MATHEMATICS 210

LINEAR ALGEBA 1

1.0 MATRICES AND SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

1.1 System of linear equation

1.2 Constituent and linear system

1.3 Equivalent systems

1.4 Row echelon form

2.0 MATRIX OPERATIONS INCLUDING INVERSES

2.1 Gaussian elimination in matrix form

2.2 Gauss-Jordan elimination process

2.3 Homogenous system of linear of matrix

2.4 Determinations and inverse of a matrix

2.5 Inverse by Gauss – Jordan elimination

2.6 Co-factors method

2.7 Crammers rule

3.0 VECTOR SPACES

3.1 Definitions and examples of vector spaces

3.2 Subspaces

3.3 Linear dependence and linear independence

3.4 Basis and dimension

3.5 The row and column spaces of a matrix

3.6 Inner product spaces

3.7 Scalar product in 𝑅𝑛

 3.8 Orthogonal subspaces and projections

3.9 Orthonormal bases

3.10 The gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process.

4.0 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

4.1 Definition and examples of linear transformations

4.2 Kernel and image of Linear mapping

4.3 Non-singular transformation

4.4 Algebra of linear transformation

4.5 Dual spaces

4.6 Transpose of linear mapping

4.7 Matrices and linear transformation

5.0 EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS

5.1 Definitions

5.2 System of linear differential equations

5.3 Diagonalization

5.4 Cayley Hamilton theorem

REFERENCES

1. Modern algebra second edition by B.S Vatsa and Sudin Vatsa

2. Linear algebra with applications by Steven. J. Leo.

3. Linear algebra done right by Sheldon Alex

4. Advanced Linear algebra by Leon Mirsky

5. Introduction to linear algebra by linear algebra by Normal Daniel

6. Linear algebra by Gilbert Srano

 7. Kolman, Bunard: elementary linear algebra

8. Anton , Howard

9. Shields, Paul

10. Lecture Notes and Internet

COURSE LECTURER: - NYABERI BOSIRE

SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

Introduction

Linear equation with unknowns is an equation of the type 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + … . + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏. in

many situations in 𝑛 unknowns. Such a set is known as a system of linear equations and takes the

form

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + … . + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2

𝑎𝑚 1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚 2 𝑥2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚

The terms 𝑥1 ,𝑥2 , … … . 𝑥𝑛 are the unknowns or the variables of the system while the 𝑎𝑖 , are called

coefficients. The 𝑏𝑖 on the 𝑅𝐻𝑠 are fixed numbers or scalars. The goal is to find the values of the

𝑥1, 𝑥2, … … … 𝑥𝑛 such that the equations are satisfied.

Example 1.1

Consider the system

3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 7

4𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 2

𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0

Does 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2,1,1 solve the system? What a bout 11/4, −1, −3/4 ?
Solution

We substitute the values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 into each equation trying 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2,1,1 in the first

equation, we obtain 3 2 + 2 1 − 1 = 7 and so the first equation is satisfied using the

substation in the 2nd equation, we find that 4 2 + 9 1 17 ≠ 2 . The 2nd equation is not

satisfied. Therefore 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2,1,1 cannot be a solution to this system of equation.

11 3
Now we try the second set of numbers , −1, − 4 . Substituting in the first equation
4

11
gives3 + 9 −1 + = 2. This time, the 2nd equation is satisfied. Finally, the third equation
4

11 3
works out to be + 5 −1 − 3 − 4 = 0. This shows the 3rd equation is satisfied as well.
4

11 3
Therefore we conclude that 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = , −1, − 4 is a solution to the system.
4

Definition 1.1

When at least one solution exists for a given system of linear equations, we call the system

consistent. If no solution exists, the system is called inconsistent. The solution to a system is not

necessarily unique. A consistent system has either a unique solution or it can have an infinite

numbers of solutions.

Remark 1.1

If a consistent system has an infinite number of solutions, we can define a solution in terms of

some extra parameter 𝑡 we call this a parametric solution.

Example 1.2

Solve the following system of equations

a) 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 2

−2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 3

Solution

Multiply equation 1 by 2 to eliminate 𝑥

2𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 4

−2𝑥+4𝑦 =3
−2𝑦 =7

7
𝑦 = −2

7
𝑥 =2−3 2

17
=𝑗 2

b) 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 2

−2𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 3

Solution

Multiply (1) by 2 to eliminate 𝑥

2𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 4

−2𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 3
0 = 7 Hence no solution.

Example 1.3

Consider the following system of 3 equations

𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3

2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3

3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑘

Find the value of 𝑘 for which the system is consistent

Solution

Consider the first two equations first. Multiplying equation (1) by 2 to eliminate 𝑥 we have

2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 8

2𝑥−𝑦 =3
5𝑦 =5

𝑦=1

Substituting in (1) we have

𝑥+2=4

=𝑥=2

Lastly substitute the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the equation

3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑘
3 2 + 1=𝑘

𝑘=7

LINEAR EQUATIONS

A line in an 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane is represented typically as follows

𝑎1 , 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = 𝑏 Where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑏 are constant

Definition 1.2

A linear equation is any equation of the form 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + … … . + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏 where 𝑎1 are

called coefficients, 𝑥1 variables and 𝑏 the constant term 𝑎1 is called the leading coefficient.

Definition 1.3

A solution of a linear equation is a sequence of 𝑛 numbers 𝑠1 𝑠2 … … . 𝑠𝑛 such that the equation is

satisfied when we substitute 𝑥1 = 𝑠1 , 𝑥2 = 𝑠2 , … … . 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑠𝑛 the set of all solutions is called a

solution set written as 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 … … . 𝑠𝑛

Example 1.4

Find the solution set of each of the following

a) 4𝑎 − 2𝑦 = 1

Solution

4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 1

4𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑦
 1 1
𝑥= + y
4 2

1 1
Let 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = + t
4 2

1 1
Therefore set = 𝑥 = + t, y = t
4 2

𝑥1 = 6 + 4𝑥2 − 7𝑥3

Let 𝑥2 = 𝑠1 𝑥3 = 𝑡 be arbitrary values

Solution set = 𝑥1 = 6 + 4𝑠 − 7𝑡, 𝑥1 = 𝑠, 𝑥3 = 𝑡

Example 1.5

Solve the equations

3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

Solution

3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1

3x 1 + 3x 2 − 3x 3 =o
4x 2 − 4x 3 = 1

1
= 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 + 4

1
Let 3𝑥 = 𝑡, =𝑥2 = 𝑡 + 4
 1 1
𝑥1 = 𝑡 − 𝑡 − = −4
4

1 1
The solution to the system is 𝑥1 = − 4 , 𝑥2 = 𝑡 + , 𝑥3 = 𝑡
4

Equivalent systems

Consider the following systems

1) 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 1

7𝑥 1 − −𝑥 2 =15
8𝑥 1 = 16

𝑥1 = 2, 𝑥2 = −1

2) 3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 7

𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2 =3
2𝑥 1 =4

𝑥1 = 2, 𝑥2 = 1

The above system 1 and 2 have the same solution. Such systems are called equivalent

system of linear equations

Definition 1.4

A row echelon of form of 𝑚 linear equation in 𝑛 variables has the form.

𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 + … + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
-

𝑥𝑚 = 𝑏𝑚

An echelon system has two characteristics

1) Any rows that contain zeros are found at the bottom of the matrix

2) The first non-zero entry on each row found to the right of the first non-zero entry in the

proceeding row.

Note

The leading coefficients are in row echelon form. One system has been reduced, we call the

coefficient of the first unknown in each row a pivot.

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION IN MATRIX FORM

Given the system of 𝑚 linear equation in 𝑛 variables

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + … … . + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + … … . + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2

𝑎𝑚 1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚 2 𝑥2 + … … + 𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑚 = 𝑏𝑚

Then the matrix is called augmented matrix of the system

 𝑎11 𝑎12 − − − 𝑎1𝑛 ; 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 − − − 𝑎2𝑛 ; 𝑏2
𝑎𝑚 1 𝑎𝑛2 − − − 𝑎𝑛𝑛 ; 𝑏𝑚

NOTE

There exist three elementary operations that can be applied to a system of linear equations

without fundamentally changing that system. There are

a) Exchange two rows of the matrix

b) Replace a row by a scalar multiple of itself as long as the scalar is non-zero

c) Replace one row by adding the scalar multiple of another row

The solution to the system obtained when this set of the operations are applied to bring the

matrix into triangular form. This type of elimination is called Gaussian elimination.

The following procedure is fundamental in Gaussian elimination

1) Write the augmented matrix of the system

2) Use elementary row operations to re-write the augmented matrix in row-echelon form.

3) Write the system of linear equations corresponding to the row echelon form and use

backward substitution. In backward substitution, we substitute the value we have found

into the equation immediately above it.

Remark 1.2

While ideally we want to get the matrix in triangular form, this is not always necessary. We

show this in the next example

Example 1.7

Use Gaussian elimination to find a solution to the following system

2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1

−𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0

𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2

Solution

The augmented matrix is

0 2 −1 1
−1 2 −1 0
1 −4 1 2

The first pivot position contains a zero we exchange rows 1 and 3 i.e 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3 this is given by

1 −4 1 2 1 −4 1 2
−1 2 −1 0 → 0 −2 0 2
0 2 −1 1 0 2 −1 1

From row 2, -2y = 2 = y = -1

2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1

𝑧 = 2𝑦 − 1 = −3

𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2

𝑥 = 2 + 4𝑦 − 𝑧

= 2−4+3

=1
GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION PROCESS

A matrix of the form is said to be reduced row echelon form.

1 0 0 − − − 1 𝑏1
0 1 0 − − − 1 𝑏2
− − − − − 1 − In Gauss – Jordan elimination, there are 0′𝑠 both above and below each
− − − − − 1 −
0 0 0 − − − 1 𝑏𝑚

pivot. This way of reducing a matrix is less efficient

Example 2.1

1 3 0 −1
Reduced the matrix 𝐴 = 2 5 3 − 2 to row canonic form using Gaus-Jordan elimination
3 7 5 −4

Solution

1 3 0 −1 1 3 0 −1 1 3 0 −1
2 5 3 − 2 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 0 −1 3 0 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 0 −1 3 0
3 7 5 −4 3 7 5 4 0 −2 5−1

1 3 0 −1 1 0 9 −1 1 0 9 −1
𝑅3 + 2𝑅2 0 −1 3 0 𝑅1 + 3𝑅2 0 −1 0 3 𝑅2 + 3𝑅3 0 −1 0 − 3
0 0 −1 − 1 0 0 −1 − 1 0 0 −1 1

1 0 0 − 10 1 0 0 − 10
𝑅1 + 9𝑅3 0 −1 0 − −3 𝑅2 𝑋 − 1 0 1 0 − −3
0 0 −1 − −1 0 0 1 − 1
Example 2.2

Solve the system

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 8

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 = −1

3𝑥1 − 7𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = 10

Using Gauss-Jordan elimination

1 1 2 8 1 1 2 8 1 1 2 8
31 2 −3 − 1 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 0 1 −5 − 9 𝑅3 + 10𝑅2 0 1 −5 − 9
3 −7 4 10 0 −10 −2 − 14 0 0 −5 − 104

1 1 2 8 1 1 2 8 1 0 2 7 1 0 0 3
0 1 −5 − 9 𝑅2 + 5𝑅3 0 1 0 1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 0 1 0 1 𝑅1 + 2𝑅3 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2

= 𝑥1 = 3, 𝑥2 = 1, 𝑥3 = 2 .
MATH 210 VOL II

MATRICES

Generally a system of linear equations can be written as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 where

𝑎11 𝑎1 2 − − − 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 − − − 𝑎2𝑛
ꜗ ꜗ ꜗ ꜗ ꜗ ꜗ
𝑎𝑚 1 𝑎𝑚 2 − − − 𝑎𝑚𝑛

𝑋1 𝑏1
𝑋 = 𝑋2 and 𝐵 = 𝑏2
𝑋𝑁 𝑏𝑛

A system of linear equation is completely solved if 𝑥 is found. If 𝐴−1 is known, then if 𝑥 =

𝐴−1 𝐵 provided that 𝐴 is a square matrix. An equation Is needed,

Definition 3.1

Two matrices 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 and 𝐵 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 are said to be equal if they have the same order and

their corresponding entries are equal and we write𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗.

Two matrices 𝐴𝑖𝑗 and 𝐵𝑖𝑗 are said to be similar if 𝚓 an invertible matrix𝑝. = 𝐵 = 𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃, 𝐴 =

𝑃𝐵𝑃−

Determining the inverse of a matrix

Definition 3.2

1 0 0 − − − 0
The square matrix 𝐼𝑛 = 0 1 0 − − − 0 is called an identity matrix of order 𝑛 if
− − − − − − −

𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼𝑛 and C is called the inverse of A.

If 𝐴 is a square matrix, then it is said to be indepotent if 𝐴2 = 𝐴

Finding the inverse by Gauss-Jordan elimination procedure.

 Write the 𝑛 × 2𝑛 matrix consisting of the given matrix 𝐴 on the left and the identity

matrix 𝐼𝑛 on the right to get 𝐴 ; 𝐼𝑛 . This is called adjoining 𝐴 to𝐼𝑛 .

 Row reduce 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐼𝑛 using elementary row operations on the entire matrix 𝐴 ; 𝐼𝑛 . The

resulting matrix is 𝐼𝑛 ; 𝐴−1 .

 If step 2 above is possible, then the matrix is said to be invertible otherwise 𝐴 is non-

invertible and 𝐴−1 does not exist.

Example 3.

1 1 1
Let 𝐴 = 3 5 4 find 𝐴−1 by 𝐺 − 𝐽 elimination process and hence solve the system.
3 6 5

𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 1

3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0

3𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 2

Solution

1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
𝐴 ! 𝐼𝑛 = 3 5 𝑅
4 0 1 0 3 − 3𝑅1 0 2 1 − 3 1 0 2𝑅3 − 3𝑅2
3 6 5 0 0 1 0 3 2 −3 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 −1 3 −2
0 2 −3 1 0 𝑅2 − 𝑅3 0 2 0 − 6 4 − 2 𝑅1 − 𝑅3 V 0 2 0 −6 4 −2
0 0 1 3 −3 2 0 0 1 3 −3 2 0 0 1 3 −3 2

1 1 0 −2 3 −2 1 0 0 1 1 −1
1
𝑅2 × 2 0 2 1 − 3 1 0 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 0 1 0 − 3 2 − 1 = 𝐼𝑛 ! 𝐴−1
0 0 1 3 −3 −2 0 0 1 3 −3 2

1 1 −1
𝐴−1 = −3 2 −1
3 −3 2

𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 0

3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0

3𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 2

1 1 1 𝑥 1
3 5 4 𝑦 = 0
3 6 5 𝑧 2

Pre-multiply both by 𝐴−1 to get

𝑥 1 1 −1 1 −1
𝑦 = −3 2 −1 0 = −5
𝑧 3 −3 2 2 7

= 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = −5, 𝑧 = 7

Example 3.2

1 2 −1
Let A = 3 7 −10 find 𝐴−1 using 𝐺 − 𝐽 process.
7 16 −21

Solution

1 2 −1 1 0 0 1 2 −1 1 0 0 1 2 −1 1 0 0
3 7 −10 0 1 0 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 0 1 −7 − 3 1 0 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 0 1 −7 − 3 1 0
7 16 −21 0 0 1 0 2 −14 − 7 0 1 0 0 0 −1 −2 1
The 𝐴 portion of the adjoined matrix has a row of zeros hence it is not possible to reduce 𝐴 ! 𝐼𝑛

to 𝐼𝑛 ! 𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 does not exist, hence 𝐴 is not invertible i.e 𝐴 is a singular matrix.

Theme 3.1

Every system of Linear equations has either

i. No solution

ii. Exactly one solution

iii. Infinitely many solutions

Theme 3.2

If 𝐵 and 𝐶 are both inverse of matrix𝐴, then 𝐵=C

Proof

Since B is the inverse of A, then 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼. Now multiply C on the right of both sides to get

𝐵𝐴 C = 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐶

𝐵 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶

𝐵𝐼 = 𝐶

𝐵=𝐶
THE CO-FACTOR METHOD

Definition 3.3

If A is a square matrix, then the minor of entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗 denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is defined to be the

determinant of the sub-matrix that remains after the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column are deleted from

𝑖+𝑗
A. the number −1 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is denoted by 𝐶𝑖𝑗 and is called the co-factor of the entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗.

𝑖+𝑗
i.e 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = −1 𝑀𝑖𝑗

Example 3.3

3 1 −4
If 𝐴 = 2 5 6 then it has 9 minor of all its entries
1 4 8

5 6
The minor of 𝑎11 is 𝑚11 = = 16
4 8

2 6
The minor of 𝑎12 is 𝑚12 = =10
1 8

= 𝐶12 = −11+2 𝑀12 = −10

2 5
For 𝑎13 𝑀13 = =3
1 4

= 𝐶13 = −11 +3 𝑀13 = 3

Note

Cij = ± 𝑀𝑖𝑗 i.e they differ only by the sign

 𝑛
We define det A = 𝑗 =1 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑗 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎11 𝑐11 + 𝑎12 𝑐12 + − − + − −

Example 3.4

4 0 1
Find det A if A = 0 2 1
3 −1 2

Solution

2 1 0 1 0 2
det A = 4 – 0 +1
−1 2 3 2 3 −1

= 4 × 5 + 0 × 3 + 1 × −6

= 14

Find det A by co-factor expansion method

1 2 −2
If A = 2 −3 10
0 1 −3

TRIANGULAR MATRICES

Defination 3.4

A square matrix in which all the entries below the leading diagonal are zero is called an upper

triangular matrix.

𝑎11 𝑎12 − − − 𝑎1𝑛

0 𝑎22 − − − 𝑎2𝑛
01 𝑂1 𝑎33 − − − 𝑎3𝑛

Similarly a lower triangular matrix has all entries above the leading diagonal equal to zero
 𝑎11 0 0 − − − 0
𝑎21 𝑎22 0 − − − 0
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 − − − 0

Note

If A is a triangular matrix then let 𝐴 = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 − − 𝑎𝑛𝑛 i.e the product of main diagonal

entries.

Example 3.5

1 2 4 −1 6
Let 𝐴 = 0 3 −2 1 9 then the determinant of 𝐴 is
0 0 15 7 0

Det 𝐴 = 1 × 15 × −1 × 1

= −45

Assignment

𝜆+1 0 0
Find the values of λ for which the determinant of the matrix 4 𝜆 3 is equal to zero.
2 8 𝜆+5

ADJUGATE / ADJOINT OF A MATRIX

Definition

If 𝐴 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix and 𝐵 is the matrix of co-factors, then we define the adjoin of 𝐴 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 =

𝐵𝑇 and 𝐴−1 = 1. 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝐴.

Example 3.9

1 2 −2
Let 𝐴 be the matrix𝐴 = 2 −3 10 , find
0 1 −3

i. Adj A

ii. 𝐴−1

Det𝐴 = 7

Co-factors

−3 10 2 10
𝑐11 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 = −1, 𝑐12 = −𝑑𝑒𝑡 =6
1 −3 0 −3

2 −2 2 −2
𝑐13 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 = 2, 𝑐21 = −𝑑𝑒𝑡 =4
0 1 1 −3

1 −2 1 2
𝑐22 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 = −3, 𝑐23 = −𝑑𝑒𝑡 = −1
0 −3 0 1

2 −2 1 −2
𝑐31 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 = 14, 𝑐32 = −𝑑𝑒𝑡 = −14
−3 10 2 10

1 2
𝑐33 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 = −7
2 −3

−1 6 2 −1 4 14
𝑇
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐵 = 4 −3 −1 = 𝐵 = 6 −3 −14 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴
14 −14 −7 2 −1 −7

1 4
−7 2
−1 4 14 7
1 6 3
=𝐴−1 = 6 −3 14 = 7
−7 −2
7
2 −1 −7 2 1
−7 −1
7
Theorem 3.5

Show that the determinant of a second order matrix with identical rows is zero.

Proof

𝑎 𝑏
Let 𝐴 =
𝑎 𝑏

𝑎 𝑏
det𝐴 = = 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0
𝑎 𝑏

i.e the determinant of a matrix with two rows or two columns that are identical is zero.

Definition 3.6

Let 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 and 𝐵 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 be two square 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices, we say that the matrices commute if

𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴. If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴, we say that the matrices do not commute.

Definition 3.7

The commutater of two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 is denoted by 𝐴, 𝐵 and is defined as 𝐴, 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 −

𝐵𝐴 . The commutator of two matrices is a matrix.

Example 3.10

2 −1 1 −4
Consider the following matrices 𝐴 = 𝐵= does this matrices commute? Find
4 3 4 −1

the commutator.

Solution
 2 −1 1 −4 −14 −7
𝐴𝐵 = =
4 3 4 −1 16 −19

1 −4 2 −1 −14 −13
𝐵𝐴 = =
4 −1 4 3 4 −7

Clearly 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴 and so the matrices do not commute

Now

𝐴 , 𝐵 = AB – BA

−2 −7 −14 −13 12 6
= − =
16 −19 4 −7 12 −12

Assignment.

1 −𝑋 2 𝑦
Let A = and B = . Find the values of x and y such that the commutator of
𝑋 1 1 −𝑦

these two matrices is zero

I.e. AB = BA

CRAMER’S RULE

This is a formula that uses determination to solve systems of 𝑛 linear equations in 𝑛 variables

Theme 4.1 (Cramer’s rule)

If a system of 𝑛 linear equations in 𝑛 variables has a coefficient matrix 𝐴, when det 𝐴 ≠ 0, then

the solution to the system is given by

det 𝐴 𝑖 𝐴1
𝑥1 = i.e 𝑥1 =
det 𝐴 𝐴
This is called the Cramer’s rule. The matrix 𝐴𝑖 is obtained by replacing the entries of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ

𝑏1
column of 𝐴 by the entries of the matrix 𝐵 = 𝑏2 i.e the coefficient matrix.
𝑏3

Example 4.1

Solve the following system by crammers rule

2𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 3𝑥3 = 3

2𝑥1 + 𝑥3 = 0

4𝑥3 − 4𝑥2 + 3𝑥1 = 6

Solution

−1 2 −3
0 1 2 1 2 0
𝐴= 2 0 1 𝑑𝑒𝑡 = −1 −2 −3
−4 4 3 4 3 −4
3 −4 4

= 10 ≠ 0

3 2 −3
0 1 0 1 0 0
𝐴1 = 0 0 1 =3 −2 −3
−4 4 6 4 6 −4
6 −4 4

= 3 4 − 2 −6 − 3 0

= 12 + 12

= 24

𝐴1 24 12
Therefore 𝑥1 = = =
𝑎 10 5
 −1 3 −3
0 1 2 1 2 0
𝐴2 = 2 0 1 = −1 −3 −3
6 4 3 4 3 6
3 6 4

= −1 −6 − 3 5 − 3 12

= 6 − 15 − 36

−45

45 −9
Therefore 𝑥2 = − 10 = 2

−1 2 3
0 0 2 0 2 0
𝐴3 = 2 0 0 = −1 −2 +3
−4 6 3 6 3 −4
3 −4 6

= −1 0 − 2 12 + −8

= −24 − 24

−48

−48 −24
Therefore 𝑥3 = =
10 5