Chapter 2

Kinematics: Motion of a Particle in One

and Two Dimensions
For now, we consider objects that have masses but
of infinitesimal sizes, i.e., the Particle Model

2.1 Motion in One Dimension (1D)

 Dynamic variables describing the motion in 1D
include position/displacement, velocity, and
acceleration.

 To locate an object means to find its position

relative to some reference point, often the origin
(or zero point) of an axis such as the x axis.
1
A change from one position x1 to another position x2 is
called a displacement ∆x, where
∆ x = x2 – x1
 The ratio of displacement ∆ x
and the time elapsed when
particle changes its position
from x1 to x2 defines the
(average) velocity.
∆x
v avg =
∆t
2
The instantaneous velocity
(or velocity) is
∆x d x
v = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt

(Average) speed is the ratio between the distance

travelled by a particle over the time interval, while the
instantaneous speed is simply the magnitude of velocity.
Distance
vavg = generally ≠| v avg |
∆t
Distance
v = lim =v
∆t →0 ∆t
3
 (Average) acceleration is defined as

∆v v f − v i
aavg = =
∆t ∆t
and the instantaneous acceleration (or simply
acceleration) is the derivative of the velocity with
respect to time:
∆v d v d 2 x
a = lim = = 2
∆t →0 ∆t dt dt

4
 Motion under Constant Acceleration
Kinematic Equations
v f = vi + a t where a is constant, and ti = 0

= (v i + v f ) = v i + a t
1 1
v avg
2 2
x f = x i + aavg t
1 2
= xi + vi t + a t
2
v 2f = v i2 + 2a ∆x

5
 Graphical Representation:

6
The position, velocity and acceleration of
an object moving along x axis varies with
time

7
EXAMPLE 1
Spotting a police car, you brake a Porsche from a speed
of 100 km/h to a speed of 80.0 km/h during a
displacement of 88.0 m, at a constant acceleration.
(a) What is that acceleration?
SOLUTION: solve for a

v 2 − v0 (22.22 m / s) 2 − (27.78 m / s) 2
2

a= =
2 (x − x 0 ) 2 (88.0 m)
= − 1.58 m / s 2
The negative sign means that the car is decelerating
(i.e. the velocity is reducing as a function of time).
8
(b) How much time is required for the given decrease in
speed?

SOLUTION: Now that we know a, we can use Eq. 1

to solve for t:

v − v 22.22 m / s − 27.78 m / s
t= 0
=
a − 1.58 m / s

= 3.519 s

9
Free-Fall Acceleration
The free-fall acceleration near Earth's surface is
a = - g = - 9.8 m/s2, and the magnitude of the
acceleration is g = 9.8 m/s2.

The minus sign is because the positive direction of y is

pointed upward.

10
EXAMPLE 2
In the figure, a pitcher tosses a baseball
up along the y axis, with an initial speed
of 12 m/s.

a) How long does the ball take to

reach its maximum height?
SOLUTION: Once the ball
leaves the pitcher, its
acceleration is a = - g even
though the baseball went up
then down. The velocity v at the
maximum height is 0.

v − v0 0 − 12 m / s
t= = = 1.2 s
a − 9.8 m / s 2

11
b) What is the ball's maximum height above its release
point?
SOLUTION: We can take the ball's release point to be
y0 = 0. Set y - y0 = y and v = 0 (at the maximum
height), and solve for y. We get

v 2 − v0 0 − (12 m / s) 2
2
y= = = 7.3 m
2a 2 (− 9.8 m / s )
2

c) How long does the ball take to reach a point 5.0 m

above its release point?
SOLUTION: from y = v0 t – ½ g t2
one gets t = 0.53 s and t = 1.9 s
Both solutions are physical because the ball passes twice through y = 5.0 m, once
on the way up and once on the way down. 12
 Kinematic Equation Derived from Calculus:

dv
from a = ,
dt tf

one gets vf = vi + ∫ a d t = vi + at
0
dx
from v = ,
dt
tf tf

one gets xf = xi + ∫ v d t = vi + ∫ (vi + at ) d t

0 0
1 2
= xi + vi t + at
2
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2.2 Vector and Scalar quantities

A lot of physical quantities have both numerical

and directional properties, which are expressed
by vectors.
 A vector quantity is the one specified by a number with
appropriate unit AND a direction. Examples include
displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.
 A scalar quantity is one completely specified by a number
with appropriate unit and has no direction. Examples include
temperature, mass, volume, speed, etc.

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 Cartesian and polar coordinate systems

Points are labeled (x,y) in

Cartesian coordinates, but
by (r,θ) in polar coordinates.
Based on forming a right triangle
from r and θ, one has
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ

If the Cartesian coordinates are

known: y
tanθ =
x
=r x2 + y 2

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 Vector addition and subtraction
 Two vectors are equal if they have the
same magnitude and the same direction.
If A = B, they point along parallel lines. All
of the vectors shown are equal.
 Adding/Subtracting Vectors Graphically

16
 Adding/Subtracting Vectors Algebraically (component method)
A component is a projection of a vector
along an axis.
Any vector can be completely described
by its components.
It is useful to use rectangular
components.
These are the projections of the vector
along the x- and y-axes.

=
A Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj The symbols î , ĵ, and k̂ represent unit vectors, where
ˆi= ˆj= kˆ= 1 and Ax = A cosθ ; Ay = A sinθ
   
Then, R= A + B ( ) (
R = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Bx ˆi + By ˆj )

R = ( Ax + Bx ) ˆi + ( Ay + By ) ˆj

=
R Rx ˆi + Ry ˆj 17
 “Dot” and “Cross” products of vectors*

A • B = A B cos θ
= Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz B
“Dot” product results in a scalar! B sin θ A
θ
B cosθ
| A × B |= A B sin θ
i j k
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
= (Ay Bz − Az B y )i + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz )j + (Ax B y − Ay Bx )k

“Cross” product results in a vector with magnitude being the area of

the parallelogram and direction out of paper (right-hand rule). 18
2.3 Motion in Two-Dimension

 Dynamical variables are vectors

  
∆ r ≡ rf − ri
  
 ∆r  ∆r dr
vavg ≡ , v ≡ lim =
∆t ∆t →0 ∆t dt
    
 ∆v v f − v i  ∆v dv
aavg ≡ = , a ≡ lim =
∆t tf − t i ∆t →0 ∆t dt

 2D Motion with constant

acceleration
  
v=f v i + at
   
rf =ri + v i t + 1 at 2
2
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Motion in 2D can be modeled as two INDEPENDENT motions
in each of the two perpendicular directions associated with the
x- and y-axis respectively.

 ProjectileMotion – 2D motion with a constant free-fall

acceleration a = g
Consider the motion as the super-
position of the motions in the x- and
y-directions.
The actual position at any time is
given by:    1  2
rf =ri + v i t + gt
2
The initial velocity can be expressed
in terms of its components.
vxi = vi cosθ and vyi = vi sinθ
The x-direction has constant velocity: ax = 0
The y-direction is free fall: ay = -g
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EXAMPLE 1
Let’s assume a projectile is launched from origin at ti = 0 with
positive vyi (see figure), and returns to the same horizontal level.
Find the range R and maximum height h.
SOLUTION: at the maximum height, vy = 0
0 = vi sin θ − gt A
⇒ t A = vi sin θ / g
So the maximum height is
1 2
h = v yi t A − gt A
2
= (vi sin θ )(vi sin θ / g ) − g (vi sin θ / g )
1 2

2
vi sin θ
2 2
=
2g
and the horizontal range R is R = v xi (2t A ) = (vi cos θ )(2vi sin θ / g )
= vi2 sin 2θ / g 21
EXAMPLE 2. A Bull’s Eye Every Time
A projectile is fired at a target in such a way that it leaves the gun at
the same time the target is dropped from rest. Show that the if the gun
is aimed at the target initially, the projectile will hit the falling target.

SOLUTION: the y coordinate of the target at

any time t is:
y
(1) T = y iT + ( 0 ) t − 1
2
gt 2
= xT tan θ − 1
2
gt 2

The y coordinate of the projectile at t is:

(2) yP = yiP + v yiPt − 2 gt = 0 + (viP sin θ )t − 2 gt
1 2 1 2

= (viP sin θ )t − 12 gt 2
The x coordinate at time t is
xP = xiP + v yiPt = 0 + (viP cos θ )t
⇒ t = xiP / viP cos θ
So, one has (3), Py = (viP sin θ )( x P / viP cos θ ) − 1
2
gt 2
= x P tan θ − 1
2
gt 2

which is the same as (1). 22

 Uniform Circular Motion – Circular trajectory with
constant speed (Note: direction of the velocity changes, so
there IS an acceleration ar)
The centripetal acceleration is RADIAL with no tangential
component (as otherwise, the speed of particle with change,
inconsistent with the assumption of Uniform Circular Motion)

Two similar triangles leads to relation:

 
∆r ∆v
=
r v
The magnitude of ar is
 
∆v v ∆r
ar = =
∆t r ∆t

∆r v2
In the limit of ∆t →0, →v so ar =
∆t r
The period of circular motion is T=2πr/v . 23