NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE

If large values are collected for any character and a frequency table is prepared with
small class interval, the frequency curve of this data will give a bell-shaped symmetrical
curve, which is known as Gaussian or normal probability curve. The shape of this curve
depends on the mean and SD of data

The probability function of a normal distribution is

= AM of population

= SD of population
1 ¿¿¿
f ( x )= e
√2

Properties:

 It is a bell shaped curve

 It is a continuous smooth curve
 It is symmetric about the x- axis
 Mean=median= mode
 It is unimodal
 Normal curve is asymptotic to the x-axis(touches the x-axis at infinity)
 Height of the curve declines symmetrically
 68% of observations lies between  - 1 and  + 1
 95.44% of observations lies between  - 2 and  + 2
  99.72% of observations lies between  - 3 and  + 3
 The normal distribution in which the mean =0 and SD= 1, is called ‘standard normal
distribution’ and the curve that is drawn is called ‘standard normal curve’

SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS

Skewness : it is described as the asymmetry or lack of symmetry of the dataset. A perfectly

symmetrical dataset will have a skewness of zero. Hence the normal distribution has a
skewness of zero

There are two types of skewness

 Positive skewness: where the distribution is not symmetrical to mean, the curve is
shifted towards the right side. Here, mean> median> mode
 Negative skewness: where the distribution is not symmetrical to mean, the mean is
shifted more towards the left side. Here, mean< median<mode

Kurtosis: Kurtosis is the degree of peakedness of a curve or data distribution

There are three types of kurtosis

 Leptokurtic: sharp peaked with fat tails and less dispersed

 Mesokurtic: Medium peaked, normal curve is mesokurtic
 Platykurtic : Flattest peak and highly dispersed
 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis :

It is an assumption about the population or population parameters. This hypothesis can be

true or false.

Eg: the mean height of the population is 160cm

A test procedure by which either to accept or reject the hypothesis based on a sample taken
from the population is called testing of hypothesis

Population and sample :

The set or group about which information is required is called a population

A representative part of the population is called sample

Eg: if we have to assess the study habits of 200 students in a college. If we take 50 students
as a representative part, then 200 students are the population and 50 students are the sample.

Population size is represented by ‘N’ and sample size by ‘n’.

Parameter and statistic:

Unknown constants occurring in the population is called parameter. It is a function of

population values. Eg: population mean (), population SD ()

Unknown constants occurring in the sample is called statistic. It is a function of sample

values

Eg: sample mean (x), sample SD (s)

Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics

The statistics which describe the data is called descriptive statistics. Eg: frequency tables,
mean, SD etc

In inferential statistics, we are making inferences or drawing conclusions about the

population based on samples taken from the population. Inferential statistics is divided into
two:

1. Estimation of parameters
2. Testing of hypothesis

Null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis:

The hypothesis that is to be tested in a test procedure is called null hypothesis and is denoted
by ‘H0’
H0 : 1 = 2 it means that the two population means are equal or there is no significant
difference between the mean values of two population.

The alternative or opposite of the null hypothesis is called alternative hypothesis. It is the
research hypothesis, denoted by H1 or HA

H1 : 1 ≠ 2

H1 : 1 < 2

H1 : 1 > 2

Types of errors

H0 True False
Reject Type 1 error No error
Accept No error Type II error
Rejecting the null hypothesis, when it is true is called type I error, denoted by α. Accepting
the null hypothesis when it is false is called type II error, denoted by β.

Difference between type I error and type II error

Type I error Type II error

Occurs when the null hypothesis is true and Occurs when the null hypothesis is false and
the researcher rejects it researcher fails to reject it
Erroneous rejection of true null hypothesis Erroneous acceptance of false null hypothesis
False positive False negative
Probability of committing error is equal to Probability of committing error is equal to
the level of significance the power of the test
denoted by α denoted by β.

Significance level:

Probability (chance) of type I error is called significance level or level of significance. It is

denoted byα or ‘p’. In other words, level of significance is probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is true. In health sciences, we generally consider the level of significance
as either 1% (.01) or 5%(.05).Usually we take α =0.05(5 %). A significance level of .05
means that researcher is willing to take risk of being wrong 5% of the times, 5 times out of
100, when rejecting the null hypothesis. In case of .01, it is 1 out of 100 times and in .001,it is
1 out of 1000 times.

Degrees of freedom (df)

Number of observations which are free to vary or number of independent observations in a

sample is known as degrees of freedom.

df = n-1 in single sample ‘t’ test and paired ‘t’ test

df= n1+n2- 2 in unpaired or independent observations

df = α ∈Z test

df = (r-1) (c-1) in case of chi square (χ 2 ) test where r= number of rows and c = number of
columns

Test statistic

The statistic (function of sample value) used for testing of hypothesis is called test statistic

Eg: t test, Z test, χ 2

Critical region

The region of values of the test statistic is divided into two regions- acceptance region and
rejection region. The rejection region is also known as critical region. If the value of test
statistic falls in the rejection region, then we reject the null hypothesis.

One tailed and two tailed test

If we reject the null hypothesis, then the value of the test statistic falls in two tails, then the
test is two tailed. Here the alternative hypothesis is of the form ≠ ( not equal to)

Eg: H0 : 1 = 2

H1 : 1 ≠ 2

When the value of the test statistic falls in either of the two tails and if we reject the null
hypothesis, then the test is one tailed

Eg: H0 : 1 = 2

H1 : 1 < 2
 or

H0 : 1 = 2

H1 : 1 > 2

α = 0.05 (two tailed) , any significant difference H1 : 1 ≠ 2

α = 0.025 (one tailed) , H1 : 1 < 2 (increase) and H1 : 1 > 2 (decrease)

Parametric and non parametric tests

Parametric tests

When population parameters are completely known the researcher can use parametric tests.
To carry out parametric tests the data should meet certain characteristics, generally termed as
assumptions.

1. Normality : the data should follow normal distribution

2. Homogeneity of variances: data in the different groups need to have equal variance
and the same standard deviation
3. Interval or ratio scale: data should be continuous measured in interval or ratio scale ,
usually measured in mean
4. Independent observations: observations are independent

Non parametric tests

When population parameters are not known, the researcher can use nonparametric test. It is
also called distribution free test because it does not assume that the data follows a specific
distribution

Assumptions:

1. When data do not follow any specific distribution

2. Data is measured on any scale
3. Usually data is represented by median

The most commonly used parametric tests are “t” and Z and the non- parametric test is
chi-square test (χ 2 )
Differences between parametric and nonparametric tests

Basis for comparison Parametric test Nonparametric test

Meaning A statistical test in which A statistical test in which no
specific assumptions are specific assumptions are
made about the population made about the population
parameter parameter
Basis of test statistic uses normal probability The distribution is arbitrary
distribution
Level of measurement Interval or ratio Nominal or ordinal
Measure of central tendency Mean median
Information about population Required Not required
Statistical power More powerful Less powerful
Example t-test Chi-square

Steps in testing a hypothesis

Step 1: state null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis

Step 2: decide the test criterion and find the test statistic

Step 3: Using degrees of freedom and significance level, find the table value

Step 4: compare calculated value and table value and take the decision

If the calculated value > table value, reject the null hypothesis