Research in Education I

Module II
Research Problems, Questions and
Hypotheses

BILLY A. DANDAY

Content Writer

Module 2: Research Problems, Questions and Hypotheses 1

 Research in Education I

Module 2: Research Problems, Questions, and Hypotheses

This module intends to supplement the discussion about research problems, questions,
and hypotheses in the reference McMillan, J. & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in Education:
Evidence-Based Inquiry (7th Ed.). Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

All rights reserved.

Aside from the fair use exceptions to copyright for the purpose of research
or private study, no part of this material may be used, reproduced, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means without prior written permission from the authors.

The use of trademarks, pictures, and images herein does not vest ownership
in the authors and does not imply any affiliation with or endorsement thereof.
Specific module content and discussion lifted from other sources are used following
the principles of the Fair Use Doctrine.

Philippine Copyright 2020

by
Billy A. Danday and Alma Sonia Q. Sanchez-Danday

Introduction
Perhaps one of the most difficult tasks in conducting research is to identify a research
problem. Once settled, the researcher is now guided to the succeeding steps. Module 2 aims to
prepare you with the preliminaries of writing a research proposal. By providing simple tasks,
examples, and brief discussions, you are enjoined to take the journey to the world of research.

Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you are expected to:

1. write appropriate hypotheses from given research questions;
2. identify research variables and their level of measurements from given examples; and
3. formulate quantitative and qualitative research questions and hypotheses.

Now, let us begin our journey…

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Your Initial Task

Read Me!

Read the discussions in the book Research in Education: Evidence-Based Inquiry (7th
Ed.) by McMillan & Schumacher (2014) on page 55-81.

Look Me Up!

Find the meaning of the following key terms which you will encounter in this
module.

Key terms Definition

research problem
research question
construct
independent variable
dependent variable
predictor variable
criterion variable
confounding variables
extraneous variables
null hypothesis
research/alternative
hypothesis

Let’s Engage!

The Nature, Significance, and Sources of Research Problems

Research questions and hypotheses are just chunks of a bigger idea that is primarily
aimed at explaining the world, or at least a part of it. The empirical study of the world often
stems from a significant root, usually a new phenomenon, difficulty, confusion, or even threat.
This is called a research problem. Everything else in an investigation is about it, giving
direction and meaning of the study. It is found in the introduction section of the research
article.
A research problem consists of three components – context, purpose, and significance.
The context places the research problem within a larger subject. This is also called the
background of the study which leads to the specific focus of research. For example, a

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researcher may say: “Scholars have been recently investigating the effects of the mobile
phones to the academic performance of college students”, or “Reports have been gathered
about a low reading comprehension level of many Science pre-service teachers”, or “There are
claims that inquiry-based learning has a positive influence on students’ critical thinking yet less
is known about its effects on the problem-solving skills of high school students”.
The purpose focuses the research into a more specific area of a large body of
knowledge. This is where research questions are based upon. A researcher may state “The
purpose of the study is to determine the various coping mechanisms of the LNU students
towards this pandemic”, or “The purpose of the study is to gather empirical data on the different
factors that have potential influences on students’ learning in the technology-based
environment”.
Meanwhile, the significance illuminates the reader of the contribution of the research to
the existing body of knowledge and/or practice. It justifies why an evidence-based inquiry is
important and indicates the reasons for the researcher’s choice of a particular problem. A
researcher may ask: considering the time, money, effort, and resources to be invested, is the
study worth pursuing? What benefits may be derived from the findings of the research? The
answers to these questions are extensively discussed in the significance of the study portion,
a sub-section of the introduction, of the research article to establish the rationale of the
research.
Justifications in conducting the research may be based on one or more of the following
criteria: whether the study provides knowledge about an enduring practice, tests a theory, is
generalizable, extends understanding of a broader phenomenon, advances methodology, is
related to a current issue, evaluates a specific practice at a given site, or is an exploratory study.
The researcher must explain well why the study must be conducted by highlighting its
contributions to the field of study.
Identifying a research problem may be challenging for many beginning researchers
because there are just too many issues that may be identified about a subject. It is then
recommended to conduct a thorough search from a myriad of sources.

Q1: What are the common sources of research problems? Where can you get relevant
topics for research?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Task 1

Directions: Read and analyze the structure and content of the following statements/questions.
Group them based on your own set of criteria. Be ready to state your justifications in
forming the groups.

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1. The four-year-old preschoolers read faster when exposed to the image-aided approach
than those taught with the traditional approach.
2. The research aims to determine the effectiveness of the Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
model on the critical thinking of the pre-service Science teachers.
3. The prevalent literature suggests that at least 2% of the International Students Exchange
Program will develop anxiety during the first month of the program.
4. Do 4-year old preschoolers read faster with the image-aided approach than those taught
with the traditional approach?
5. What are the challenges and coping mechanisms of the LNU pre-service teachers sent
to an International Students Exchange Program?
6. The pre-service Science teachers exposed to the Problem-Based Learning model have
a significantly higher score in the Critical Thinking Test than those exposed to the
traditional instructional model.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Let’s Probe and Explore!

1. How did you group the items/statements/questions? What are the distinguishing features
of each group?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Which are research problems? Among the identified research problems, which are
quantitative? qualitative?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. How may research problems be stated?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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4. Which are the hypotheses? Among the identified hypotheses, which are quantitative?
qualitative?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
5. How may quantitative hypotheses be stated?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Perhaps many of you have grouped the questions/statements in Activity 1 into two. If
you labeled them research questions and research hypotheses, then you are absolutely right..
Congratulations!
The following sections of the module will guide you on formulating the research
questions and hypotheses. Are you ready to continue the journey? Let’s go!

Problem and Research Question Formulation in Quantitative Research

Quantitative studies involve measurement of quantities and analyses of data through
descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, or both. The generalizations or conclusions are based
upon these meaningful analysis and interpretation of results.
Research problems in quantitative researches often comprise constructs. These are
abstract concepts that are often derived from theories expressing the idea behind a set of
particulars. You may have encountered some of these in your readings such as reading
readiness, anxiety, attitude, critical thinking, achievement, critical thinking disposition, and
intelligence. Constructs may also be described as a combination of variables forming a
meaningful pattern. For instance, reading readiness may be a meaningful conglomeration of
visual perception, sight/sound discrimination, audio acuity, and left-to-right orientation.
Variables depict a concept or characteristic that represent a numerical or categorical
variation. For example, gender, mathematical ability, reading comprehension level, age, height,
and intelligence can all be expressed as numerical values or catgeories which may vary from
person to person. In experimental or quasi-experimental studies, these may be classified into
independent or dependent. Independent variables are those that can be manipulated to
examine its influence on another variable. They may refer to the intervention and control groups.
The independent variables in a non-experimental study are not manipulated, but their
effects on other variables can still be described or determined. For instance, a study of the
school size (independent variable) on the National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT)

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performance (dependent variable) may use large, medium, and small schools (levels of the
independent variable). Obviously, the researcher will not manipulate the sizes of the selected
schools but will choose the schools from enrollment records. In some correlational research, the
antecedent variable is called the predictor variable and the predicted variable is called the
criterion variable. In a study that examines the relationship of high school general weighted
average to success in college, the predictor variable is the general weighted average and the
criterion variable is college success. In other correlational studies, there is no obvious
antecedent variable—for example, in considering the relationship between self-concept and
achievement.
Results of a study may be influenced by uncontrolled factors or unantipated events.
Extraneous variables are conditions, events, or occurrences that affect the subjects in a
particular group, changing the outcome. Examples are noise, disruptive events, and interruption.
Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with levels of the independent
variable and affect the dependent variable. These may include the type of school, teacher
characteristics, student characteristics, time of day, etc.
Variables can have different levels of measurement. Categorical variables are also
known as discrete or qualitative variables. Categorical variables can be further categorized as
either nominal, ordinal or dichotomous (Laerd Statisics, 2020). Nominal variables are variables
that have two or more categories, but which do not have an intrinsic order. For example,
specializations of the BSED program of LNU can be categorized as English, Science, MAPEH,
Mathematics, Filipino, and TLE. Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only
two categories or levels. School type, for example, may either be public or private. An
individual’s sex may either be male or female. Ordinal variables are variables that have two or
more categories just like nominal variables, only the categories can also be ordered or ranked.
For instance, a participant’s response to a statement may be “Strongly Agree”, “Agree”,
“Disagree”, or “Strongly Disagree”. These responses can be ordered based on the degree of
agreement to the statement, or from the most positive to the least.
Continuous variables, on the other hand, are also known as quantitative variables.
These can be further categorized as either interval or ratio variables. The interval variable is a
measurement variable that is used to define values measured along a scale, with each point
placed at an equal distance from one another (Formplus, 2020). Example is temperature
(measured in degree Celsius or Fahrennheit), wehere the difference between 50oC to 60oC is
the same with the difference between 10oC to 20oC. IQ and general weighted average are other
examples of interval variables. The ratio variable is an extension of the interval variable and is
also the peak of the measurement variable types. The only difference between the ratio variable
and interval variable is that the ratio variable already has a zero value. Example is temperature
in Kelvin where 0 K is the absolute zero temperature. Other examples include height, distance,
mass, weight, etc.
Variables need to be defined operationally in any research. An operational definition
assigns meaning to a variable by specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure,
categorize, or manipulate that variable. It tells the researcher and the reader what is necessary
to answer the question or test the hypothesis. For example, achievement may be defined as the
score incurred by the respondent in the Achievement Test in English, or critical thinking is the
score obtained in the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Table 2.1 illustrates how
variables are stated conceptually and operationally.

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Table 2.1. Conceptual and Operational Definitions of Variables

Task 2
Directions:
A. Identify the independent and dependent variable(s) in each of the following research
problems/questions.
1. Do 4-year old preschoolers read faster with the image-aided approach than those
taught with the traditional approach?
2. The effects of the Multiple-Representation Lesson Study and the Traditional
instructional planning approaches on preservice teachers’ problem-solving skills and
representational skills.
3. Is there a significant difference in the achievement of Grade 8 high school students
when exposed to technology-based and conventional instructional materials?
4. The research aims to determine the effectiveness of the Problem-Based Learning
(PBL) model on the critical thinking of the pre-service Science teachers.

B. Identify the predictor and criterion variable(s) in each of the following research
problems/questions.
1. Does educational attainment affect the IQ of college instructors?
2. Is attitude towards Mathematics influenced by sex/gender?
3. Is there a positive correlation between pre-service Physics teachers’ Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) and attitude towards Physics?

C. Write down all the variables and determine the level of measurement (nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio) of each variable in Section A and B.

Problem Formulation and Research Questions for Qualitative Designs

While quantitative studies focus on analyzing, interpreting, or deducing relationships

between measurable constructs, qualitative studies provide a thorough description, account , or
explanation of a principal topic, idea, issue, process, or concept known as the central question

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or foreshadowed problem. It is an open-ended purpose where particular sub-questions are

formulated as the researcher gathers data and is stated as a single concept or process.It must
not be too broad, but must be sufficiently general so that any pertinent information gathered
during the study can be used to understand the phenomenon.
Like quantitivie studies, choosing a topic for a qualitative research may be overwhelming
to inexperienced researchers. One may start by identifying current phenomena such as student
challenges and coping mechanisms, anxiety development, teenage pregnancy, stress
management, and the like.
It must be noted that research questions in qualitative studies may not be fixed; they
“emerge” from the collected and analyzed data. Hence, there exists an interaction between the
researcher’s learning and research questions. The following are the criteria in writing qualitative
research problems and questions according to McMillan & Schumacher (2014).
1. The central question should not be too specific or too general.
2. The central question should not be biased by the researcher’s assumptions or
desired results.
3. The central question should be amenable to change as data are collected.
4. The central question should be written with “how” and “what” to keep the focus on
understanding the phenomenon.
5. The central question should indicate the participants and site.

Stating Research Problems

Research problems are specified or focused by research questions. As you may have
observed in Task 1, research questions may be expressed as questions or statements. Take
the following examples.
Table 2.2. Quantitative Research Questions

Question Form Statement Form

1. Is there a significant relationship between The purpose of the study is to probe the
third year college students’ problem relationship between problem solving and
solving skills and reading comprehension? reading comprehension among third year
college students.

2. What is the effect of the two instructional The study examines the effect of two
approaches on the Technological instructional approaches on the
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) Technological Pedagogical Content
of pre-service teachers? Knowledge (TPCK) of pre-service teachers.

Table 2.3. Qualitative Research Questions

Question Form Statement Form

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1. What are the challenges and coping The purpose of this study is to understand
mechanisms of the LNU pre-service the challenges and coping mechanisms of
teachers sent to an International Students the LNU pre-service teachers sent to an
Exchange Program? International Students Exchange Program.

2. What are college students’ perceptions of The study aims to understand college
the Flexible Learning approach? students’ perceptions of the Flexible Learning
approach.

Take note that the examples above may still be rephrased or restated without altering
the meaning of the question or statement. Can you do it?

Task 3

Directions: Find two published qualitative researches from journals. Write the title of the
research article. State the original research question(s) and transform it/them into
statement(s) or question(s), whichever is applicable. Cite each research article
using the APA format which you may find at the site
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_st
yle_guide/reference_list_articles_in_periodicals.html

Sample citation for electronic journals (APA 7th Ed.):

Sanchez-Danday, A.S. & Danday, B. (2019). Legal literacy of teachers on selected laws and
jurisprudence affecting school operations. International Journal for Innovation
Education and Research, 7(5). 306-315. https://doi.org/10.31686/ijier.Vol7.Iss5.1513

Problem Formulation and Research Questions for Mixed Method Research

There are research problems that are better examined using both quantitative and
qualitative method, called a mixed method design. Aside from the relationship of measurable
constructs, a deeper understanding on the phenomenon may also be attained by employing
qualitative methods. The researcher must establish the importance of the application of both
methods, and the relative importance of how each method functions in the study.
Creswell (2011) has identified six specific designs for mixed methods research as
follows:
1. Convergent parallel design – quantitative and qualitative data are collected and
analyzed independently at the same time; results are mixed during the overall
interpretation where convergence, divergence, contradictions, or relationships of two
sources of data are scrutinized

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2. Explanatory sequential design - quantitative findings are explained by qualitative

results; quantitative data are collected first then qualitative data are gathered to
explain quantitative results
3. Exploratory sequential design - qualitative results are utilized to develop or inform the
quantitative study such as to develop a research tool or instrument; its purpose is to
generalize qualitative findings to a larger sample
4. Embedded design - quantitative or qualitative data collection is within a quantitative
or qualitative procedure; two types of data answer different research questions; often
used to answer different questions that requires different types of data
5. Transformative design – often used to address issues of social justice and call for
change for underrepresented or marginalized populations; relates more to the
content than to the methodology
6. Multiphase – sequential and concurrent aspects are combined; often used in large
funded projects with an extended time

The research questions in mixed method researches are arranged based on the
particular design of the study. McMillan & Schumacher (2014) provided very good examples
such as below.
Example 1:

Q2: What specific design is depicted by the research questions in Example 1? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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Example 2:

Q3: What specific design is depicted by the research questions in Example 2? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Task 4

Directions: Find one published mixed method research. Write the title of the research article.
Write the research questions and determine the specific design used in the study.
Justify your answer. Don’t forget to cite the research article using the APA format
which you may find at the site
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_st
yle_guide/reference_list_articles_in_periodicals.html.

Sample citation for electronic journals (APA 7th Ed.):

Sanchez-Danday, A.S. & Danday, B. (2019). Legal literacy of teachers on selected laws and
jurisprudence affecting school operations. International Journal for Innovation
Education and Research, 7(5). 306-315. https://doi.org/10.31686/ijier.Vol7.Iss5.1513

Research Hypotheses
McMillan & Schumacher (2014) define a research hypothesis as a tentative statement of
the expected relationship between two or more variables or a tentative explanation on a
phenomenon. Hypotheses are generated prior to data gathering phase and are usually based
on the literature gathered about the research problem, hence, they are deemed as the

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researcher’s predictions or expectations of results. Contrary to the common belief, hypotheses

may be formulated in qualitative studies just like in quantitative researches. They, however, are
stated or expressed differently.
The hypotheses in quantitative studies are very much similar to research questions in
substance except that research hypotheses are declarative statements, more specific than
problem statements, clearly testable, and indicative of the expected results. They may be
classified into two.
1. Research hypotheses (or Alternative Hypotheses) represent a synthesis of the
researcher’s expectation based on previous literature and experience.
Example 3. Pre-service teachers who have undergone the Integrated Review Approach
have higher LET ratings than those who have not.
Example 4. There is a significant positive correlation between reading comprehension
and problem-solving skills.
2. Null hypotheses show no statistically significant differences or relationships between
variables. It is used for making a decision about whether to reject or fail to reject the
statement that there are no differences or relationships. The rejection or failure to reject
provides support or no support, respectively, for the research hypothesis.
Example 6. There is no significant difference in the LET ratings of the Pre-service
teachers who have undergone the Integrated Review Approach and those
who have not.
Example 7. There is no significant positive correlation between reading comprehension
and problem-solving skills.

It is important to take note of the following criteria in developing and writing research
hypotheses for quantitive studies.
1. The hypothesis should state the direction of the difference or relationship. State who scores
higher, performs better, or whether the relationship is significant and positive or negative.
2. The hypothesis should be testable.Statistical analyses must be applied to accept or reject the
(null) hypothesis.
3. The hypothesis should have a clear rationale. It is important for the hypothesis to be
grounded in theory and/or previous research so that the explanation for the findings is
reasonable.
4. The hypothesis should be clearly stated. One easy guide is to state the research questions in
declarative statements.

Table 2.4 shows the connection between research problems, research or alternative
hypotheses, and null hypotheses in quantitative studies.
Table 2.4: Research Problems, Research Hypotheses, and Null Hypotheses

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Research hypotheses in qualitative research differ from quantitative studies in form and
structure. They often suggest association to the current literature and lack measured constructs.
Consider the following examples.
Example 8

Example 9

N.B. Tables, figures, and matrices used in this Chapter were lifted from the book Research in Education: Evidence-
Based Inquiry (7th Edition) by McMillan and Schumacher (2014).

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Task 5

Directions: Write one hypothesis from each of the given research problems.

1. How do Senior High School Aetas assimilate scientific knowledge in their daily
living?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. The study investigates the adaptive mechanisms of the LNU Special Education
freshmen towards the CoVID-19 pandemic.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. The research explores the relationship between pre-service teachers’ reading
comprehension and mathematical ability.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Is there a significant positive correlation between pre-service Physics teachers’
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) and attitude towards
Physics?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. How prepared are third-year LNU college students for research?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Let’s Digest and Remember!

We can say that the research problem is the foundation of any empirical study. A well-
defined research problem consists of context, significance, and purpose. It provides robust
justifications in pursuing the study. Figure 1 shows the relationship of the three components of
the research problem.

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Figure 2.1: The Components of a Research problem

Quantitative data sets that are being studied are called variables. They may be classified
as independent or dependent based on their role in the research. There are times that some
unwanted factors can affect the dependent variables. They are known as confounding and
extraneous variables. The relationship of these three types of variables is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2.2: Relationship of Different Types of Variables

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 Research in Education I

Table 2.5 below summarizes the concepts of the different types of variables with
examples. Let’s all be familiarized with these variables for we may encounter them often as we
explore more the world of research.

Table 2.5: Variables Used in Quantitative Research

Although similar in substance, research problems and hypotheses differ in form and
structure between quantitative and qualitative research. These emerge from the differing nature
or inherent features of these two research designs. Table 2.6 provides a good comparison at
one glance of the quantitative and qualitative research problems.

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Table 2.6: Differences Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Problems

The mixed method research contains all of the features exemplified in the table.
These should guide you in developing your research proposal as a final requirement of this
course.

N.B. Tables, figures, and matrices used in this Chapter were lifted from the book Research in Education: Evidence-
Based Inquiry (7th Edition) by McMillan and Schumacher (2014).

Let’s Practice!

Task 6. Read the following published research article.

Danday, B. & Monterola, S. (2019). Effects of microteaching multiple-representation
physics lesson study on pre-service teachers’ critical thinking. Journal of Baltic Science
Education, 18(5). 692-707. https://dx.doi.org/10.33225/jbse/19.18.692
a. State the research question.
b. Identify the variables in the research article and their respective level of
measurement.
c. Give the operational definition of the variables.
d. State the null hypotheses and the research or alternative hypotheses of the study.

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 Research in Education I

Task 7. Formulate one quantitative research question. Identify the variables and specify the
level of measurement of each. Provide one null hypothesis and one alternative/research
hypothesis for the research question.
Task 8. Formulate one qualitative research question. Provide a hypothesis for the qualitative
research problem.

Your Final Task

Check Your Work!

Now, check your answers in the different tasks given. Refer to the Answer Key below.

Answer Key

Answers to Questions (AQ):

AQ1: Research problems may come from the following sources:
1. published books and journal articles
2. knowledgeable others (professionals, scientists, teachers, authorities, etc. or any
individual who is an expert/authority of the field of study)
3. self-observations, interests, and experience
4. an existing theory
5. recommendations from a recent study, thesis, or dissertation
6. contradictory findings of similar or related studies

AQ2: The research questions in Example 1 depict an exploratory sequential design because the
qualitative questions are the bases for further quantitative inquiries. It is assumed that the
results of the qualitative method will give direction to the quantitative components of the
study.
AQ3: The research questions in Example 2 depict an explanatory sequential design because
the qualitative questions are used to explain, clarify, or support the quantitative results.
Quantitative data have to be collected and analyzed first before the qualitative question
will serve its purpose.

Task 1
(consider individual responses)

Task 2
(consider individual responses)

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 Research in Education I

Task 3
(consider individual responses)

Task 4
(consider individual responses)

Possible Answers to Task 5

1. The Aetas who perform satisfactorily in Science will tend to integrate scientific
knowledge in their daily life transactions. More resistance to knowledge integration is
expected from those who perform poorly in Science.
2. Based on the existing studies on the adaptive mechanisms of young adults, the LNU
Special Education freshmen will engage more in technology-based activities than on
agriculture-related endeavors to counteract the psychological pressures imposed by the
CoVID-19 pandemic.
3. There is a positive correlation between pre-service teachers’ reading comprehension
and mathematical ability.
4. There is no positive correlation between pre-service Physics teachers’ Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) and attitude towards Physics.
5. The Leyte Normal University has been offering research-related undertakings such as
workshops, research colloquia, and conferences to all LNU undergraduate students for
two years now. The current third-year students are expected to perform well in their
research course and to produce quality researches.

Task 6
(consider individual responses)

Did you get a good score? A score of 75% and higher shows that you have gained an
adequate knowledge on the topic. If you received a lower score, please study the topic again to
improve before proceeding to the next module.

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Reflection Note!

I learned that ___________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________

Congratulations!

You have finished your Module 2 journey.

Now, you are ready to embark and build up your knowledge with Module 3.

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References
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Danday, B. & Monterola, S. (2019). Effects of microteaching multiple-representation physics
lesson study on pre-service teachers’ critical thinking. Journal of Baltic Science
Education, 18(5). 692-707. https://dx.doi.org/10.33225/jbse/19.18.692
Formplus Blog (2020, June 25). Nominal, Ordinal, Interval & Ratio Variable + [Examples].
Retrieved August 6, 2020 from https://www.formpl.us/blog/nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio-
variable-example
Laerd Statistics. (2020, August 6). Types of Variable. https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-
guides/types-of-variable.php
McMillan, J. & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in Education: Evidence-Based Inquiry (7th
Ed.). Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (2020, August 9). Reference List: Articles in Periodicals.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_g
uide/reference_list_articles_in_periodicals.html

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