Mineral Resource Modelling

and Reconciliation in Ultra Deep

Underground Gold Mines
R C A Minnitt1, T Hewitt2, B Lavery3 and A Johnston4

ABSTRACT
The Witwatersrand Supergroup is host to the world’s largest gold deposits. The location, quantity,
grade, continuity and other geological characteristics of a Mineral Resource are either known,
estimated from specific geological evidence and knowledge, or interpreted from a well constrained
and portrayed geological model. Establishing such a model is an integral part of the evaluation
process in the Anglogold Ashanti (AGA) group, and is referred to as a Geoscience Business
Model for the mining operations. The geological model established over the years has relied on
detailed descriptions of the mineralisation, and understanding of the regional and local geology
of the Witwatersrand sediments, in the West Wits and Free State goldfields. The processes of data
collection in regard to underground stope and developing mapping, structural and sedimentological
mapping, and the geological inputs to mine planning systems are described, together with aspects
of drilling, sampling, grade control, and data management. Anglogold Ashanti’s Geoscience
Department employs a complex and unique process to generate the Mineral Resource, including
a 3D geological structure model of the orebodies which are usually highly faulted, and a robust
mineralisation/facies model on which the decisions about domain boundaries are established.
A Mineral Resource Inventory System (MRIS) has a dynamic graphic interface to the resource
database that is used for compiling the resource statement. It is also used to determine the
gold-called-for, as well as short and long-term planning. A unique estimation process using the
extensive closely spaced stope face sampling database and the more widely spaced surface drilling
information is used in combination in the Macro Co-Kriging estimation. The use of different
support sizes in the C0-Kriging process is preceded by the equally unique ‘clusterisation’ and
‘acceptorisation’ procedures by which the data are quality controlled and assured prior to their use
in the kriging process. The Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve estimates are classified according to
the SAMREC code through a method that ensures that they are compliant, auditable, transparent
and reconcilable with previous Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve statements.

INTRODUCTION
Role of geoscience
The early 1990s marked a changing paradigm for the way
in which management viewed their business process in the
extraction of deep level gold deposits in the Witwatersrand
Basin. The importance of integrating the contributions
from each of the functions and service departments became
increasingly clear and the concept of Mineral Resource
Management (MRM) in its earliest forms began to emerge.
This new view on the way extraction of the orebody could
be optimised was driven by the idea that shareholder value
was to be maximised. It sought to break down the strong
partitions between the various mining functions and service
departments with the aim of creating an integrated, seamless
management process in which each function understood the
context of their contribution and the relevance of their inputs
to the business process. Aspects of the continuity and the
importance of levels of input into the evaluation process have
evolved over a period of time and in the AGA group is now
referred to as a Geoscience Business Model for the mining
operations as shown in Figure 1 (Kennedy, 2009a). Even
the term ‘geoscience’ and its usage is a product of the MRM
process and the newly emerging ‘Mineral Asset Management’
concepts.
Geoscience is employed principally to integrate the data
accumulated from underground observation and mapping
into coherent and congruent information within the so-
called ‘Geoscience Business Model’ (GBM), by which the best

1. JCI Professor of Mineral Resources and Reserves, School of Mining Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS 2050, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa.
Email: Richard.Minnitt@wits.ac.za
2. Vice President Geosciences, SA Region, AngloGold Ashanti Limited, Private Bag X2051, Carletonville 2500, Republic of South Africa. Email: THewitt@anglogoldashanti.com
3. Technical Manager Geosciences SA Division, AngloGold Ashanti Limited, Private Bag X2051, Carletonville 2500, Republic of South Africa. Email: BLavery@anglogoldashanti.com
4. Operational Manager Geosciences, AngloGold Ashanti Limited, Private Bag X2051, Carletonville 2500, Republic of South Africa. Email: AJohnston@anglogoldashanti.com

EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011 15
R C A MINNITT et al
FIG 1 - Development and inputs to the Geoscience Business Model for Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve prediction (after Kennedy, 2010).
decisions in regard to the future extraction of the gold bearing
ore are made. The GBM describes the steps taken from the
acquisition of raw data, through processing, interpretation and
modelling, to communication of relevant information about
the geological model for the orebody and the predictions about
Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves as indicated in Figure 1
(Kennedy, 2007; Gaelejwe, Kennedy and van der Merwe,
2011). New aspects of the sedimentological environment,
structural setting and events, pay trends, channel directions,
their projected extensions, and the distribution of gold, is
revealed with each new face exposed as a result of the previous
blast. By analysing, interpreting and plotting these data on
appropriate plans Geoscience is able to provide ongoing, up
to date information to mine planning personnel and mine
management who are the able to control mining operations
on a day to day basis as part of the monthly planning cycle and
that is used in projections for longer-term planning.
Apart from geological input at both the monthly planning
and scrutiny meetings, geologists provide a professional
service by making swift and correct, day-to-day production-
related decisions. Typically, because production from an
area is stalled until he makes a decision, the geologist is
required to provide guidance as to what the mining teams
should do when a stope has intersected a fault. At other
times the determination of the size and distribution of reef
polygons for the estimation of Mineral Resources may be his
responsibility. With this there is a considerable spectrum of
confidence and associated risk that the practice of geoscience
must accommodate depending on the quality and quantity of
available information that informs decisions.
Geoscience has traditionally been seen as a service
department whose critical outputs from the Business Process
to the mining, survey, and planning functions include the
provision of contoured 3D reef and structural surfaces for
Rock Engineering, Planning and Mining personnel, 2D plans
and sections for mining personnel, and reef polygons and
Geozones for the Mineral Resource Inventory System (MRIS).
Traditionally, the mining disciplines in particular, have relied
on hardcopy 2D plans and sections for their planning, but
16 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
they are encouraged to work directly in a 3D computer-based
geological modelling environment, with the guarantee that
2D plans can be generated from the 3D models as required.
However, it is essential that these outputs be recognised as
the product of a fuller, broader, and holistic understanding
of the geological orebody model. The model is the integrated
product of different geoscience related disciplines and
includes geological (geozone), structural, geotechnical, and
geophysical components.
The integrity of this model depends on the continuous
coordinated shared responsibility amongst the geoscience
team in relation to the inputs and husbanding of the business
process. This activity is predicated by the requirement that all
the primary raw data, including sedimentological features,
structural mapping and measurements, borehole core
logging, geotechnical information including rock quality and
mesostructural density, as well as the relationships between
the events (timing), be collected, recorded, interpreted, and
applied with the highest degree of integrity. This assumes of
course that the data is appropriate, sufficient, and correct for
the task at hand. Scientifically based best-practice geoscience
supported by the available data is the only basis for consistent
and reliable mine planning. Furthermore, it is only by
interaction with the mine planning and production teams that
the value and importance of geoscience outputs are recognised
and that the need for and location of, additional work within
a given time frame can be identified. It is therefore incumbent
upon the Geoscience Technical Office (GTO) to efficiently
perform a wide range of tasks, from basic underground
mapping, through proficiency in the use of sophisticated
computer programs, to the writing of reports (Gaelejwe,
Kennedy and van der Merwe, 2011).
The quality of geoscience information management and
outputs is a direct function of the knowledge, experience, skills,
and competency of the geologists involved in contributing to
the business process. While sound scientific principles and
understanding of local and regional conditions is essential,
the old adage that ‘the best geologist is the one who has seen
the most rocks’ holds true for every mining operation. In
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES

Wits-type placer gold deposits the most valuable members

of the team will be those who over the years have gained the
deeper insights and understanding of the orebody that can
only come through careful, reasoned, consistent observation
over lengthy periods of time. It may be that the value of the
experienced geologist arises from an intuitive knowledge
that only develops as a result of continuous work in a given
geological environment, rather than a studied understanding
of books and manuals.
A series of standards and procedures covering mining
methods and terminology, rock mechanics, mine survey
department, communications, underground mapping
procedures, underground structural mapping, sedimenta-
logical underground mapping, plotting and presentation
of data, mine planning, underground geological and cover
drilling, sampling and grade control, mineral resources and
ore reserves, the life-of-mine (LOM) plan, compilation of the
mine’s total resources, and mine valuation, are implemented
through formal training in data collection.These provide 
rules, guidelines, and well-established best practice in
all aspects of the business process, for consistency and
FIG 2 - Location of Anglogold Ashanti’s South African operations, Vaal River and
auditability. They also form part of quality assurance and
West Wits operations in two geographical regions in the Witwatersrand Basin.
are intimately linked to training, mentoring, and Process
(Source: AngloGold Ashanti, 2007.)
Compliance Reports. It is these standards and procedures
that are described in some detail in the following sections.
namely, the Vaal Reef (VR) and a less important reef known as
AngloGold Ashanti operations in South Africa the Crystalkop Reef (C Reef). In order of importance, the reefs
Until recently, when the Tau Lekoa mine was disposed of, mined at the Vaal River operations are the VR and the C Reef:
AGA operated seven South African gold mining operations, all The Vaal Reef comprises about 85 per cent of the
located in the Witwatersrand Supergroup, the greatest gold- reserve tonnage at mining grades between 10 g/t
bearing repository on Earth. The operations are grouped in
and 20 g/t gold and comprises a series of oligomictic
two localities in the Carletonville and Klerksdorp goldfields
conglomerates and quartzite packages developed on
shown in Figure 2.
successive non-conformities (AGA, 2007).
The West Wits operations include the Mponeng, Savuka
and TauTona mines all situated near the town of Carletonville,
and the Vaal River operations include Great Noligwa, GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Kopanang and Moab Khotsong mines, as shown in Figure 3.
These gold deposits occur along the north western rim of the
Regional geology
Witwatersrand Basin near the base of the so-called Central The Witwatersrand Supergroup is contained within the so-
Rand Group, and are all located on the regionally extensive called Witwatersrand Basin and comprises a 7 km thick
Carbon Leader Reef (CLR) and the Ventersdorp Contact Reef sequence of predominantly argillaceous and arenaceous
(VCR). Savuka and Tau Tona which began mining in 1964 are sediments that extend laterally for some 300 km northeast/
virtually exhausted, and current production from Mponeng southwest and 100 km northwest/southeast on the Kaapvaal
comes only from the VCR, but an announcement was recently Craton as shown in Figure 4 (McCarthy and Rubidge, 2005;
made (27 May 2011) of the company’s intention to mine the AGA, 2007). Eight distinct gold fields have been developed
CLR at this locality. around the northeastern, northern, north-western, and south-
The Vaal River operations include Great Noligwa, Kopanang western perimeter of the Witwatersrand basin as shown in
and Moab Khotsong mines (Figure 3), that exploit two reefs Figure 4. The regional and local geology of the Witwatersrand

FIG 3 - Location of the AngloGold Ashanti mines in the West Wits and Vaal River areas. (Source: AngloGold Ashanti, 2007.)

EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011 17
R C A MINNITT et al
FIG 4 - The location of the Witwatersrand Supergroup on the Kaapvaal Craton and the location of the main gold fields at the base of the Central Rand Group.
(Source: McCarthy and Rubidge, 2005, used with permission.)
and its contained gold deposits are described in many
publications including those of Antrobus (1986), Frimmel and
Minter (2002), Frimmel et al (2005), and Law and Phillips
(2005). The exploration and mining history is summarised by
Fox (2002).
The Witwatersrand Supergroup is divided into a lower West
Rand Group and an upper Central Rand Group the latter
containing the bulk of the gold mineralisation near the base in
laterally-extensive, quartz pebble conglomerate reefs. Further
west, south and east the basin is overlain by up to 4 km of
Archaean, Proterozoic and Mesozoic volcanic and sedimentary
rocks. The Witwatersrand Basin is late Archaean in age and is
considered to be around 2.7 billion to 2.8 billion years old.
The reefs, which are usually less than a metre thick, were
deposited onto vast rivierine plains that through constant
winnowing gave rise to the laterally extensive braided fluvial
deposits (McCarthy and Rubidge, 2005; AGA, 2007). Separate
fan systems were developed at different entry points and these
are preserved as the eight distinct goldfields, each with local
geological variations (Figure 4).
The basin and its contained sediments constitute well-
defined, consistently developed sedimentary successions that
are remarkable in their stratigraphic continuity, stretching
almost 600 km around the perimeter of the basin, a feature
even more remarkable when it is noted that the general
structural setting of very early sedimentary basins is considered
(Anhaeusser, 1978), to be tectonically unstable. The structural
setting of the Witwatersrand basin is described by Jolley et al,
(2004) who note that many of the important faults have been
active not only during sedimentation, but have continued to
accommodate movements well after deposition. A point well
made by Vann et al (2009), is that the tectonic setting of the
deposits is remarkable:
18 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
... with the shallowly dipping conglomerate horizons
hosting the gold deposits constituting thin layers
(generally <15-100 cm, though locally several metres)
of tremendous lateral continuity (> tens of kilometres).
This they note impacts the resource estimation process
because the deposits have proved themselves to be laterally
extensive 2D sheet whose continuity allows the geology
between widely spaced drill sites to be safely assumed, with
the caveat that post depositional structural movements at a
regional scale have disrupted this continuity. They also note
that the continuity together with the depths of these deposits,
greater than 5 km for the CLR, allows them to be drilled
out on spacing’s that are wider than any other metalliferous
mineral deposits in the world. Added to this is the continuity
in terms of thickness, lithology, and gold mineralisation of
the conglomeratic units. The sedimentary environment that
could produce such thin, but such consistently developed and
mineralised conglomeratic units over such vast areas, in the
relatively short space of time (2.90 to 2.78 Ga from the base to
the top of the Central Rand Group), and equivalent to a sheet
of tissue paper spread over seven adjoining rugby fields, still
remains to be convincingly described.
Local geology
The two primary reefs exploited at the West Wits operations
are the VCR, located at the top of the Central Rand Group,
and the Carbon Leader Reef (CLR) near its base, along
two notable stratigraphic unconformities. The separation
between the two reefs increases from east to west, from
400 m - 900 m, due to the non-conformity of the VCR with
the underlying strata (Figure 5). TauTona and Savuka extract
both reefs, while currently Mponeng only mines the VCR. The
CLR Project has been published as a reserve and Mponeng,
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES


FIG 5 - Schematic section through the Tau Tona shaft system showing the dip and separation between the Ventersdorp Contact Reef and the Carbon Leader.
(Source: AngloGold Ashanti, 2007.)

as has been confirmed, will mine both reefs. The structure
is relatively simple, with rare instances of faults displaying
more than 70 m of displacement. The reefs are relatively
deep, thin and stratiform, and have been subjected to several
periods of deformation, resulting in discontinuous fault- or
dyke-bounded reef blocks. At a gross scale the CLR is a 20 cm
thick mineralised, tabular gold-bearing quartz-conglomerate,
consisting of one or more conglomerate units varying from
several centimetres to more than 3 m in thickness (AGA,
2007). It is overlain by a distinctive and reliable shaley
chloritoid marker unit known as the ‘Green bar’ which
uniquely identifies the stratigraphic position of the CLR in
core or in underground exposures (Fletcher, 2009; Vann
et al, 2009). The current understanding of the geological
setting of the CLR is the product of intense long-term scientific
study. The internal subtleties of facies and sedimentology are
the subject of competent ongoing geological study and, at the
level required for resource estimation.
Regionally, the VCR dips at approximately 21°, but may vary
between 5° and 50°, accompanied by changes in thickness
of the conglomerate units. Where the conglomerate has the
attitude of the regional dip, it tends to be thick, well-developed
and accompanied by higher gold accumulations. Where the
attitude departs significantly from the regional dip, the reef
is thin, and varies from several centimetres to more than 3 m
in thickness.
Within the VCR several distinct facies have been identified,
each with its own unique gold distribution and grade
characteristic. Generally the grade of the VCR is lower than
that of the VR, and contains approximately 15 per cent of the
estimated Ore Reserves. The payable reef is concentrated

FIG 6 - Geology and structure of the Shaft Pillar area of the Kopanang mine. (Source: AngloGold Ashanti, 2007.)

EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011 19
R C A MINNITT et al
in the western part of the lease area and takes the form of a
massive conglomerate, a pyritic sand unit with intermittent
pebble layers, or a thin conglomerate horizon (AGA, 2007).
The VCR is located up to 1 km above the VR (Figure 6) at
the contact between the sediments of the Witwatersrand
Super Group and the overlying Klipriviersberg Lavas of the
Ventersdorp Super Group, creating a distinctive seismic
reflector. The C Reef is a thin, small-pebble conglomerate
with a carbon-rich basal contact, located approximately 270
m above the VR. It has less than one per cent of the estimated
Ore Reserves with gold grades similar to those of the VR, but
with less continuity. The most significant structural features
are the subvertical, north-east striking normal faults which
dip to the north-west and south-east, resulting in zones of
fault loss (AGA, 2007).
Large scale regional faulting mainly with subvertical
normal throws (Figure 7), at the time of basin formation, as
well as during and after sedimentation, has influenced the
distribution of the CLR. Numerous post-depositional dykes cut
the mineralised strata and in some cases have accommodated
faulting as well. Dykes display predominantly northeast-
FIG 7 - The orientation and distribution of dykes and faults in the Savuka-Tau
Tona area. (Source: Deysel, 2009.)
 stages in the including digenesis phyllonitic alteration, a
FIG 8 - Isometric view of Savuka shaft systems and 100 level, showing the
different Intrusives that occur in the area. (Source: AngloGold Ashanti 2010.)
20 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
southwest orientations, but may include some northwest-
southeast trends as shown in Figure 8. Three-dimensional
modelling of the structures and dykes is advanced, and
the locations and interpretations are constantly updated
via underground mapping and are utilised in the resource
estimation process (Orton and Burnett, 2008; Burnett and
Armstrong, 2009).
Mineralisation
The value and importance of the CLR and the VCR means
they have been the focus of extensive research in regard to
their structural setting, sedimentology, facies modelling,
hydrothermal alteration identification of geozones, domain
modelling, and gold distribution. The complexities that have
emerged as a result of the research means that any attempt
to apply a simple across the board model to the origins of the
orebodies is an injustice to the many hours and studies that have
been applied to these reefs. Two things are, however, evident:
firstly, that the host conglomerate bands in the case of the CLR,
were deposited in a channelised sedimentary environment
comprising up to four different facies, and secondly, that
the carbon and the gold mineralisation show clear evidence
of staged hydrothermal introduction/redistribution. This
event is evidenced by a suite of highly aluminous phyllonitic
mineral assemblages indicative of propylitic (chloritoid and
chlorite), phyllic (pyrophyllite and sericite), and potassic
(sericite and pyrite) silicate alteration, significantly later
than the periods of sedimentation. Nonetheless, the most
fundamental determinant of gold distribution in the basin
remains the sedimentary features, such as facies variations
and channel directions. Gold generally occurs in native form
often associated with pyrite and carbon, with quartz being the
main gangue mineral (AGA, 2007).
The origins of the gold in the Witwatersrand Basin is
still a topic of ongoing debate with a strong distinction
between those who believe the gold was deposited with the
conglomerates at the time of sedimentation (placerists), and
those hydrothermalists supporting the epigenetic origin of
gold, believing that the gold was hydrothermally introduced
after the sediments had been lithified (Barnicoat et al, 1998,
Law and Philips, 2005; Frimmel and Minter, 2002; Frimmel
et al, 2005; Deysel, 2009; Frith, 2009a; Frith, 2009c; Watts
2005a;Watts, 2005b). While the paragenetic sequencing of the
gold mineralisation in the Witwatersrand Goldfields generally,
and the CLR specifically is unlikely to be resolved soon, some
have adopted the middle ground (modified placerists), and
believe that the gold may have been introduced with the
sediments, but that a distinctive overprint on the rocks and
the mineralisation is indicative of subsequent reworking by
hydrothermal fluids (McCarthy and Rubidge, 2005).
Deysel (2009) has shown that the trends of higher grade gold
zones which could be interpreted as indicative of sedimentary
channelling does not correlate with the Facies model, and
overall that within the CLR there is no direct relationship
between value distribution and sedimentology. Frith (2009b)
also challenges the traditional placer model and provides
convincing evidence indicating that neither gold nor uranium
were part of the detrital heavy mineral suite. In detailed
studies of the CLR that compiled information from borehole
core, underground mapping, conglomerate sedimentology,
thin sections, fluid inclusions, polished sections, and studies
of hydrothermal alteration, Frith (2009d), identified four
stage of mineralisation, and a stage of post-mineralisation
alteration and structural overprints. The suggested model for
the present-day gold distribution is the result of the interaction
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES
between gold-bearing hydrothermal fluids and mature placer
conglomerates, in which basin-wide high-temperature
hydrothermal fluids (~3700C), transgress stratigraphy,
migrating through structurally-controlled pathways,
fractures, and permeable conglomerates, precipitating gold in
suitable sites, notably brittle micro-fractures and flat carbon
veins. Jolley et al (2004) in related studies suggest significant
structural controls on the distribution of gold in the CLR.
At thin-section to meso-scale gold is frequently
associated with hydrocarbons in fractures. These
fractures are interpreted to be related to thrust-
fracture networks with, predominantly, very
small displacements since many structures exploit
depositional contacts and sedimentary bedding
(Vann, 2009, p 26).
While the post-depositional paragenesis is complex, there
is no consistent agreement that the uraninite originated
as part of the detrital heavy mineral suite. Carbon is later
than uranium and earlier than gold (Frith, 2009d), with
broad agreement that hydrocarbon is a later component
of hydrothermal activity rather than a fossilised algal mat
(Nagy, 1977; Pretorius, 1981) as previously postulated. Gold is
spatially associated with carbon and, in places, uranium, but
the correlation between gold with zirconium and rutile, used
to suggest that gold was a heavy mineral detrital component,
is weak.
Several clear generations of pyrite, the predominant sulfide
associated with the conglomerate bands, are evident although
pyrite in the initial stages is considered to be detrital. Gold
usually occurs as part of the matrix in association with pyrite
and carbonaceous material in fractures. An example of the
well mineralised No 1 facies of the CLR is shown in Figure 9.
Although the debate relating to the origins and paragenetic
sequencing of the minerals may not materially impact on
the distribution of gold at mining and resource estimation
scales, there have been recent calls Vann et al (2009), for
stronger linkages between geological understanding and the
domaining decisions.
DATA COLLECTION AND MANAGEMENT
Underground mapping procedures
Geoscience mapping on an operating deep level gold
mine involves qualitative and quantitative recording of
sedimentalogical and structural data including lithological,
mineralogical and alteration features. Since the plotting and
interpretation of geological observation and measurement
provides the geological framework within which all other mine
planning, mining, development, and extraction activity takes
place, geological mapping is amongst the most important
activities on a mine and must be carried out at the highest
FIG 9 - Intersection of the Carbon Leader Reef No 1 facies in borehole LIB120 SE Original (1504 cmg/t) with sulfides concentrated in the matrix around grain boundaries.
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
possible standard. Proficiency at basic mapping methods is
the primary skill of a geologist and the principle contribution
to the running of a successful mining operation.
All underground excavations and development provide
excellent exposures of the stratigraphy and structures
allowing the geologists to map the lithologies, describe the
sedimentology, and interpret the nature and directions of
fault or tectonic movements. Where reef is exposed samples of
the reef will also provide an indication of the grade of the reef.
Such consistent and diligent attention to the accumulation
of geological detail provides the basis for a comprehensive
understanding of the geological framework and setting
(MOGD6, 1998).
Development and stope mapping
Underground geological mapping involves representing
the 3D environment, as well as conveying all the relevant
information, identification and location of geological
features, on a flat piece of paper. Survey pegs, with or without
associated line pegs, in development tunnels and stopes are
precisely located by x,y and z coordinates, and act as reference
points from which the location of all other features may be
determined.
The best opportunity to map a clean, wet sidewall is as soon
after exposure as possible. The key principle in all geological
mapping is do it right first time, as having to go back and
re-map the area wastes time and exposures may be covered
by then. The scale at which the rocks are mapped will govern
the amount of detail you can record on the map. Information
recorded in a notebook, but not transferred to the permanent
record is wasted effort, but each geologist must have
methodical way of making records in the notebook.
The implications of what is being mapped must be uppermost
in the geologists mind so that unexpected changes in lithology,
sedimentology, and structure are recorded. Furthermore the
face of the development tunnel must be examined and the
developer should be told first-hand what potential or actual
geological problems are present. The data acquisition and
capture process for development mapping is illustrated in
Figure 10. The data is mapped by the geologist and plotted
on the 1:200 sheets, and if necessary a raise report may also
be generated. The senior geologist will check and comment
on the report and sent to the draughtsperson for capture into
the CADS Mine system after it has been signed off. The Rise
Report will then be circulated to the relevant departments and
filed in the geoscience department for future reference. The
principle objectives in stope mapping are to:
 to identify and record the positions of faults, dykes, and
structural disturbances of the reef so that the nature of the
feature can be projected ahead of the immediate face;
21
R C A MINNITT et al

FIG 10 - Data acquisition and capturing for development mapping.

 to record the thickness and nature of the reef so that
sedimentological trends can be delineated and later
reconciled with sampling data;
 to record thicknesses of the various units exposed, such as
reef, hangingwall and footwall, to enable the geologically
recommended stope width to be determined;
 to record and bring to the attention of the mining
department any areas where reef remains in the hanging-
or footwall of the stope; and
 to record the presence, thickness and nature of carbon and
alteration products.
Although the principles of stope mapping are essentially
the same as those applicable to development mapping, there
are important differences. These arise from a relative lack of
survey pegs and working conditions which may be cramped
and ‘unclean’ yet laterally extensive. Having mapped the
outline of the stope face in plan, specific geological features
are located by offsetting from the base tape. Features such
faults, dykes, and reef left in the footwall or hanging wall, as
well as the irregularities in an unfaulted reef sections, must
also be recorded (MOGD6, 1998).
Mapping records in wet strength underground notebooks
should be neat and systematic, with the fundamental rule
being to keep plans and sections related. A large amount
of detail can be recorded on plans recorded to scale, and
transposing data from the notebook to the permanent
record is a simple matter; the data acquisition and capture
for the stope mapping process is schematically illustrated in
Figure 11. Underground mapping is followed by the creation
of a stope report that is printed, checked, and commented
on. Once the document has been signed off by the senior
geologist, it is digitised into a stope mapping file which can be
updated as structural information becomes available for that
area (MOGD6, 1998).

FIG 11 - Data acquisition and capture for the stope mapping process.

22 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES
Structural mapping
The cost of a single metre of underground development
is exorbitant so it is imperative that detailed and accurate
knowledge of the morphology and structure of the orebody
is available so that the Witwatersrand-type orebodies can be
extracted cost effectively. Up to date mapping of all inclined
and flat development and the transfer of this information onto
the 1:200 and 1:1000 scale maps and sections, is vital to the
smooth running of the operation. While the detailed mapping
must be detailed, accurate, and factual, the structural
interpretation may be a more subjective and iterative process,
by which the orebody model is continuously updated as new
structural information becomes available. It is unlikely that
interpolated and extrapolated lines are accurate enough for
detailed planning of underground development. Changes to
models and plans must be communicated to the survey and
mining departments together with any information regarding
the implications of these changes (MOGD6, 1998).
Sedimentalogical mapping
Describing and recording sedimentological features is the
basis of reliable maps from which sedimentological models,
including host rock characteristics and exploration guidelines
can be constructed. Detailed descriptions of macro-features
and exposures of the reef and enclosing sediments provide
the data from which the models are compiled and then
tested against actual experience as the mining operations
advance. Accurate, consistent, and standardised descriptions
of the sedimentary units are the only way that continuity
and succession of the sedimentological data base can
be maintained. Sedimentological mapping should take
place at the same time as normal development and stope
mapping. Sedimentological information should be collected
as frequently as required to present an accurate picture of
the variations, in reef or sediment. The aim is to capture
information that contributes to the overall understanding of
the sedimentological environment.
Sedimentary features that should be routinely examined
include the thickness, nature of upper and lower contacts,
the gross lithology with modifiers, the grain size, the colour,
and the textural and mineralogical maturity. The type, size,
and orientation of sedimentary structures such as channel
edges, trough and planar cross beds, plane bedding, and
scour surfaces, should all be noted, together with any lateral
variations in thickness or lithology. Accumulations of pyrite,
carbon, and gold should also be noted. Washing the face off and
marking sedimentary features such as scours, channel edges,
and other sedimentary structures is essential (MOGD8, 1998).
Description of the sediments
Grain and particle size of the components of the sediment is
done in terms of the Udden-Wentworth scale. This is important
because some reefs have shown a correlation between pebble
size and gold content. Descriptions of different clast packing
densities (CPD) are limited to four categories, namely:
1. Clast supported conglomerate: conglomerate with a modal
packing density higher than 55 per cent. The sides of the
majority of clasts will be touching one another.
2. Matrix supported conglomerate: conglomerate with a
modal packing density between 40 per cent and 55 per
cent clasts. The majority of clasts will be separated from
the other clasts by the matrix.
3. Pebbly quartzite: quartzite with 20 per cent to 40 per cent
pebbles.
4. Quartzite with scattered pebbles: less than 20 per cent
pebbles.
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
Accurate descriptions of almost any mixture of packing
densities is possible by combining these terms, ie 40 cm clast
supported conglomerate grading up to pebbly quartzite for
top 30 cm.
The measure of textural sorting is the spread of the particle
size on either side of the average. Very well sorted sediments
have a low standard deviation about the mean grain size,
whereas poorly sorted sediments have a high standard
deviation. Maturity of sediments may be measured in terms
of either mineralogy, or the degree of sorting and grain shape,
but these two aspects are related, since sedimentary processes
that mature sediments, also concentrate the gold.
The major reef horizons are mature conglomerates on
unconformities. Conglomerates are described as oligomictic
if they consists of mineralogically similar clast-types such
as quartz, chert, and orthoquartzite. If a second clast-type,
usually one of the non-durable varieties, constitutes more
than two per cent of the clast population, the conglomerate
is referred to as polymictic. The texture and maturity of the
sediment provides a visual guide to the effectiveness of the
transport mechanism in sorting and abrading the sediment,
and the effectiveness of the gold concentrating processes
(MOGD8, 1998).
Pyrite and carbon
The type, distribution, and amount of pyrite in a conglomerate
or quartzite is often, but not always positively correlated with
the amount of gold and uranium. Detrital pyrite is concentrated
by sedimentary processes and comprises rounded grains, 1
mm to several centimetres in diameter, the grain size being
a very sensitive downstream indicator. Broken surfaces of
detrital grains may be amorphous (dull) to crystalline (shiny),
but secondary, euhedral and crystalline pyrite referred to as
authigenic, is considered to have formed in situ. The heavy
detrital pyrite is concentrated towards the base of a graded
sequence, on scour surfaces or on pyrite foresets; it may on
occasion be evenly distributed in the matrix.
Fly-speck and columnar carbon are the two varieties
that occur near the base of the conglomerate units, and are
often hosts to higher grades of gold. Visible gold is common
in columnar carbon, but very difficult to see elsewhere in
underground light conditions. The most likely places to see
gold are in concentrations of detrital pyrite and on scours.
Sulfides such as chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, etc
quite commonly occur in reef horizons in minor amounts as
secondary minerals (MOGD8, 1998).
Recognition of bedding features
Bedding features are the bounds to similar sediments, they
can be used to determine the flow direction, and they are the
main indicators of the method of sediment deposition and
the flow regime. The sorting effect occurs when sand grains
move because the combined lift and drag forces of the flowing
water exceed the gravitational and cohesive forces between
sediment particles. Gold is concentrated as grains with higher
specific gravity require greater forces to move them than low
specific gravity grains. Bedforms, including current ripples,
dunes, upper phase beds and antidunes, are produced in
streams with different velocities by moving sand grains. These
Bedforms are transient features that migrate downstream and
are only preserved if they are buried or the velocity decreases.
A section through a bedform usually displays internal bedding
from top to bottom as shown in Figure 12.
The principle objective of sedimentological mapping is to
record local variations in the reef and characteristics that affect
23
R C A MINNITT et al
FIG 12 - Longitudinal cross-section through a trough cross bedded unit.
FIG 13 - Transverse cross-section through a trough cross bedded unit.
the grade distribution. Variations in reef thickness, percentage
conglomerate, the nature of the clasts, gross lithology, and the
quantities of pyrite and carbon are important. Longitudinal
and transverse sections through trough cress bedded units are
shown in Figures 12 and 13, respectively (MOGD8, 1998).
Paleocurrent directions should be measured whenever
possible using either offsets or a compass, since they provide
the means by which sedimentological and associated gold
distribution trends can be defined and projected. Channel
edges and scours exposed in reef drives and raises are the most
reliable way of obtaining paleocurrent directions (MOGD8,
1998).
Plotting and presentation of data
Geological information gathered from underground is
recorded on plans and sections that form the basis for mine
planning and future development. The quality of the geological
plans and sections, and the ability to project anticipated
trends for mine planning purposes depends on standardised,
systematic, and high standard plotting and presentation of
information. This involves aspects of survey, 1:200 plans and
sections, 1:1000 plans and sections, the use of colour standards
and symbols, indexing, and filing. In the scattered mining
system commonly used on AGA mines development mapping
is done on 1:200 plans and sections that are the source from
which all other geological maps are compiled. The importance
of keeping such development sheets up to date is essential to
the value of the work, especially when the mining teams need
swift decisions about issues that affect production.
Mine plans are based on a rectilinear coordinate grid that is
part of the South African Co-ordinate system, and fixed datum
24 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
from which elevations are measured. The grid is based on the
Gauss Conform Projection (Transverse Mercator Projection)
consisting of belts 20 of longitude wide, orientated north-
south. The odd numbered meridians are used as the central
meridian for each belt and this identify the belt, eg Lo 150,
Lo 230, and Lo 270. X coordinates increase towards the south
from zero at the equator, and Y coordinates increase towards
the west from the central meridian. Elevations are related
to a zero datum at 1828.8 metres above mean sea level, an
approximate metric conversion from the original imperial
datum of 6000 feet (MOGD9, 1998).
Geological information is presented in standardised 1:200
development plans for each mine, and indicate the position
and orientation of geological features such as marker
beds, faults and dykes. Every 1:200 plan is accompanied
by a section of the area showing the stratigraphic units and
sedimentary facies as well as the geological configuration of
bedding and structural elements such as faults and dykes. A
profile of the reef sedimentology is usually shown above the
1:200 sections at an exaggerated vertical scale of 1:20 or 1:50
showing the units comprising the profile, their thickness, and
the correlation between adjacent profiles (Figure 21).
The 1:1000 scale plans produced by mine survey departments
show the mine coordinate grid, shafts, development, the
current outlines of stope face with dates, and the compilation
and interpretation of limited, but significant geological data.
Such information includes stratigraphic, structural, and
sedimentological data, surface and underground geological
boreholes and cover holes. Reef structure plans show the
occurrence, elevation, and structure contours (Figure 13) of
the reef plane which is split up by fault-reef intersection lines.
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES
Areas between the fault-reef intersections on the up-dip and
down thrown sides of the fault being a reef loss or reef gain,
depending on whether the fault is normal or reversed. Dykes
are common on the gold mines and may or may not include a
displacement.
All sampling is electronically compiled and colour coded on
1:1000 ‘grade plans’ showing sedimentological boundaries,
channel edges, paleocurrent directions and pebble sizes. The
combination of grade distribution and geological features
provide valuable information regarding controls on gold
distribution for ore reserve estimation. For medium and long-
term planning over the complete mine or regions covering
several shafts, plans and sections at a smaller scale, 1:5000,
or 1:30000 are commonly used. The smaller the scale the
less the amount of detail but important regional structural
and sedimentological features can be represented (MOGD9,
1998).
Interpreting and applying data
The importance of interpreting and applying the outcomes of
sedimentological studies is crucial to the estimation of Mineral
Resources and Ore Reserves, especially since the application
of geostatistical techniques to evaluation of the reefs depends
on the ability to correctly identify and separate the reefs into
different facies or domains that display the same variance
in gold distribution. For example the gold distribution
in the highly channelised reefs currently being mined is
highly variable, compared to the more consistent sheet-type
reefs that were mined when the gold mines were first being
developed (AGA, 1998). Interpretation of sedimentary and
facies variations at a stope scale are important to predicting
grade and assist with local evaluation of the reef, whereas
exploration and development to access future reserves is
the aim of mine-scale sedimentology. At a regional scale the
end use of sedimentary studies would be to decipher the
stratigraphy and to identify as yet unrecognised gold- bearing
units. Sedimentological data from off-reef exposures should
not be overlooked, since these data may provide important
insights into why reef horizons are better developed in some
places, and into paleocurrent directions. This is especially
true while knowledge is being accumulated and consolidated
in potential reef horizons and in the early stages of production
on newly exposed reefs.
Geological input to mine planning systems
The progressive exposures of new rock faces as a result of
production provide a wealth of information about the mine
sedimentology, structure, pay trends, channel directions, their
projected extensions, and gold distribution. This information,
managed and provided through the GTO, constitutes the basic
information in support of mine planning and closely involves
The mine planning process.
Decision level Decision made
Board Strategic decision to be in the gold mining business.
Corporate Strategic planning decision to allocate resources to exploration.
Divisional Decision to open new mine. Allocate resources to new mine.
Life of mine strategy decided. Five year plan evolved.
Regional
Two-year plans evolved.
Six month plans.
Mine
Monthly plan.
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
geologists having a full appreciation of the extraction process
and mining layouts. Detailed scheduling of the work and
methods required to achieve the proposed production and
exploration targets, includes decisions about who will do the
work and the resources needed to do it. The strategic planning
process, its hierarchy of objectives and structure down to
basic mine planning operations shown in Table 1, is essential
to optimising geological input. The mine planning process is
discussed in terms of geological input into planning systems
at the strategic, five-year, two-year, six-month, and monthly
levels (MODG10, 1998).
Geologists are called on to provide information to assist with
day-to-day decisions regarding problems that arise during
production. Their inputs are used for day-to-day control of
mining operations during monthly planning cycle and forms
the basis for projections used in the longer-term planning.
Close liaison between geologists at the preplanning stage will
ensure that geological features are resolved allowing problems
to be addressed before the so-called scrutiny meeting, and to
anticipate queries from the production manager.
Up to date plans showing all the current information is
the geologist’s responsibility so that decisions about layouts
are sound and projections about production targets are
achievable. Any significant changes in geology should be
immediately reported as this may required a revision of
the plans. Sedimentological and value trends are used to
direct mining operations into more valuable blocks, while
structural plans are used to position haulages and cross-cuts,
as well as to anticipate problems during stoping operations.
Compilation of data at mine site and regional scales is a
means of identifying strategic issues, such as the exploration
and extraction of secondary reefs that might be made possible
during the mine life of the primary reef.
The provision of structural information from the GTO
predicting or projecting faults that may interfere with stoping
operations allows the mining department to plan for additional
development to negotiate the faulting. Structural input
regarding fault positions and reef elevations allows haulages,
cross-cuts and boxholes to be correctly positioned for most
efficient mining. Poorly mineralised, or uneconomical inter-
channel areas identified through sedimentological studies can
be left as pillars. Predictions about grade trends based on the
geological model are vitally important to the two-year stope
planning cycle.
Mine planning is supported by a CADSMine software
environment, shown schematically in Figure 14, that allows
geologists to updated all development, stope, structure,
borehole, and underground workings files from his desk.
These data are incorporated in 3D renditions of fault and dyke
traces, contours and elevations and structural settings. These
TABLE 1
Geology department responsibility
Technical directors department advises.
Resources employed in search of new mines.
Estimate of reserves provided to management.
Geological resources used to explore mine in greater detail. Geological data fed back to management.
Development opens up new areas to geological mapping.
Mapping provides more detailed information on structure and grade. Mapping may necessitate
changes in the short-term and/or long-term plans.
25
R C A MINNITT et al
FIG 14 - Data visualisation, interpretation and modelling in CADSmine.
changes are communicated to the responsible geologist who
incorporates these changes into the dynamic structure and
updates electronic files (MODG10, 1998).
Underground geological and cover drilling
Routine drilling of AXT size holes (32.5 mm diameter)
for geological information (GBH’s) is done at the request
of the Geosciences Technical Office. Strictly controlled
and cost effective drilling programs for which charges for
establishment, rate per metre, grouting, re-drills, casing,
wedges, surveys, standing time, and working day rates, are
stipulated. Reef intersections should return 100 per cent
core recovery, and where the reef is friable or rich in carbon,
multiple-tube core barrel and very short ‘reef runs’ are
requested. Drilling of long inclined boreholes (LIB’s), using
large diesel or electric powered machines is occasionally
required where the target lies beyond the range of the routine
GBHs. Deflections, directional or non-directional, are drilled
to obtain additional reef intersections, or to steer the hole in
a specific direction, but surveying of such holes is mandatory.
Cover drilling or development prospect holes (DPH) provide
advance warning of water and/or gas ahead of development
and stoping; drilling is stopped immediately if methane or
water is intersected.
Both written and pictorial borehole logs are kept as a
permanent record of the lithologies, alteration, structural,
and economic features of significance in the core, using
standard geological descriptions that other geologists can
readily understand the. In particular, the intersection angle
of bedding to the long axis of the core is measured near reef
intersections so that the true width can be calculated for grade
calculations. Drilling and logging information is transferred
to the 1:200 and 1:1000 plans and sections and integrated into
the overall structural and sedimentological interpretation.
Collar coordinates, site and layout details, survey information,
sampling results, and grade calculations are systematically
filed in a single complete borehole file. Depending on the core
diameter, the sample lengths must be sufficient to make up
the minimum mass of 200 g for fire assay or 400 g for AARL,
as shown in Table 2 (MODG12, 1998).
Core from a reef intersection is split by cutting along the
long axis of the bedding plane ellipse drawn onto the core
during logging. The tendency for gold to be concentrated on
26 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
TABLE 2
Minimum core lengths to make up sufficient sample mass depending on core
diameter.
AX Core size (32.5 mm diameter) Minimum length (cm)
Whole core 10 cm
Split core 20 cm
BX Core size (42 mm diameter) Minimum length (cm)
Whole core 5 cm
Split core 10 cm
upper and lower reef contact surfaces is taken account of by
ensuring that 2 cm of the hanging wall and footwall rock is
included in the sample.
Gold and silver values are determined using gravimetric fire
assay methods and are reported in grams per ton and uranium
as the oxide in kilograms per ton. Routine quality assurance
and quality control samples, duplicates, standards, and blanks
are submitted to the assay laboratory at an insertion rate of
one every 20 samples.
Only by employing sound geological principles in the
sampling procedure can a proper understanding of the value
distribution be obtained. Borehole sampling data are recorded
against a pictorial and written log of the intersection together
with an estimate of core loss and a comment on the overall
acceptability of the intersection for evaluation purposes. Assay
grades are then weighted using the true width of the sample by
converting gram per ton values (g/t) to centimetre gram per
ton values (cmg/t) over the true width. The same is done for
uranium values converting them from kg/t to cmkg/t. Such
cmg/t values for the entire reef zone or portions of economic
interest are summed and divided by the total reef thickness
to give the overall gold content in g/t, a typical example being
shown in Table 3 (MODG12, 1998).
Sampling and grade control
Sampling in the context of a gold mining operation, may take
place at many sites starting with the in situ ore underground
and ending with samples of the mill residue sent to the waste
dump. Sampling is carried out at five main locations in a
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES
Calculation of the weighted average grade over the true width of the intersection.
From To Drill width (cm)
27.45 27.78 33
27.78 28.01 23
28.01 28.35 34
27.45 90
gold mining operation including the sampling of exploration
boreholes, underground development ends and stope faces,
broken ore as it moves towards the mill, and finally plant
and residue sampling. Grade control covers a wide range of
tasks, but is aimed at ensuring that all payable reef is mined
and that gold losses at all stage of the mining and milling are
minimised.
The protocol for face and development sampling is an
item that has been developed over many years in the gold
mining industry and the historical development has been
well described by Flitton et al (2009), and in a much broader
context by Cawood (2003). Routine stope face sampling
aims to obtain a representative sample across the reef zone.
Sampling should take place at five to six metre intervals
along the stope face after every 10 m of face advance in order
to provide sufficient coverage for reliable estimates and
evaluation. For each sample a sample number, the width of
the ore zone being sampled, the width of the sample taken, the
gold grade in g/t, and the uranium grade in kilograms per ton,
are noted. Other information required on the sampling sheets
is a sketch showing the position of the face relative to survey
pegs, dykes and faults, significant geological features, reef
left behind in the hangingwall (HW) or footwall (FW), and
the extent of sweepings. Results of stope and development
sampling are communicated to the geologist as soon as they
become available who then checks them against geological
mapping to ensure that the results are consistent with the
known geology of the area.
The face to be sampled is made safe by removing loose rock
fragments, washed with clean water, and the full width of the
reef exposed. A sampling groove consisting of two parallel
chalk lines, 10 cm apart, at right angles to the plane of the reef,
are drawn from top to bottom across the face. The footwall
and hanging wall contacts must be identified and at least 2 cm
of the footwall and hanging wall quartzite must be included
in this sample. The sample, which should be 500 g minimum,
is then chipped from the face into a sample dish using a
2 kg hammer and chisel. Chipping starts at the bottom of the
sampling grove to prevent contamination of the portion still
to be sampled. The sample should be evenly chipped from the
sampling groove a task which is particularly difficult because
of the very hard, highly siliceous nature of the quartzites and
conglomerates of the reef zone. The problem of obtaining an
evenly balanced sample is compounded by the presence of
the soft, highly friable carbon seam at the base of some reefs
which contains the bulk of the gold. Because this material is
so soft it can easily be oversampled; standard practice is to
take a check sample adjacent to the basal contact sample. In
some mines rock saw cutters comprising an air-driven motor
with two parallel-mounted diamond saw blades, 4 cm apart,
cut slots at right angles to the reef, which is then chipped out
with hammer and chisel. The advantages of this method are
that a balanced sample is more likely to be obtained, sampling
is carried out more rapidly and it is easier to sample thick
multiple reefs. However, the cost of the blades is high, the
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
TABLE 3
Intersect angle True width (cm) g/t (Au) cmg/t (Au)
30 16.5 30.5 503
28 11.5 2.6 30
32 17.0 19.3 328
Average = 30 45.0 19.13 861
machine is heavy, and compressed air is not always available.
In addition, sampling into corners is difficult and operators
find it difficult to maintain the saw cut at right angles to the
bedding where the reef dips steeply.
All sampling data is from all of AGA’s mining operations in
South Africa is held in the so-called sampling data warehouse
(SDW). Sampling data from the different operations are fed to
the warehouse via the mines MRM system linked to GMSI. The
sample data are then validated through a Quality Assurance
and Quality Control System (QAQC) and validated results are
returned to the specific mines (Figure 15) (Kennedy, 2009b).
For the purposes of evaluation, complete recovery of
borehole reef intersections that are unfaulted and unaffected
by intrusives, is essential. Core is examined and logged in
detail prior to being split, half the core being retained as a
permanent record. The true thickness of the intersection must
be calculated, sufficient angles being measured to show the
range and variability of the bedding. Distinct lithological and
sedimentological units must be sampled separately. The mass
of sample material submitted for analysis is usually between
300 g and 600 g, but only 50 g of pulp is required for assay,
depending what analytical method is used.
Databases and information
There are two different relational database management
systems used on the South African mines, as a result of a
legacy separation between geology and evaluation, which
have recently been amalgamated under a single Geosciences
Technical Office in order to increase the efficiency and synergy
of these functions. The two systems are referred to as the
AuBIS for borehole information and the GMSI Sampling for
the stope face samples. AuBIS is hosted at the AGA Corporate
Office and runs on a centralised Oracle relational database
management system (RDBMS), while the GMSI Sampling runs
on a Microsoft SQL Server RDBMS (Vann et al, 2009). Each
mine has a separate data base that is administered by GMSI,
and all chip sample data from each mine is consolidated in
a SQL server data warehouse system hosted in the corporate
office, as illustrated in Figure 15.
Sample data from the GMSI Sampling databases on the
individual mines are replicated into the SDW and the assay
results are fed directly into the SDW from SGS. Maxwell
software is used to control the quality of these assay data,
before being distributed to the GMSI Sampling databases
at the respective mines. The senior evaluator at each mine
is required to check the chip sample data and to authorise
them for use in reserve and resource calculations (Vann,
et al, 2009). A schematic representation of the AuBIS system,
developed by AGA in 1994, before the advent of specialised
geological SQL-based RDBMS systems, is shown in Figure 16.
Data is interrogated through SQL queries with reports issued
as Excel spreadsheets, pictorial logs, or 3D graphics.
In terms of database management, GTO is introducing a
website intended to provide one-stop access to all business-
27
R C A MINNITT et al

FIG 15 - Architecture of the sampling data warehouse.

FIG 16 - AuBIS the spatial relational database management system for data collection, management, retrieval and reporting.

related documentation, references and training manuals,
guidelines, standards and procedures, business process
maps, AuBIS data retrieval templates (Excel reports and
Downhole Explorer logs); and links to the internal Geoscience
Document Database. The proposed system is integrated and
comprehensive. Another initiative at GTO is the ‘mapping
database’ which aims to record new geological mapping
electronically for storage in 3D in AuBIS and allow automated
data retrieval and plotting using CADSmine. In addition
to new data, effort will be required to convert historical
2D information on hardcopy plans and sections to 3D. An
important issue at West Wits is to ensure accurate modelling
of the dykes, since these are volumetrically subtracted from
the resource. These are now all modelled in 3D and the
integrity of modelling (examined on screen and at document
level by QG) appears to be good (Vann et al, 2009).
MINERAL RESOURCE ESTIMATION
Witwatersrand estimation problems
The style and approach to mineral evaluation on the
Witwatersrand-type orebodies has been in the making for
more than 110 years, is highly specific to this type of orebody,
and ‘significantly different to that taken on other gold mines
around the world’ (Vann et al, 2009, p57). Aspects of the
Witwatersrand geology which make the estimation problem

28 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES

unique include the extreme depths of the remaining CLR, Local estimate
and the inordinately expensive and time consuming drilling
The Local estimate is a Simple Kriging estimate of Measured
of holes in excess of 5 km in depth. With no significant
Resources used for short-term scheduling and planning of
foreseeable technological advances to reduced these costs the
monthly production. Simple Kriging of stope face sampling
average drilling density equivalent to 1 km spacing of holes in,
and close to mine sites, is unlikely to change. into 30 m × 30 m blocks equates to the quarterly Standard
Mining Unit (SMU) or average face, or panel length, in a stope
The thin (20 cm), planar geometry of the CLR, the consistency
as shown in Figure 17. Simple Kriging makes assumptions
of the dip (21° - 22°), and its position in the stratigraphic
about strong stationarity and assigns a local mean to the
succession relative to markers such as the Green Bar make
area being evaluated to overcome the edge effects (high
its identification unequivocal, so that the joining of points of
intersection from one borehole to the next is accomplished estimation errors) associated with Ordinary Kriging. Simple
with ease and confidence. These particular features of the Kriging, being an extrapolation estimate, is used to generate
orebody mean that it is ideally suited to estimation using the Mineral Resources 30 - 60 m ahead of the active mining
geostatistical methods in square, two-dimensional panels. face. When the Mineral Resource is constrained by a lower
Grade control chip sampling taken at 2 m to 5 m intervals boundary kriging variance it is classified as Measured, and is
with very high levels of coverage means that the statistical and mined out in a relatively short period of 4 - 6 months (Vann
geostatistical characteristics of the CLR and VCR in mined out et al, 2009).
areas is well understood. Added to this is the huge repository
of sampling data and information that has accumulated at
mines sites for periods of up to 50 years. In fact access to this
type of information in the late 1940s is what inspired Professor
Danie Krige to establish his estimation techniques (Krige,
1981), that in the end led to current geostatistical applications
in Witwatersrand gold mines.

Resource estimation
A distinctive, reliable, and tailored approach to mineral
resource estimation has arisen because of the unique
characteristics of the Witwatersrand-type orebodies. This
requires a method that will allow sparse, widely spaced
surface borehole intersections to be used in conjunction with
grade control sampling at the stope faces that are some five
orders of magnitude more densely spaced. Gold grades are
invariably lognormally distributed (compound lognormal or
three parameter lognormal), but reef thickness may be either
normal or lognormal depending on the locality. Estimation
is mostly carried out using accumulation values (cmg/t),
the product of the reef thickness and the reef grade, to give
an engineering-type variable in ‘centimetre grams per ton’.
The behaviour of accumulation values in histograms and
variograms is generally more consistent than grade alone, and
it provides a variable for which there are well-established cut-
offs that easily indicate areas that are pay or unpay. Initially
the estimation is done using reef thickness and then converted
to stoping thickness to accommodate the dilution associated
with the waste that is mined with the reef (Vann et al, 2009).
Assuming there is no significant correlation between
variables (Orton and Burnett, 2008), the standard procedure
is to establish variograms for the reef thickness and
accumulation value independently and undertake the kriging
of these two variables across the identified domain. The reef
thickness and accumulation value is thus estimated for each
block, and the accumulation value is then divided by the reef
width to give a thickness-weighted grade for each individual
block. This practical approach also assumes that bulk density
across the deposit is reasonably consistent, a fact that is
often contested, but still without substantive research to
prove otherwise (Bodenstein and Ward, 2003). Four types of
estimates are conducted in AGA’s gold mines and include the
Gold Call Estimate, the Local Estimate, a Macro Co-Kriging
Estimate, and the Global Estimate.
Gold call estimate
The Gold Call estimate is a monthly Ordinary Kriging estimate
using stope face, chip sampling into 10 m × 10 m blocks that
calls the amount of metal to be mined in the coming month,
which in an active mining area, would be about 10 m.
FIG 17 - A fictitious kriging showing macro block support 420 m × 420 m
(green), macro blocks 210 m × 210 m (blue), local blocks 30 m × 30 m
(purple), and local kriging blocks 10 m × 10 m (yellow).
Macro Co-Kriging estimate
The following explanation of the Macro Co-Kriging estimates
is drawn almost exclusively from a description provided by
Vann et al (2009). The Macro Co-Kriging estimation procedure
implemented on the West Wits mines by AGA is a somewhat
complex, but unique procedure that has been in place since
1994 and involves the Co-Kriging of data sets drawn from two
different support types. The first is a block support kriging
using square blocks with equal sides that could vary anything
from 200 m - 500 m. Stope face samples are averaged to
give the block values, the macro block support for CLR being
420 m × 420 m. The second is the relatively widely spaced
borehole support kriging. This borehole data may include
additional clustered data from chip samples falling into
poorly informed blocks. The Macro Co-Kriging estimates are
classified either as Indicated or as Inferred resources, but
never as Measured Resources, and are used for budgeting and
medium-term to LOM planning. In short, the process is as
follows:
1. A Bayesian assumption, that the mined out areas and
the yet to be mined, down dip areas, are from the same
statistical population, is made. This was established by
Krige and Assibey-Bonsu in 1992. Therefore, although the
support may differ, the distribution of grades from sparse
surface boreholes is the same as that for the mined out
area; this is the crucial assumption of stationarity.

EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011 29
R C A MINNITT et al

2. Block support data are regularised (averaged) into blocks of

specified dimensions using underground chip sample data.
The block size is chosen using a statistical/geostatistical
process based on variography of the accumulation values
(cmg/t) of chip samples. The approach taken aims to
ensure that the ‘within block’ variance is effectively
maximised and the ‘between block’ variance consequently
minimised. This is important because some steps in the
process require the use of classical statistical techniques
that assume independence.
3. Borehole data are then ‘clusterised’ and ‘acceptorised’.
‘Clusterisation’ aims to ensure that:
(a) close deflections are combined into single data points;
and
(b) long deflections are also combined where statistical
analysis shows this is acceptable.
The acceptorisation process aims to remove statistically
unacceptable samples while retaining as many data values
as possible; ie to legitimately maximise the number of
borehole samples used in the resource estimates.
4. Variography of the two data sets (blocks and boreholes) is
established for loge of the accumulation values (ln(cm.g/t)).
Block data are regularised from chip samples within FIG 18 - An example of the output of the kriging results for a portion of a
blocks and boreholes are supplemented with ‘empirically composite grid; estimation domains and reef block boundaries are evident, with
simulated’ chip data’. higher mineral values being indicated by warmer colours. Please open CD ROM
5. Co-Kriging of these two supports is performed (‘Macro for colour rendition.
Co-Kriging’), weighting the block data differently to the
boreholes and thus accounting for their support difference. deflections to be drilled from a single parent diamond drill
This is Ordinary Kriging of loge accumulation values, not hole. Depending on the position of the wedges in the borehole,
Simple Kriging. the deflections may be further from or nearer to the original
6. The results as ln(cm.g/t) are back-transformed to ‘grade pierce point; so-called ‘long deflections’ may be tens of metres
space’ using a four-parameter Compound Lognormal distant from the original cluster (see Figure 19) (from O’Brien,
(CLN) model.
7. In the CLR, the logarithmic mean and variance may be
linearly related. In the Macro Co-Kriging approach either
a regression adjustment is made to the variance in the
back-transformation (in Step 6 above), or the variance is
kriged, to ensure that the back-transform is conditionally
unbiased; for CLR the variance is kriged.
8. Tonnages are obtained by applying a stoping thickness on
a mining area basis. The grade is found by dividing the
estimated accumulation (cm.g/t) by the stope width.
9. Finally the dyke and fault loss volumes are subtracted, an
example of the kriged output being shown in Figure 18.
Global estimate
This estimate is a non-kriging (global) estimation approach
used to generate sub-Inferred Resource estimates for non-
published ‘blue sky’, very long-term strategy evaluation
studies. It is based only on borehole information, well in 
advance of mining areas, and involves a change of support
at global (grade-tonnage curve) level. This estimate is not FIG 19 - Schematic representation of cluster intersection and ‘long deflection’
the subject of review here and the global estimates are never (from O’Brien, 1996).
classified as Mineral Resources (Vann et al, 2009).

‘Clusterisation’ and ‘acceptorisation’ 1996).

‘Clusterisation’
The extreme cost of drilling deep boreholes means that a
number of intersections of the reef become more cost effective
than just one. Generally a steel wedge is placed not too far
above the position of the first reef intersection, and the hole is
then drilled and deflected away from the original pierce point,
to give a series of intersections within a 10 m radius. Wedges
placed at successively shallower positions allow a number of
Subject to criteria in regard to geological and statistical
acceptability, the deflections are averaged to give a single
reef grade and thickness at that position. The ‘clusterisation’
process as documented in O’Brien (1996), Chamberlain (1997)
and Orton (2009) compares ‘long deflections’ clusters (see
Figure 18) with short, close spaced deflection values, using
loge of the accumulation values (O’Brien, 1996) in an analysis
of variance test (ANOVA), the aim being to test whether or
not the values can be combined. Where the ANOVA indicates

30 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES
that differences are statistically significant, the values must be
treated as separate values for estimation purposes, but where
the differences are not statistically significant, the data can
safely be averaged.
‘Acceptorisation’
A statistical process referred to as ‘acceptorisation’ has
been implemented to ensure that the maximum amount
of information derived from the relatively small number
of boreholes is incorporated into the mineral resource
estimation process. In addition any deep borehole intersection
will typically have as many as four or five deflections that
aim to increase the footprint to a radius of about 10 m and
make the intersection in a specific area as representative as
possible. This particular practice has meant that the ability
to meaningfully and confidently incorporate the information
generated from clustered sampling has been developed to a
high degree.
The distinction between legitimate borehole data and
identifiable statistical extremes is even more important to
the resource estimation process given the relative paucity
of borehole information. A stringent set of criteria based on
structural factors (faulting of reef) and sample quality (core
recovery, grinding of reef, etc), determine the ‘geological
acceptability’ of each reef sample (Kennedy, 2007). The
‘acceptability’ of an entire set of reef intersections in deflections
is contingent upon the acceptability of the component
samples, ie if any component in a set of deflection samples is
deemed unacceptable, then the entire set of deflection assays,
is unacceptable. AGA utilise a statistical combination of
intersection representivity and so-called ‘acceptorisation’ to
determine which deflections can be used to calculate cluster
averages.
Intersection representivity is predicated on acceptability,
acceptable intersections are also representative, whereas
intersections with significant high-angle/localised faulting,
major assumed carbon loss and/or major core loss within the
assumed mineralised zone, are non-representative (Kennedy,
2007). The so-called ‘acceptorisation’ process documented
by Kennedy (2009a) and Orton (2009) and discussed in
Chamberlain (1997), Chamberlain and O’Brien (1995),
O’Brien (1996), and Dohm (1995), is statistically derived
from Heyns (1958). The ratios of non-acceptable/acceptable
intersection pairs are calculated for each borehole cluster, and
the logarithms of these ratios are calculated within 95 per cent
confidence limits.
Description of the lithologies comprising the three Carbon Leader Reef subfacies.
Parameter Facies 3
Pebble size Moderately packed polymictic (quartz, chert) small to
and shape medium pebble conglomerate, average 23 cm thick.
Dark grey, medium to coarse grained slightly
Matrix
argillaceous quartzite.
Pyrite Pyrite stringers.
Other Flyspeck carbon at base.
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
The logs of the individual intersections are then plotted
against the mean of the logs for each cluster and the 95 per
cent confidence limits plotted. Outliers are reviewed and
removed, and the process is repeated until the amount of
acceptable data lying outside the confidence limits is five per
cent. The process is thus iterated until the objective is met.
The aim of the process is a stepwise elimination of
unacceptable samples to allow five per cent of acceptable
values to lie outside the 95 per cent confidence limits which
are effectively the control limits of Heyns (1958). This allows
as many of the unacceptable values (those within the 95 per
cent confidence limits) as possible to be retained for use in the
resource estimates.
Geological models and estimation domains
The fundamentally important decision regarding resource
estimation is defining so-called domains (areas or zones)
of geologically and statistically homogenous stationarity.
Different domains of mineralisation are usually and firstly
geologically distinct, and secondly comprise domains
of statistical stationarity. The first attempts at detailed
stratigraphic work within the CLR were undertaken by Nami
(1981, 1982) who found that fluvial activity was confined
to channelised flow in depressions, and that inter-channel
areas were flooded intermittently. This work was followed by
that of Oberthur (1986) who indicated the existence of two
different entry points with interacting flow mechanisms that
gave rise to distinct flow directions, a west facies and an east
facies with different mineral content, suggesting two different
lithological provenances. This work was later confirmed by
Rowland (1990) who defined the flow channels and directions
more clearly, and delineated the CLR into three facies based
on channel width; Kingsley (1992) proposed a model that
subdivided the CLR into 4 stratigraphic subfacies, whose
details are listed in Table 4 and whose thickness and lithology
is shown in Figure 20.
Deysel (2009) compiled a vertically exaggerated west-east
schematic section across the CLR as shown in Figure 21.
Collaboration between mining camps and the integration of
the sedimentological and statistical data allowed geologists
to compile a facies model for the CLR that stretched across
a large number of mining operations as shown in Figure 22.
The CLR Facies Model was based on a compilation of
information from the plot of channel width, value distribution,
and a number of sedimentary parameters including percentage
pyrite in each conglomeratic subfacies, the maximum pebble
TABLE 4
Facies 2 Facies 1
Moderately packed oligomictic (quartz) small to
Moderately packed polymictic (quartz, chert) small to
medium pebble conglomerate, average 26 cm
medium pebble conglomerate.
thick.
Grey, medium to coarse grained slightly argillaceous Dark grey, fine to medium grained quartzite
quartzite. seams at base.
Disseminated pyrite. Finely disseminated pyrite.
Well defined package of sediments up to 180 cm thick
Cross-bedded siliceous quartzite.
Banded orange argillaceous zone (BOAZ).
Carbon stringers and flyspeck carbon.
Upper 2B Band.
Puke pebbly quartzite (PPQ).
Lower 2A Band.
31
R C A MINNITT et al


FIG 20 - Subdivision of the Carbon Leader Reef into four subfacies according to Kingsley (1992).

FIG 21 - Schematic across a vertically exaggerated, east-west section of the Carbon Leader Reef showing the different packages comprising the reef zone.

size, pebble packing, carbon distribution, colour and grain average accumulation value of 2800 cmg/t, and the 1ED in the
size of the conglomerate matrix and internal units, and the centre having an average grade of 2900 cmg/t. Initial domain
assay value (Figure 23). boundaries were established by Chamberlain (1997), and these
Detailed studies regarding the statistical attributes were confirmed by Orton (2003). While the overall validity of
of the CLR gold accumulation values, regularised into the domains is upheld Vann et al (2009) they have suggested
210 m × 210 m blocks (half the size of the 420 m blocks), were that the internal variability of the domains in regard to the
also undertaken to identify trends and relate them to the CLR stationarity assumptions be tested, and if need be, adjusted.
facies model, and are given in Table 5.
Variography at different support sizes
TABLE 5 All the experimental- and consequently the model semi-
Gold accumulation values (cmg/t) for high and low grades in Facies 1 to 3. variograms, are compiled from accumulation values (cmg/t).
The semi-variograms have been found to be isotropic by
checking that a series of directional semi-variograms are
(cmg/t) Facies 1 Facies 2 Facies 3 consistently the same in all directions. Statistical analysis and
Low-grade 248 210 69 histograms of the accumulation data are done on a domain
by domain basis in loge space because these are the required
High-grade 18889 1596 6222
input format of domain data for the Macro Co-Kriging. The
Macro Co-Kriging method requires two variograms to be
modelled, namely:
Consolidation of the data meant that three main domains 1. A point support semi-variogram using accumulation value
were identified, namely 23W in the west with the lowest of stope face samples in cmg/t, on a 5 m × 5 m grid for the
average gold grade of 1500 cmg/t, 23E in the east having an determination of optimal block size for the data.

32 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES

FIG 22 - Areal distribution of the three different facies comprising the Carbon Leader Reef Facies Model.
(Source: AngloGold Ashanti Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve report 2010.)

FIG 23 - Carbon Leader Reef estimation domain model.

2. A block support semi-variogram using regularised
accumulation values, stope face samples in ln(cmg/t), for
use in the Macro Co-Kriging. The Variance Size of Area
calculation proposed by Barnard, Bisschoff and Peattie
(2009), is based on the concept that the dispersion variance
of ln(cmg/t) increases as the block size increases, and can
be used to estimate the block size for which the between
block variance is minimised and the within block variance
is maximised, resulting in a block support variogram with
zero nugget effect (Figure 24).
The reason a zero nugget effect is sought for the
block variogram is that the process of estimation
will presume that most or all of the variance is
constrained within the block (Vann et al, 2009,
p 71).
The ‘block data selection’ is conducted in order to obtain,
by regularisation of the stope face samples, a data set of
‘representative 420 m × 420 m blocks’. According to Orton
(2009, p 37) the minimum number of blocks (samples) that
should be used in the loge variance (ln[cmg/t]) versus loge
area of blocks, is half the block size, in this case 210 blocks
(samples). Visual interrogation of plots of face samples for
blocks with N>210 is then carried out to verify the spatial
distribution of face sample locations within each block.
Blocks that do not meet the necessary criterion are rejected as
unrepresentative.
A borehole support semi-variogram on empirically simulated
borehole samples (points 1 and 2 under Macro Co-Kriging), in
ln(cmg/t) for use in the Macro Co-Kriging process. The paucity

EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011 33
R C A MINNITT et al


FIG 24 - Variance-size of area relationship – modified from Chamberlain (1997).

of borehole information makes it impossible to compile a
meaningful experimental semi-variogram unless the data is
augmented through the creation of ‘pseudo-boreholes’. The
pseudo-boreholes are created by selecting neighbouring stope
face samples in a 20 m × 20 m grid that approximate borehole
cluster support, and averaging the samples within that area.
The 20 m × 20 m grid size approximates the footprint for a
parent hole with a number of deflections in normal surface
drilling. Pseudo-boreholes are created for the whole area and
the data used for compiling a pseudo-model semi-variogram
for boreholes whose parameters are used for kriging where the
420 m × 420 m blocks are deemed not to be representatively
informed. The ‘pseudo-borehole’ data is then combined
with the borehole data sensu stricto and a an experimental
semi-variogram is calculated and then modelled. As may be
expected, the borehole support model has a relative nugget
effect in the order of 35 - 50 per cent for cm.g/t, much higher
than the block variogram which has a zero nugget (Figure 25).
The Co-Kriging employed for MCK is non-collocated,
so data for the two variables involved (blocks and
boreholes) do not exist at the same locations. The
cross co-variances used in the left hand member of the
MCK Co-Kriging matrix are therefore established in
the following manner. Borehole-to-Block variances
on a neighbourhood by neighbourhood basis are
calculated using a discretisation of the block. The
structural function used is a variogram (since the
variables are the same, this is legitimate). The
variance calculated uses the nugget effect as modelled
for the pseudo borehole variogram with the sill and
ranges for the block variogram. Discretisation is
assessed using a QKNA approach (Vann et al, 2009).
Exclusive mineral resource
The exclusive Mineral Resource is defined as the inclusive
Mineral Resource minus the in situ Ore Reserve before stoping
width, dilution and mine call factors are applied. Scoping
studies are conducted on this exclusive Mineral Resource,
where capital requirements and current costs are used to
test economic potential. If these studies show no reasonable
economic potential at the Mineral Resource gold price then
the material is excluded from the Mineral Resource. All


FIG 25 - Block variogram for combined 1ED and 23E domains, from Orton (2009).

34 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES
planned pillars (ahead of current mining) form part of the
exclusive Mineral Resource.
Estimation procedures
The Macro Co-Kriging estimation procedure employed by
AGA on their South African operations is supported by the
theoretical work done by Dohm (1995) and subsequently
extended by Chamberlain (1997), and by a description of
the practical steps by which the method is implemented by
Barnard, Bisschoff and Peattie (2009). A multi-disciplinary
approach to Mineral Resource estimation with inputs from the
geology, survey, mine planning and evaluation departments
is integrated in the so-called Mineral Resource Inventory
System (MRIS) to produce the a Mineral Resource per mining
operation. Resource estimates are computed from a composite
grid of value estimates, comprising various block sizes with
macro-blocks from 210 m × 210 m to 420 m × 420 m, and the
micro-blocks comprise of 30 m × 30 m blocks. Details of the
average drill hole spacing and type in relation to the Resource
estimate are given in Table 6. Compound lognormal Macro Co-
Kriging estimation techniques are used to produce estimates
for the larger block sizes. This technique uses the Bayesian
approach whereby the assayed (observed) data in the mined-
out areas are used to infer the population characteristics of the
area ahead of current mining. The geological model forms the
basis for this estimation and all surface borehole information
from the peripheral areas of the mine lease play a crucial role
in determining the geological domain boundaries. Simple
Kriging is used for the 30 m block sizes and these estimates
are constrained by the kriging variance. Mineral Resource
cut-offs are computed by operation, for each reef horizon.
These cut-offs incorporate a profit margin that is relevant to
the business plan. Mineral Resource grade tonnage curves
are produced for the individual operations, which show the
potential of the orebody at different cut-offs. These curves are
produced for dimensions equivalent to a practical mining unit
for underground operations.
Typically lognormal distributions are characterised by a
few extremely high values which tend to have an inordinately
large contribution to the mean and variance. This leads to
the perennial question ‘Do we honour the data or not?’ Such
values are generally viewed with suspicion and a decision to
cut the very high values is usually supported by the fact that
there are so few of them and that the tail end of the distribution
is not continuous, ie it tends to break up. AGA has chosen
not to go that route because the distribution in the tail end is
continuous to the maximum values. In addition the extreme
values can occur anywhere within any, and all of the domains,
and there would in any case only be about 0.1 per cent of the
data that would be affected. The purposes for which the data
are to be used are also relevant since the high values in such
widely spaced borehole data and in a lognormal distribution
are invariably under sampled. Cutting high values needlessly
penalises the metal content of an estimate. It also reduces the
variability in the data before the kriging process, which by its
very nature also tends to reduce the variability, is undertaken.
Details of average drill hole spacing and type in relation to Mineral Resource classification. (Source: AngloGold Ashanti, 2010.)
Category Spacing m(-x-) Diamond drilling Chip sampling
Measured 5×5
Indicated 200 × 200  
Inferred 1000 × 1000  Supported by surface drill holes
Grade/Ore control 5×5
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
Bulk density is not a subject that is regularly considered
except in audits of one form or another. AGA’s decision to
use a value of 2.71 t/m³ for CLR in all their resource-related
calculations is supported by the relative uniformity of the CLR
geology and the low coefficient of variation (CV) of the density
data set, suggest that density is a low risk.
Grade distribution models
The basis for AGA’s estimation procedure is to convert
accumulation values to loge, undertake whatever analysis is
required, and then convert the estimates back to cm.g/t values
(‘grade space’), using the compound lognormal distribution
(CLN in Sichel et al, 1992; Dohm, 1995; Chamberlain, 1997).
The reason for this is that the CLN and Log Generalised
Inverse Gaussian or (LGIG) are four-parameter distributions
which better fit Wits gold data in every case compared
to three-parameter (ie loge cmg/t + additive constant, β)
models. If lognormal theory is applied, then a constant
logarithmic variance is assumed. However, in the CLN model
the logarithmic mean (ξ) and the logarithmic variance (σ2)
have negative linear relationship (see Dohm, 1995, p 4.21)
which allows the variance to be adjusted as a function of the
mean in the Macro Co-Kriging process. In the case of CLR,
the variance is kriged, to avoid a bias. The CLN model allows
the final estimates to be back-transformed into arithmetically
scaled accumulation values (Vann et al, 2009).
Macro Co-Kriging
The Macro Co-Kriging estimation method, based on the
Bayesian approach proposed by Krige, Kleingeld and
Oosterveld (1990), Krige and Assibey-Bonsu (1992), was
further developed and tested by both Dohm (1995) and
Chamberlain (1997). The Macro Co-Kriging approach in
which both ‘block’ and borehole accumulation values are used
and described here, is taken from Vann et al (2009), and can
be summarised as follows:
1. The borehole data are based on a small number of
deflections in a confined area, rarely more than ten, which
are treated as a single datum.
2. The ‘block’ data is based on regularised underground chip
samples; ie the average of all chip samples within a given
2D block.
3. Specific rules are applied to determine whether or not a
given block has enough chip samples to be considered as
a ‘block’ value.
4. Because the two data types (borehole and block) have
very different geostatistical support they must be
weighted differently, taking into account the difference in
support. This is achieved by Co-Kriging – a well establish
geostatistical approach to weighting disparate data types.
Search radii used in the Macro Co-Kriging process are
established through a process of ‘kriging optimisation’ (see
Orton, 2009; Section 27). In this process kriging variance,
regression slope, and percentage of negative weights are used
TABLE 6
Comments
 Based on constrained kriging variance, supported by chip sampling in stopes
Supported by underground drill holes and chip sampling of reef development ends
 Chipped channel samples
35
R C A MINNITT et al
in what is known as Quantitative Kriging Neighbourhood
Analysis or QKNA to determine discretisation, numbers of
samples, searches, etc (Vann, Jackson and Bertoli, 2003).
Between 60 and 90 samples are used as maxima, depending
on the domain, with minima set to five or six in a 10 m × 10 m
discretisation. The search radius used is specified in numbers
of estimation cells (x × y) should be set so that they do not
generate more than 10 - 15 per cent negative weights and the
objective should be to have ‘trivially negative weights at the
margins of the search’. The risk associated with the use of
negative weights is that large sample values at the edge of a
search, may cause the estimate to be too low, or even negative.
Software
AGA have developed software called ‘Geostatistical Evaluator’
or ‘Geosev’ specifically tailored to suit the Wits operations
for their Macro Co-Kriging process and other geostatistical
analysis. The software was originally compiled by Anglo
American Gold and Uranium Division (now AGA), in the early
1990s. It is part a suite of software outsourced from Anglo
covering the whole suite of mine technical applications that
are maintained by Graphical Mining Solutions International
(GMSI, 2011), since 1995. Geostatistical Evaluator™ is a
set of computerised tools for statistical analysis, variogram
analysis and interpolation and extrapolation by various forms
of kriging and is run directly from within MicroStation®,
on the Windows® operating system. Geosev is comprised
of a number of modules allowing Simple Kriging, Ordinary
Kriging, Universal Kriging, Lognormal Kriging, and Macro
Co-Kriging.
Summary
In summary, it can be said that the identification of
estimation domains within the CLR and the VCR is based
on sound interpretation of geological chacteristics and grade
distribution. All the variogram models employed are isotropic,
a feature that is validated by calculating directional semi-
variograms. Other aspects worthy of note include the logic for
not cutting extreme top values, the reasons for a bulk density of
2.71 t/m3, and the reasons for using Macro Co-Kriging for
estimation in the CLR. The Macro Co-Kriging estimation
methodology is a tailored solution to the problem of estimating
resources with maximum possible reliability. Traditional
geostatistical estimation based on borehole data and stope
face samples, produces less reliable resource estimates ahead
of the stope face. While the method could be accused of being
complex it enables evaluators to use both sparse borehole
data together with very dense underground chip sampling
in a unique, well-conceived, solution that is ‘fit for purpose’
given the unique characteristics of the Witwatersrand-type
orebodies. The estimation method, which has been applied
on the West Wits since 1994 and is used for budgeting,
medium-term, and LOM planning, involves Co-Kriging of
Block Support in which underground stope face samples are
averaged to give 420 m × 420 m block values for the CLR, and
Borehole Support on relatively widely spaced bore hole data.
In this way, Mineral Resources are classified as Indicated
or Inferred, but never as Measured Resources. Measured
Resource estimates are based on stope face sampling using
local estimation methods, a trivial and transient estimate that
at most represents only 4 - 6 months of production.
MINERAL RESOURCE CLASSIFICATION
Carbon Leader Reef and Ventersdorp Contact Reef Mineral
Resources are reported in compliance with SAMREC
36 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
(SAMREC, 2007) and the guidance of AGA’s internal policy
document (AGA, 2008). The competent persons CV’s must
meet both the JORC and SAMREC criteria for Competent
Person, being members of SACNASP; and having a minimum
of five years experience in mineral resource estimation and
associated activities in relevant styles of gold mineralisation.
The SAMREC/JORC definition of a Mineral Resource is a
concentration or occurrence of material of intrinsic economic
interest in or on the earth’s crust in such form, quality and
quantity that there are reasonable prospects for eventual
economic extraction. The location, quantity, grade, geological
characteristics and continuity of a Mineral Resource are
known, estimated or interpreted from specific geological
evidence and knowledge. Mineral Resources are subdivided,
in order of increasing geological confidence, into Inferred,
Indicated and Measured categories.
Mineral resources include all the resources, pay and unpay,
in gold bearing reefs on a mine and a clear statement of the
available Resources forms the basis for sound mine planning.
Not all the resources are available for extraction due to
constraints arising from lack of information, accessibility, low
grades and legal requirements.
In order to comply with the economic requirement of the
definition of a Mineral Resource, AGA constrain all their
Resources at an upside gold price, with all other parameters
being the same as those used for estimation of the Ore
Reserve. All coherent blocks of ground lying above the
calculated Mineral Resource cut-off are costed in terms of
the capital requirements to access the block. Furthermore
the Mineral Resource is quoted in situ and has not been
corrected for dilution, mining losses or recovery. It includes a
high percentage of Inferred material, which, following further
exploration drilling may be converted to an Indicated or
Measured Mineral Resource.
Mineral Resource classification is based on the ‘15 per cent
Rule’. A Measured Mineral Resource should be expected to be
within 15 per cent of the quarterly metal estimate at least 90
per cent of the time, while for an Indicated Mineral Resource
estimate the annual metal estimate should be within 15 per
cent of the metal estimated at least 90 per cent of the time. For
an Inferred Mineral Resource the annual error may be greater
than 15 per cent for 90 per cent of the time,
The process and methodology of classification are at the
discretion of the competent person and involve expressing
the ‘15 per cent Rule’ as a required level of information, in
tangible terms, the spacing of the drill hole or tunnel spacing
in a particular deposit. Techniques such as conditional
simulation or even an empirical reconciliation-based
approach are employed. However, all operations are
responsible for demonstrating, through reconciliation, that
their classification system conforms to the 15 per cent rule set
out above. AGA quotes its Mineral Resource as inclusive of the
Ore Reserve. However, in this document the exclusive Mineral
Resource is also quoted. The exclusive Mineral Resource is
defined as the inclusive Mineral Resource less the Ore Reserve
before dilution and other factors are applied. The exclusive
Mineral Resource consists of the following components:
Inferred Mineral Resource within the optimised shell; Other
Inferred Mineral Resource; Measured and Indicated Mineral
Resource that lies between the LOM pit shell/mine design
and the Mineral Resource pit shell. This material will become
economic if the gold price increases; and Mineral Resource
where the technical studies to engineer an Ore Reserve have
not yet been completed.
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES

In terms of the SAMREC or JORC classifications, areas
informed by surface boreholes are classified as Indicated
Resources, with extrapolations beyond that as Inferred
Resources, and within AGA lease areas there is no Inferred
category reported. The density of stope face sampling
allows local estimation of blocks in the Measured Resource
category, but these are usually mined within a month or two
of estimation date, and represent a trivial proportion of the
resource.
Mineral Resources for CLR and VCR are classified
according to SAMREC into Measured, Indicated, and
Inferred resources, the criteria being described by Lavery,
Flitton and Enslin (2008; pp 139-140) (Lavery and Pieterse,
2009). For AGA for internal purposes, an upper and lower
95 per cent confidence limit is calculated for every macro
block estimated, and these are classified as Indicated I,
Indicated II, and Indicated III, decreasing in confidence
from 100 per cent to 0 per cent; the lower the ratio, the less
confidence there is in the estimate. The lower 95 per cent
limit represents the risk in the estimate, while upper 95 per
cent limit represents the opportunity. The macro blocks are
then categorised according to the values shown for CLR in
Table 7.
The classification is shown in Figure 26.
The difference between resources and reserves
The allocation of ground to either Resources or Reserves is
base firstly on payability, ie does it meet the shafts Cost III
cut-off, and secondly on whether or not the block is in the
LOM plan, a schematic representation of this concept being
shown in Figure 27. This means that the portion of the
Indicated Resources in the LOM plan and above the Cost III
cut-off is classified as the Probable Reserve. The portion of the
Indicated Resources in the LOM plan, but below the Cost II
cut-off is classified as the Indicated Resource. The remainder,
which includes pay and unpay blocks not in the LOM plan, are
simply in the non-LOM portion of the Indicated Resources.
The pay portion of the Measured Resource (greater than
Cost III), is referred to as the Proved Reserve excluding the
payable portions of safety pillars and abandoned blocks.
The latter together with the unpay portion of the Measured
Resources is referred to as Measured resources.
Ore reserve estimation
All mine designs are undertaken using the Cadsmine®
software package and include the delineation of mining
or stoping areas for each mining level and section, usually
leading from an extension to the existing mining sequence,
and the definition of the necessary development layouts.

TABLE 7
Mapping of calculated ‘confidence ratio’ to Mineral Resource Category.

Ratio of upper and lower 95%

Category
confidence level to the mean
Limit of local kriging Measured
Ratio ≥ 60% Indicated I Sufficient information is available to indicate the distribution of high and low grades in the orebody.
40 ≤ Ratio <60% Indicated II Sufficient information is available to be sure enough of the geological model controlling the mineralisation.
20 ≤ Ratio <40% Indicated III Widely spaced drilling indicates the presence of ore, but there is insufficient data to be sure of geological controls.
0 < Ratio <60% Inferred

Exploration Development
Completed Prepared to initiate Completed Prepared to initiate
Resource Developing Developing Mature Developing Mature Developing
Mature shaft Mature shaft
category shaft shaft shaft shaft shaft shaft
Very low ± Exploration Extra surface
Extrapolation of structure ± Exploration
Inferred confidence development and some D/D or LIB None None None
± D/D, S = VL, F = VL development
information D/D to confirm reef drilling
Wide spaced Primary access
± Exploration ± Haulage and
surface D/D Some in-fill D/D for More LIB and ±Exploration development
Indicated III development. Reef exists None cross-cut for
±LIB drilling facies and structure in-fill D/D development (haulage and
S = L to M, F = M to H access
± 3D seismic cross-cuts)
± Primary
Some in-fill D/D for facies LIB drilling Finalise D/D
Finalise D/D for facies ± Haulage development
Indicated II and structure completed and for facies and Cross-cuts Cross-cuts
and cut-offs and cross-cuts haulage and
S = M to H, F = M to H in-fill D/D cut-offs
cross-cuts
Facies and cut-offs drilled Exploration Exploration Travelling way, Travelling way,
Indicated I Exploration complete Cross-cuts Cross-cuts
S = H, F = H complete complete boxholes, raises boxholes, raises
Exploration complete Exploration Exploration Inclined Inclined
Measured Exploration complete Stope Stope
S = VH, F = VH complete complete development development
S = Confidence in structure L = Low, M = Medium, H = High F = Confidence in gold mineralising model (Facies, Grade) V = Very
Blocking of total resource
Blocking parameters are listed under two scenarios to accommodate intrinsic differences: ‘mature’ caters for fault loss blocks and pillar shafts; and ‘developing’ refers to reef blocks in the white open areas.
The lowest confidence parameter determines the Resource category, eg a block with low confidence in structure and high confidence in facies should be classed as Indicated II.

EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011 37
R C A MINNITT et al
FIG 26 - Classification of Measured, Indicated I, Indicated II, Indicated III, and Inferred Mineral Resources at TauTona mine.
FIG 27 - The difference between Resources and Reserves based on Cost III and life-of-mine.
The in situ Mineral Resource is scheduled monthly for the
full LOM plan. The value estimates for these schedules are
derived directly from MRIS. Modifying factors are applied
to the in situ Mineral Resource to arrive at an Ore Reserve.
These factors comprise a dilution factor to accommodate the
difference between the mill width and the stoping width as
well as the Mine Call Factor (MCF).
Ore reserve classification
The SAMREC/JORC definition of an Ore Reserve is the
economically mineable part of a Measured and/or Indicated
Mineral Resource. It includes diluting materials and
allowances for losses, which may occur when the material
is mined. Appropriate assessments and studies have been
carried out, and include consideration of and modification
by realistically assumed mining, metallurgical, economic,
marketing, legal, environmental, social and governmental
factors. These assessments demonstrate at the time of
reporting that extraction could reasonably be justified. Ore
Reserves are subdivided, in order of increasing confidence,
into Probable Ore Reserves and Proved Ore Reserves
(MODG15, 1998).
Probable Reserves include that portion of Indicated
Resources for which sufficient technical and economic
information exists to justify extraction under specified
38 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
 
economic conditions and usually form part of the 2 - 5 Year
Mining Plan. The Probable Reserve is the sum of the payable
percentages of the grade tonnage curves above the Cost III
cut-off. Grade-tonnage curves are constructed for all blocks
in the Indicated Resource category, greater in area than
10 000 square metres and of sufficient payability to warrant
further exploration, plus all payable blocks of less than
10 000 square metres which do not constitute part of the
Measured Resource or Proved Reserve. The Probable
Reserve category is subdivided to reflect increasing degrees
of confidence in the estimates into Probable III, Probable II
and Probable I.
 Probable III: Widely spaced drilling indicates the presence
of ore, but there is insufficient data to be sure of geological
controls.
 Probable II: Sufficient information is available to be
sure enough of the geological model controlling the
mineralisation for long-term planning purposes.
 Probable I: Sufficient information is available to indicate
the distribution of high and low grades in the orebody for
medium-term planning purposes.
Proved Reserves include that portion of the Measured
Resources for which detailed technical and economic
information could justify extraction under specified economic
conditions and form part of the one-year mining plan.
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES
Statements concerning a Proved Reserve should be supported
by a full feasibility study or by current operating experience.
In the underground operations, Ore Reserves are based
on a full mine design and in the case of open pits, on a pit
optimisation followed by a final pit design. Ore Reserves are
reported according to tonnage, mean grade(s), contained metal
inclusive of mining dilution, mining ore losses and mine call
factors. These modifying factors are based on measurements,
rather than estimates. Tonnage and grade estimates for
surface stockpile materials that meet Ore Reserve criteria are
itemised separately.
Only those Ore Reserves included for treatment in the
business unit plan production schedule are considered in
the Ore Reserve statement. These plans sometimes include
marginal or subgrade ores as well as Inferred Mineral
Resources. These Inferred Mineral Resources are not
included in the Ore Reserve statement. For new projects, an
Ore Reserve is only reported if an auditable prefeasibility or
feasibility study has been completed that demonstrates the
viability of the project and meets the company’s investment
requirements. There should also be intent on the part of the
company to proceed to feasibility and ultimately a mining
phase. Traditional sensitivity studies are not applied to the
Ore Reserve. Instead, the cash flow for each operation is
tested using gold prices near to the average gold price for the
preceding three years.
In the underground operations, the Ore Reserve is based on
a full mine design and is reported according to tonnage, mean
grade(s), and contained metal inclusive of mining dilution,
mining ore losses and mine call factors. These modifying
factors are based on measurements, rather than estimates.
Tonnage and grade estimates for surface stockpile materials
that meet Ore Reserve criteria are itemised separately.
Only the Ore Reserve included for treatment in the business
unit plan production schedule is considered in the Ore Reserve
statement. These sometimes include marginal or subgrade
ores as well as the Inferred Mineral Resource. This Inferred
Mineral Resource is not included in the Ore Reserve statement.
For all new projects, an audited prefeasibility (as a minimum
requirement) must have been completed that demonstrates
the viability of the project and meets the company’s investment
requirements. This study must be signed off at the appropriate
executive level in order to demonstrate an intent on the part
of the company to proceed to feasibility and ultimately to
implement the project (MODG15, 1998).
The life-of-mine plan
The life-of-mine plan is an annual compilation of reserves
and resources that meet the required payability, mineability,
accessibility and legal criteria and can be extracted over the
projected life of the mine. A realistic LOM Plan is generated
once the section manager, section surveyor, shaft geologist,
and the rock mechanics officer, having considered each block
in the Mineral Resource category, are agreed about their
inclusion in the plan. For individual mines the bulk of the LOM
will be in Reserves, but a certain amount will be obtained from
Resources to achieve the required pay to unpay mix (eg 70:30)
based on a particular mine’s requirements.
Compilation of the mine’s total resource
Categorisation of the Total Resource is based on levels of
confidence in the annual estimate of grade and tonnage
of Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves. The geology
department blocks, categorises and values the Inferred and
Indicated Resources with input from survey, while the survey
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
department is responsible for the Measured Resources with
input from geology. The compilation may take 4 - 6 weeks,
and the final product reflects the resource status as at the end
of a particular measuring month, eg 30 December 2011, for
reporting purposes.
The Geology and Survey departments use updated 1:1000
structure and facies plans for blocking and classification
of the Total Resource. When blocking and categorising
Measured Resources the geologist should ensure that block
boundaries do not cut across facies boundaries or structural
discontinuities. Guidelines for categorising Inferred and
Indicated Resources in a scattered mining environment are
shown in Table 7. This tabulation has been applied at Vaal
Reefs and subdivides shaft blocking parameters under two
scenarios, the ‘mature’ shaft and the ‘developing’ shaft to
accommodate their intrinsic differences. The terms ‘mature’
and ‘developing’ cater for fault loss blocks and pillar shaft, and
reef blocks in the white open areas, respectively, eg a block
with low confidence in structure and high confidence in facies
should be classified as Indicated III.
In regard to Table 7 it should be noted that the lowest
confidence parameter determines the resource category and
that the assessment of the category, being a function of the
confidence in the gold mineralising model, depends on the
quality of information available from boreholes, development
mapping and other sources (seismic surveys, etc). Mining
infrastructure guidelines do not necessarily imply that
putting the development is in place automatically defines the
resource category. Rather the confidence level and resource
category will be established once the geological information
is available. Since the resource category allocated to a block
is a function of confidence, there is no reason why an Inferred
block should not be contiguous with a measured block. The
practice of subdividing a block into a series of smaller blocks
in order of decreasing confidence should be avoided since
confidence usually falls off rapidly from known information.
When blocking, remember the adage, keep it simple.
Valuation
Valuation of the mean grade of blocks in the Mineral Resources
and Ore Reserves expressed in cm.g/t, is obtained either
by conventional or geostatistical methods. Conventional
valuation includes the use of arithmetic mean, inverse distance
squared, weighted means, ‘Gut feel’, and log contouring.
Geostatistical methods includes the use of Sichel’s t estimator,
Simple or Ordinary Kriging, Log-Normal Kriging, using a
Bayesian approach and compound log-normal or LNGIG (Log
Normal Generalized Inverse Gaussian) distributions.
CONCLUSIONS
The contribution of geoscience to the exploitation of the Wits
type orebodies over the 120 year period since their discovery
(1886), has been enormous. From the earliest efforts at
exploration in the Wits basin, geoscience has provided
the tools necessary to explain and place observable facts
into their context and then use those facts to advance the
exploitation of the minerals in the basin. Mine-site geology
requires daily recording of facts that may appear at first
glance to be monotonously similar, but diligent observation
has shown that reefs that were originally considered to be
single conglomerate layers, are in fact a composite of up four
individual stages of sedimentation and associated erosion.
The importance of the geoscience contribution is that it
only comes with careful observation and diligent recording
of facts in the natural world. This requires discipline and
39
R C A MINNITT et al
determination in thoughtfulness in order to extract the full
value and implications of geoscience in regard to mineral
exploitation. Geological interpretation, domaining and
estimation of the metal content in the Witwatersrand-type
reefs is based on a long history of scientific work from which
the understanding of the geological setting of the reefs has
been built. The geometry of the deposit is, grossly, a thin layer,
but the internal subtleties of facies and sedimentology are the
subject of competent ongoing geological study and, at the level
required for resource estimation. The depth of experience and
confirmation of the model and empirical validation through
using the estimation process is reassuring. Three dimensional
modelling of the structures and dykes is advanced, and the
locations and interpretations are constantly updated via
underground mapping.
Geologists have not only provided valuable input in regard to
the difficulties associated with day-to-day running of mining
operations, but through the years have successively taken
on the more challenging and responsible tasks of evaluation
and resource and reserve estimation. In addition advances in
the understanding of the geological setting and origins of the
gold mineralisation have shown that a strictly fluvial model is
inadequate in explaining many of the features associated with
these ores.
The mineral resource and reserve estimation process as
employed by AGA is complex, but the Macro Co-Kriging
method employed is an original and unique solution to the
problems associated with estimation of Wits-type reefs, and
at each step of the process the methods used are justified by
the characteristics and nature of the orebody. The data used
in the resource estimation are adequate and fit for purpose
and generally the data collection and management is of
an acceptable, and in many case, of very high quality. The
integrated management of borehole data versus underground
stope face samples is being planned.
The approach taken by AGA in regard to classification is very
specific to the Wits and has resulted in the bulk of tonnage
in surface drilled areas being classified as ‘Indicated’. The
stepwise approach to Resource estimation and classification
is understandable and able to withstand scrutiny by a peer
group that might ask if the public reporting requirements
required by JORC or SAMREC have been met. Justification
and logic of domaining decisions, and the conclusion that
semi-variogram models are isotropic, require further
documentation. A large number of documents needed to be
reviewed to gain a deep appreciation of the estimation method
used and a single document combining the practical content
of the Macro Co-Kriging estimation standard and improved
theoretical descriptions would be helpful to future reviewers
and auditors.
REFERENCES
AngloGold Ashanti, 2007. Supplementary information: Mineral
resources and ore reserves [online], Russel and Associates,
124 p. Available from: <http://www.anglogold.co.za/Downloads/
Downloads.htm>.
AngloGold Ashanti, 2008. AngloGold Ashanti guidelines for
the reporting of exploration results, mineral resources and ore
reserves for 2008, Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Steering
Committee, 24 October.
Anhaeusser, C R, 1978. The geological evolution of the primitive
earth – evidence from the Barberton Mountainland, Evolution of
the Earth’s Crust (ed: D H Tarling), pp 71-106 (Academic Press:
London).
40 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
Antrobus, E S, (ed), 1986. Witwatersrand Gold – 100 Years,
298 p, special publication (Geological Society of South Africa).
Barnard, R, Bisschoff, I and Peattie, R, 2009. Standard – Macro
Mixed Support Kriging, STD2009-929, Rev No 3, Geoscience
Department, Geoscience technical Offices (GTO), AngloGold
Ashanti Geoscience Department Standard, July.
Barnicoat, A C, Henderson, I H C, Knipe, R J, Yardley, B W D,
Napier, R W, Fox, N P C, Kenyon, A K, Muntingh, D J, Strydom,
D, Winkler, K S, Lawrence, S R and Cornford, C, 1997.
Hydrothermal gold mineralisation in the Witwatersr and basin,
Nature, 386:220-224.
Bodenstein, T and Ward, C, 2003. Density investigation 2003 –
Vaal Reef, VCR, Carbon Leader, AngloGold Ashanti PowerPoint
Presentation.
Burnett, R J and Armstrong, M W, 2009. TauTona Mine BP1: Geology
BP2010, internal AngloGold Ashanti West Wits Operations
business planning document, internal company report, May.
Cawood, F T, 2003. Underground face sampling on narrow reef:
Sampling practice and its impact on the Mine Call factor on
Witwatersrand mines – lessons learnt, Journal of the Institute of
Mine Surveyors of South Africa, XXXI(7):202-224.
Chamberlain, V A, 1997. The application of macro co-kriging and
compound lognormal theory to long range forecasts for the
Carbon Leader Reef, Master of Science in Engineering thesis,
Faculty of Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand.
Chamberlain, V A and O’Brien, M F, 1995. Strategic ore evaluation:
Current techniques used by the Anglo American Corporation, in
Proceedings Meeting of The South African Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, Johannesburg.
Deysel, K, 2009. Overview: CLR facies modelling, AngloGold Ashanti
PowerPoint Presentation, June.
Dohm, C E, 1995. Improvement of ore evaluation through
identification of homogenous areas using geological, statistical
and geostatistical analyses, Doctor of Philosophy thesis,
University of the Witwatersrand.
Fletcher, P, 2009. The Carbon Leader Reef, internal AngloGold
Ashanti Geoscience Technical Office (GTO) document, July.
Flitton, T, Kelly, S, Schmidt, K and Peattie, R, 2009. AngloGold
Ashanti Geoscience Department Standard STD2009-
927 – underground chip sampling, internal Anglo Gold
Ashanti West Wits Operations procedure document, July,
Revision 3.
Fox, N, 2002. Exploration for Witwatersrand gold deposits and
analogues, Giant Ore Deposits: Characteristics, Genesis and
Exploration (eds: D R Cooke and J Pongratz) CODES Special
Publication, 4:243-269 (University of Tasmania).
Frimmel, H E, Groves, D I, Kirk, J, Ruiz, J, Chesley, J and Minter,
W E L, 2005. The formation and preservation of the witwatersrand
goldfields, the world’s largest gold province, Economic Geology
100th Anniversary Volume, pp 769-797 (Society of Economic
Geology).
Frimmel, H E and Minter, W E L, 2002. Recent developments
concerning the geological history and genesis of the Witwatersrand
gold deposits, South Africa, Society of Economic Geologists
Special Publication, 9:17-45 (Society of Economic Geology)..
Frith, I M, 2009a. Introduction to the Wits Basin, AngloGold Ashanti
PowerPoint Presentation, June.
Frith, I M, 2009b. History of the Carbon Leader Reef, AngloGold
Ashanti PowerPoint Presentation, June.
Frith, I M, 2009c. Introduction to the West Wits Area, AngloGold
Ashanti PowerPoint Presentation, June.
Frith, I M, 2009d. The Carbon Leader Mineralisation Model,
AngloGold Ashanti PowerPoint Presentation, June.
Gaelejwe, F, Kennedy, J and van der Merwe, C, 2011. Moab Khotsong
Software Project, internal report, Geoscience Technical Office,
Anglogold Ashanti, 7 p.
 MINERAL RESOURCE MODELLING AND RECONCILIATION IN ULTRA DEEP UNDERGROUND GOLD MINES
Gijima Mining Solutions International (GMSI), 2011. Gijima.
Available from: <http://www.gijima.com/>.
Heyns, A J A, 1958. A problem in borehole valuation, unpublished
paper read at the South African Statistical Association.
Jolley, S J, Freeman, S R, Barnicoat, A C , Phillips, G M, Knipe,
R J, Pather, A, Fox, N P C, Strydom, D, Birch, M T G, Henderson,
I H C and Rowland, T W, 2004. Structural controls on
Witwatersrand Gold, Journal of Structural Geology,
26(6-7):1067-1086.
JORC, 2004. Australasian Code for Reporting of Exploration
Results, Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves (The JORC Code)
[online]. Available from: <http://www.jorc.org> (Joint Ore
Reserves Committee of the Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Australian Institute of Geoscientists and Minerals
Council of Australia.
Kennedy, J, 2007. Procedure to assess sample and reef intersection
representivity and their recording in AuBIS, internal AngloGold
Ashanti West Wits Operations document, May.
Kennedy, J, 2009a. Procedure – reef intersections sent to GTO
for sampling, internal AngloGold Ashanti West Wits Operations
Procedure document.
Kennedy, J, 2009b. Mandatory recording of borehole data in AuBIS,
internal AngloGold Ashanti West Wits Operations Procedure
document.
Krige, D G, 1981. Lognormal de Wijsian Geostatistics for ore
evaluation, Geostatistics 1, 51 p (Southern African Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy: Marshalltown).
Krige, D G and Assibey-Bonsu, W, 1992. New developments in
Borehole valuations for new gold mines and undeveloped
sections of existing mines, J South African Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, 92(3):71-77.
Krige, D G, Kleingeld, W J and Oosterveld, M M, 1990. A-Priori
parameter distribution patterns for gold in the Witwatersrand
Basin to be applied in borehole valuations of potential new mines
using Bayesian geostatistical techniques, APCOM 90, Berlin,
pp 715- 726.
Lavery, R K, Flitton, G and Enslin, P, 2008. Mponeng and Savuka
mines competent persons report – mineral resources, internal
Anglo Gold Ashanti West Wits Operations document, December.
Lavery, R K and Pieterse, P, 2009. West Wits operations Mponeng
and Savuka Mine – Gold: Evaluation audit trail (38 Point Plan),
internal AngloGold Ashanti West Wits Operations document,
September.
Law, J D M and Phillips, G N, 2005. Hydrothermal replacement
model for Witwatersrand gold, Economic Geology 100th
Anniversary Volume, pp 799-811 (Geological Society of South
Africa).
McCarthy, T S and Rubidge, B, 2005. The Story of Earth and Life
(Struik Publishers).
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL MINING GEOLOGY CONFERENCE / QUEENSTOWN, NEW ZEALAND, 22 - 24 AUGUST 2011
MODG6, 1998. Underground mapping procedures, Module G 6,
Anglogold Ashanti Geology Department, Copyright Anglogold
Ashanti, 18 p.
MODG8, 1998. Sedimentological underground mapping, Module
G 8, Anglogold Ashanti Geology Department, Copyright Anglogold
Ashanti, 36 p.
MODG10, 1998. Mine planning, Module G 10, Anglogold Ashanti
Geology Department, Copyright Anglogold Ashanti, 9 p.
MODG12, 1998. Underground geological and cover drilling,
Module G 12, Anglogold Ashanti Geology Department, Copyright
Anglogold Ashanti, 15 p.
MODG15, 1998. Mineral Resources, Module G 15, Anglogold Ashanti
Geology Department, Copyright Anglogold Ashanti, 15 p.
O’Brien, M F, 1996. Making use of limited sampling data from deep
boreholes: Verification techniques, in Proceedings Geostatistics
Wollongong ’96 – The 5th International Geostatistical Congress,
pp 792-798 (Kluwer Academic Publishers).
Orton, R, 2009. West Wits Operations TauTona Mine – Gold:
Evaluation Audit Trail (38 Point Plan) January 2009, internal
Anglo Gold Ashanti West Wits Operations document, January.
Orton, R and Burnett, R J, 2008. TauTona mine competent persons
report – Mineral resources, internal AngloGold Ashanti West
Wits Operations document, December (with appendices in
separate volume).
Pretorius, D A, 1981. Gold and uranium in quartz-pebble
conglomerates, Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume,
pp 117-138.
SAMREC, 2007. South African Code for the Reporting of Exploration
Results, Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves [online].
Available from: <http://www.samcode.co.za/downloads/SAM
REC2009.pdf>.
Sichel, H S, Kleingeld, W J and Assibey-Bonsu, W, 1992.
A comparative study of three frequency distribution models for
use in ore evaluation, Jour South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, 92(4):91-99.
Vann, J, Jackson, S and Bertoli, O, 2003. Quantitative Kriging
neighbourhood analysis for the mining geologist – a description
of the method with worked case examples, in Proceedings Fifth
International Mining Geology Conference, pp 215-223 (The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Vann, J, Jackson, S, Stewart, M and Job, M, 2009. Mineral resource
review – Carbon Leader Reef, West Wits – South Africa, report
number QG PROJECT CODE AGA13901, 14 October, report
produced for Anglogold Ashanti, 85 p.
Watts, M, 2005a. The carbon leader reef on the TauTona and
Driefontein Mines, internal AngloGold Ashanti report, May.
Watts, M, 2005b. The carbon leader reef facies workshop – bridging
the Driefontein and TauTona Gap, AngloGold Ashanti Power
Point Presentation.
41