The diaphragm moves with every
breath. The ability of muscle fibers to shorten and thus to produce movement is called contractility.
Reproduction
For most people, reproduction refers to the formation of a new person, the birth of a baby. In this way,
life is transmitted from one generation to the next through reproduction of the organism. In a broader
sense, reproduction also refers to the formation of new cells for the replacement and repair of old cells as
well as for growth. This is cellular reproduction. Both are essential to the survival of the human race.
Growth
Growth refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the number of cells or through an
increase in the size of each individual cell. In order for growth to occur, anabolic processes must occur at
a faster rate than catabolic processes.
Differentiation
Differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialized cells change into specialized cells with
distinctive structural and functional characteristics. Through differentiation, cells develop into tissues and
organs.
Respiration
Respiration refers to all the processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
cells and the external environment. It includes ventilation, the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide,
and the transport of the gases in the blood. Cellular respiration deals with the cell's utilization of oxygen
and release of carbon dioxide in its metabolism.
Digestion
Digestion is the process of breaking down complex ingested foods into simple molecules that can be
absorbed into the blood and utilized by the body.
Excretion
Excretion is the process that removes the waste products of digestion and metabolism from the body. It
gets rid of by-products that the body is unable to use, many of which are toxic and incompatible with life.
The ten life processes described above are not enough to ensure the survival of the individual. In addition
to these processes, life depends on certain physical factors from the environment. These include water,
oxygen, nutrients, heat, and pressure.
The cell cycle
Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series of stages known collectively as the cell
cycle: two gap phases (G1 and G2); an S (for synthesis) phase, in which the genetic material is
duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis partitions the genetic material and the cell divides.
G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the restriction
point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase.
S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now consists of two
sister chromatids.
G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and
cytokinesis.
M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis).
The period between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter cells with the same
genetic component as the parent cell. Chromosomes replicated during the S phase are divided in
such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome. In actively
dividing animal cells, the whole process takes about one hour.
The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic apparatus' that aligns them and then
separates the sister chromatids to produce an even partitioning of the genetic material. This
separation of the genetic material in a mitotic nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is followed by a
separation of the cell cytoplasm in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to produce two daughter
cells.
In diploid multicellular organisms sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid
gametes to produce a diploid zygote. Mitotic divisions of the zygote and daughter cells are then
responsible for the subsequent growth and development of the organism. In the adult organism,
mitosis plays a role in cell replacement, wound healing and tumor formation.
Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase
Prophase occupies over half of mitosis. The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a number of
small vesicles and the nucleolus disintegrates. A structure known as the centrosome duplicates
itself to form two daughter centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell. The
centrosomes organise the production of microtubules that form the spindle fibres that constitute
the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes condense into compact structures. Each replicated
chromosome can now be seen to consist of two identical chromatids (or sister chromatids) held
together by a structure known as the centromere.
Prometaphase
The chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to the equatorial plane in the midline of cell
- at right-angles to the axis formed by the centrosomes. This region of the mitotic spindle is
known as the metaphase plate. The spindle fibres bind to a structure associated with the
centromere of each chromosome called a kinetochore. Individual spindle fibres bind to a
kinetochore structure on each side of the centromere. The chromosomes continue to condense.
Metaphase
The chromosomes align themselves along the metaphase plate of the spindle apparatus.
Anaphase
The shortest stage of mitosis. The centromeres divide, and the sister chromatids of each
chromosome are pulled apart - or 'disjoin' - and move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by
spindle fibres attached to the kinetochore regions. The separated sister chromatids are now
referred to as daughter chromosomes. (It is the alignment and separation in metaphase and
anaphase that is important in ensuring that each daughter cell receives a copy of every
chromosome.)
Telophase
The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of many of the processes observed during prophase.
The nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell, the
chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibres disappear.
Cytokinesis
The final cellular division to form two new cells. In plants a cell plate forms along the line of the
metaphase plate; in animals there is a constriction of the cytoplasm. The cell then enters
interphase - the interval between mitotic divisions.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex cells or gametes (which
contain a single copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which contain two copies of each
chromosome). The process takes the form of one DNA replication followed by two successive
nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a
process of DNA replication that converts each chromosome into two sister chromatids.
Meiosis I
Meiosis I separates the pairs of homologous chromosomes
Meiosis in Males
In Meiosis I a special cell division reduces the cell from diploid to haploid.
Prophase I
The homologous chromosomes pair and exchange DNA to form recombinant chromosomes.
Prophase I is divided into five phases:
Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.
Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become closely associated (synapsis) to form pairs of
chromosomes (bivalents) consisting of four chromatids (tetrads).
Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of homologous chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing.
chiasma).
Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain attached by chiasmata.
Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate, and chiasmata move to the ends of
the chromosomes.
Prometaphase I
Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes attached to spindle fibres by kinetochores.
Metaphase I
Homologous pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) arranged as a double row along the metaphase
plate. The arrangement of the paired chromosomes with respect to the poles of the spindle
apparatus is random along the metaphase plate. (This is a source of genetic variation through
random assortment, as the paternal and maternal chromosomes in a homologous pair are similar
but not identical. The number of possible arrangements is 2n, where n is the number of
chromosomes in a haploid set. Human beings have 23 different chromosomes, so the number of
possible combinations is 223, which is over 8 million.)
Anaphase I
The homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are separated and move to the opposite poles of
the cell.
Telophase I
The chromosomes become diffuse and the nuclear membrane reforms.
Cytokinesis
The final cellular division to form two new cells, followed by Meiosis II. Meiosis I is a reduction
division: the original diploid cell had two copies of each chromosome; the newly formed haploid
cells have one copy of each chromosome.
Meiosis II
Meiosis II separates each chromosome into two chromatids
Anatomical Position
Descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is in a standard position of reference
called the anatomical position. In the anatomical position, the subject stands erect facing the observer,
with the head level and the eyes facing directly forward. The feet are flat on the floor and directed
forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward.
In the anatomical position, the body is upright. Two terms describe a reclining body. If the body is lying
face down, it is in the prone position. If the body is lying face up, it is in the supine position

Directional Terms
Term Definition and example
Superior (cranial)………Toward the head……………..The leg is supper to the foot.
Inferior (caudal)…………Toward the feet………………….The foot is inferior to the leg.
Anterior (ventral)…………Toward the front part of the body….The nose is anterior to the ears.
Posterior (dorsal)……..Towards the back of the body……….The ears are posterior to the nose.
Medial ………………Towards the midline of the body……….The nose is medial to the eyes.
Lateral………………Away from the midline of the body……..The eyes are lateral to the nose.
Proximal…………….Toward (nearer) the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb…..The
shoulder is proximal to the wrist.
Distal…………….Away (farther) from the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb…..The wrist is
distal to the forearm.
Superficial …………Nearer the surface of the body………..The ribs are superficial to the heart.
Deep………………..Farther from the surface of the body………..The heart is deeper to the ribs.
Peripheral ………….Away from the central axis of the body……..Peripheral nerves radiate away from
the brain and spinal cord

Body parts Regions

The body can generally be described to have areas of:
Axial body part: - It is the part of the body near the axis of the body. This includes head, neck, thorax
(chest), abdomen, and pelvis.
Appendicular body part: - It is the part of the body out of the axis line. This includes the upper and
lower extremities. It is customary to subdivide the abdominal area into nine regions or more easily in to
four quadrants.

Body planes and sections

Body planes are imaginary surfaces or plane lines that divide the body in to sections. This helps for
further identification of specific areas.
Sagittal plane:- divides the body into right and left half.
- Mid sagittal plane: - divides body into equal left and right halves.
- Para sagittal plane: - divides body into unequal left and right
Frontal plane: - divides the body into asymmetrical anterior and posterior sections.
Transverse plane: - divides the body into upper and lower body section.
Oblique plane: - divides the body obliquely into upper and lower section.
Body Cavities
The cavities of the body house the internal organs, which commonly referred to as the viscera. The two
main body cavities are the larger ventral (anterior) and the smaller, dorsal (posterior) body cavity.
The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity.
The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart. It is protected by the rib cage & associated musculature and
the sternum anteriorly. It consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum (the portion of
tissues and organs that separates the left and right lung). Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the
diaphragm inferior to the floor of the pelvis. It is divided into superior abdominal and inferior pelvic
cavity by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis. Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestine, liver,
spleen and gallbladder. The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, rectum, and portions of the
reproductive organs.
The dorsal body cavity: it constitutes the cephalic cavity containing brain and the vertebral canal
containing the spinal cord.
Homeostasis
When structure and function are coordinated the body achieves a relative stability of its internal
environment called homeostasis / staying the same. Although the external environmental changes
constantly, the internal environment of a healthy body remains the same within normal limits. Under
normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the
brain to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various organs directly into the blood
streams. Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body
temperature, breathing and heart rate.
Essentially all the organs and tissues of the body perform functions that help to maintain these constant
conditions. For instance, the lungs provide oxygen to the extracellular fluid to continually replenish the
oxygen that is being used by the cells, the kidneys maintain constant ion concentrations, and the
gastrointestinal system provides nutrients. Each body system contributes to the homeostasis of other
systems and of the entire being. No system of the body works in isolation, and the well-being of the
person depends upon the well-being of all the interacting body systems. A disruption within one system
generally has consequences for several additional body systems. Here are some brief explanations of how
various body systems contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis.
Feedback Control Systems/Negative Feedback Control- Negative feedback is the mechanism by which
the body maintains conditions within particular limits. It is a control system that acts to maintain the level
of some variable within a given range following a disturbance. Once equilibrium conditions are restored,
the stimulus that activated the feedback loop is removed, so that the system ceases to function until an
appropriate stimulus initiates the feedback process again; that is, negative feedback systems in the body
normally are reversible and they come into play on demand. The component of a simple negative
feedback loop include (i) a regulated variable, (ii) sensor (or detector), (iii) controller (comparator), and
(iv) effector. Each component controls the next component to it .
Various disturbances may arise within or outside the internal environment and caused undesirable
changes in the regulated variable. The regulated variable is sensed by sensor, information about its level
is fed back to a controller (comparator), which compares it to a desired value (set point). If there is a
difference, signal is generated, which drives the effector to oppose the changes and bring the regulated
variable closer to the desire.
Component of a simple negative feedback loop-A familiar example of a negative feedback control is the
thermostatic control of room temperature. Room temperature (regulated variable) is subject to
disturbance; on a cold day, room temperature falls. The room temperature is detected by a thermometer
(sensor) in the thermostat (controller). The thermostat is set for a certain temperature (set point). The
controller compares the actual temperature (feedback signal) to the set point temperature and signal is
generated if the former falls below the latter. The signal activates the furnace (effector). The resulting
change in temperature is monitored by the controller, and when temperature rises sufficiently the furnace
is turned off. Such a negative feedback system allows some fluctuation in room temperature. Effective
communication between the sensor and effector is important in keeping these oscillations to a minimum.
The control of testosterone secretion, control of calcium ions level in the blood, control of blood glucose
by insulin and glucagon, control of cortisol secretion by the adrenal cortex are other examples of the
operation of such mechanisms.
Positive feedback control
Positive feedback is a self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater
changes in the same direction, rather than producing the corrective effects of negative feedback. Positive
feedback promotes rapid change and it is often a normal way of producing rapid progressive change in
one direction. For example, when a woman is giving birth, the head of the baby pushes against her cervix
and stimulates nerve endings there. Nerve signals are sent to the brain, which, in turn, stimulates the
pituitary gland to secrete the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin travels in the blood and stimulates the uterus to
contract. This pushes the baby downward, stimulating the cervix the more and causing the positive
feedback loop to be repeated. Labor contractions therefore become more and more intense until the baby
is expelled.
It should be noted however that the overall process of childbirth is a negative feedback loop- it is a
response to pregnancy that terminates the pregnancy. But within this negative feedback loop, there is a
smaller positive feedback loop that has just been described. Beneficial positive feedback loops are often
part of larger negative feedback loops. Other examples of beneficial positive feedback includes:
generation of nerve signals, blood clotting and the stomach digestion of protein. Frequently, however,
positive feedback is a harmful and even life- threatening process. This is because its self-amplifying
nature can quickly change the internal state of the body to something far from its homeostatic set point.
Consider a high fever, for example. A fever triggered by infection is beneficial up to a point, but if the
body temperature rises much above 42oC, it may create a dangerous positive feedback loop. This high
temperature raises the metabolic rate, which makes the body to produce heat faster than it gets rid of it.
Thus temperature rises still further, increasing the metabolic rate and heat production still more. This
“vicious circle” becomes fatal at approximately 45oc such temperature are so high that they destroy the
proteins that cells need to function. Convulsion and coma are some outward signs of this damage. Thus
positive feedback loop often create dangerously out of control situations that require emergency medical
treatment.

Feed forward control

Feed forward control is another strategy used to control systems in the body, particularly when a change
with time is desired. It is anticipatory in nature. A feed forward controller generates commands without
directly sensing the regulated variable. These commands specify the target or goals. Feed forward control
often senses a disturbance and can therefore take corrective action that anticipates change. It often
operates through the feedback controllers. The moment-to-moment operation of the feed forward
controller is “open loop” (unlike closed loop in negative feedback) because the regulated variable itself is
not sensed by sensor. Examples include increased heart rate and breathing rate even before a person has
begun to exercise, flight reactions and others.

The Cell

TISSUE

Cells are highly organized units. But in multicultural organisms, they do not function in
isolation. They work together in-group of similar cells called tissue. Tissue is a group of similar
cell and their intercellular substance that have a similar embryological origin and function
together to perform a specialized activity. A science that deals with the study of a tissue is
Histology.

The various tissues of the body are classified in to four principal parts according to their function
& structure. These are epithelial, connective, muscular, and Nervous tissue.
Epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissues covers body surface, lines body cavity & ducts and form glands. They are
subdivided in to:

- Covering & lining epithelium

- Glandular epithelium

Covering and lining epithelium: it forms the outer covering of external body surface and outer
covering of some internal organs. It lines body cavity, interior of respiratory & gastro intestinal
tracts, blood vessels & ducts and make up along with the nervous tissue (the parts of sense
organs for smell, hearing, vision and touch). It is a tissue from which gametes (egg & sperm)
develops.

Covering and lining epithelium are classified based on the arrangement of layers and cell shape.

According to the arrangement of layers covering and lining epithelium is grouped in to:

a) Simple epithelium: it is specialized for absorption, and filtration with minimal wear & tear. It
is a single layered

b) Stratified epithelium, it is many layered and found in an area with high degree of wear & tear.

c) Pseudo-stratified, is a single layered but seem to have many layer.

Based on the cell shape covering and lining epithelium is grouped in to:

a) Squamous: - flattened & scale like

b) Cuboidal: - cube shaped

c) Columnar: - tall & cylindrical

d) Transitional: - combination of cell shape found where there is a great degree of distention or
expansion, these may be cuboidal to columnar, cuboidal to polyhydral and Cuboidal to
Squamous

Therefore considering the number of layers and cell shape we can classify covering and lining
epithelium in to the following groups:

Simple epithelium

a) Simple – Squamous epithelium, contain single layer of flat, scale like resemble tiled floor. It is
highly adapted to diffusion, osmosis & filtration. Thus, it lines the air sacs of lung, in kidneys,
blood vessels and lymph vessels.

b) Simple – cuboidal epithelium, Flat polygon that covers the surface of ovary, lines the anterior
surface of lens of the eye, retina & tubules of kidney

c) Simple – columnar epithelium, Similar to simple cuboidal. It is modified in several ways

depending on location & function. It lines the gastro-intestinal tract gall bladder, excretory ducts
of many glands. It functions in secretions, absorption, protection & lubrication.

Stratified epithelium

It is more durable, protects underlying tissues form external environment and from wear & tear.

a) Stratified Squamous epithelium: In this type of epithelium, the outer cells are flat.
Stratified squamous epithelium is subdivided in to two based on presence of keratin.
These are Non-Keratinized and Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Non-
Keratnized stratified squamous epithelium is found in wet surface that are subjected to
considerable wear and tear. Example: - Mouth, tongue and vagina. In Keratinized,
stratified squamous epithelium the surface cell of this type forms a tough layer of
material containing keratin. Example: skin. Keratin, is a waterproof protein, resists
friction and bacterial invasion.
b) Stratified cuboidal epithelium, rare type of epithelium. It is found in sweat glands duct,
conjunctiva of eye, and cavernous urethra of the male urogenital system, pharynx & epiglottis.
Its main function is secretion.

c) Stratified columnar epithelium, uncommon to the body. Stratified columnar epithelium is

found in milk duct of mammary gland & anus layers. It functions in protection and secretion.

Transitional epithelium

The distinction is that cells of the outer layer in transitional epithelium tend to be large and
rounded rather than flat. The feature allows the tissue to be stretched without breakage. It is
found in Urinary bladder, part of Ureters & urethra.

Pseudo stratified epithelium

Lines the larger excretory ducts of many glands, epididymis, parts of male urethra and auditory
tubes. Its main function is protection & secretion

3.1.2 Glandular Epithelium

Their main function is secretion. A gland may consist of one cell or a group of highly specialized
epithelial cell. Glands can be classified into exocrine and endocrine according to where they
release their secretion.

Exocrine: Those glands that empties their secretion in to ducts/tubes that empty at the surface of
covering. Their main products are mucous, oil, wax, perspiration and digestive enzyme. Sweat &
salivary glands are exocrine glands.

Endocrine: They ultimately secret their products into the blood system. The secretions of
endocrine glands are always hormones. Hormones are chemicals that regulate various
physiological activities. Pituitary, thyroid & adrenal glands are endocrine.

Connective tissue

Connective tissues of the body are classified into embryonic

connective tissue and adult connective tissue.

Embryonic connective tissue

Embrayonic connective tissue contains mesenchyme & mucous connective tissue. Mesenchyme
is the tissue from which all other connective tissue eventually arises. It is located beneath the
skin and along the developing bone of the embryo. Mucous (Wharton’s Jelly) connective tissue
is found primarily in the fetus and located in the umbilical cord of the fetus where it supports the
cord.

Adult connective tissue

It is differentiated from mesenchyme and does not change after birth. Adult connective tissue
composes connective tissue proper, cartilage, osseous (bone) & vascular (blood) tissue

Muscle tissue

Muscle tissue consists of highly specialized cells, which provides motion, maintenance of
posture and heat production. Classification of muscles is made by structure and function. Muscle
tissues are grouped in to skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissue.

- Skeletal muscle tissue are attached to bones, it is voluntary, cylindrical, multinucleated &
striated

- Cardiac muscle tissue: It forms the wall of the heart; it is involuntary, uni-nucleated and
striated.

- Smooth muscle tissue: located in the wall of hallow internal structure like Blood vessels,
stomach, intestine, and urinary bladder. It is involuntary and non-striated.

Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue contains two principal cell types. These are the neurons and the neuroglia.
Neurons are nerve cells, sensitive to various stimuli. It converts stimuli to nerve impulse.
Neurons are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It contains 3 basic portions.
These are cell body, axons and dendrites. Neuroglias are cells that protect, nourish and support
neurons. Clinically they are important because they are potential to replicate and produce
cancerous growths.