J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2004) 6:64–72
DOI 10.1007/s10163-003-0104-8
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Masaya Koshikawa · Akira Isogai
Analyses of incinerated ash of paper sludge: comparison with incinerated
ash of municipal solid waste
Received: January 9, 2003 / Accepted: August 28, 2003
Abstract Fourteen paper sludge samples were collected at
seven representative pulp and paper mills in Japan, and
were analyzed to obtain fundamental data on the reuse of
paper sludge-incinerated ash as papermaking material. For
comparison, incinerated ashes of municipal solid waste
(MSW) were collected at MSW incineration plants in
Tokyo, and analyzed by similar methods. Elementary and
X-ray diffraction analyses revealed that the predominant
elements in paper sludge samples are calcium, silicon,
aluminum, and magnesium, which are derived from paper
fillers, coating pigments, and coagulants used in papermak-
ing and process effluent treatments. Similar results were
also obtained for the MSW-incinerated ashes, indicating
that major components in the collected MSW are paper-
related materials. Incineration of paper sludge around
800°C is recommended in terms of high brightness of the
incinerated ash, which has about 60% brightness. Calcium,
silicon, and aluminum components in the paper sludge are
fused or sintered by heating. Although paper-sludge-
incinerated ashes have irregular shape and large particle
size distributions, they may be used as papermaking
materials after pulverization using a ball mill. The MSW-
incinerated ashes have 5%–30% water-soluble fractions
and low brightness, and thus incineration conditions must
be changed to reuse the MSW-incinerated ash as a paper-
making material.
Key words Paper sludge · Incineration · Municipal solid
waste · Paper filler · X-ray diffraction
M. Koshikawa · A. Isogai (*)
Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of
Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
Tel.
81-3-5841-5538; Fax
81-3-5841-5271
e-mail: aisogai@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Part of this paper was presented at the 68th Research Conference of
Japan Tappi, Tokyo, 2001
© Springer-Verlag 2004
Introduction
Paper and paper board are composed of pulp fibers
and some inorganic fine particles, which are used as paper
fillers and coating pigments in papermaking and coating
processes, respectively. Paper and paper board production
is now about 31 million tons per year in Japan, and about
60% of paper and paper board used is recycled and reused
as secondary fibers in papermaking. On the other hand,
some pulp fractions and inorganic fine particles, which
cannot be retained in paper or are rejected during recycling,
transfer to paper sludge fractions by simple mechanical
separation or coagulation treatments followed by sedimen-
tation of suspended solids in effluents. Paper sludge also
comes from deinking processes, in which ink fractions,
deinking reagents, and extraneous materials are present.
Paper sludge is generally dried in air, and subjected to
incineration. The resulting ash is then disposed by landfill-
ing or is used by mixing in cement. The quantity of paper
sludge produced is approximately 1.5 million tons per year
in Japan, and about 0.6 million tons of incinerated ash is
formed thereby.1 Thus, a large amount of paper sludge is
formed in pulp and paper mills, and suitable methods to
utilize the paper sludge have been examined. It is prefer-
able to reuse inorganic compounds in paper sludge as
papermaking materials, as 60% of pulp fibers in waste paper
are now reused in papermaking. Furthermore, some of the
incinerated ash produced in plants that incinerate munici-
pal solid waste (MSW) is good for reuse as papermaking
materials if the MSW-incinerated ash components are
partly derived from paper-related materials.
Johnston and Wiseman2 studied mineral recovery from
paper sludge formed in papermaking processes including
deinking. In the case of incineration at 800°–1150°C, fusion
or sintering occurred among calcium, aluminum, and silicon
components in the paper sludge, thus giving mullite
(Al2O3·4/3SiO2), cristobalite (SiO2), or calcium silicate
(CaSiO3), depending on the incineration temperature. On
the other hand, the original paper filler components were
recovered without fusion by hydrothermal oxidation of the

paper sludge at 260°C and 5 MPa conditions in which organic
components such as pulp fibers were converted to CO2.
Moilanen et al.3 reported that precipitation of calcium car-
bonate on paper sludge-incinerated ash particles increased
its brightness to more than 70%.Yamada and Fukui1 studied
applications of paper sludge-incinerated ash to paper
coating pigments, and relationships between the paper
sludge incineration conditions and some properties of paper
coated thereof were investigated.Also, the fates of some ele-
ments derived from some additives used in papermaking,
effluent treatments, and others have been reported.4,5
However, analytical data on paper sludge samples are
insufficient, and the number of samples used in previous
reports is limited. More detailed analyses of paper sludge
using multiple samples are, therefore, required for evalua-
tions of reuse as resources of papermaking materials. In this
study, 14 paper sludge samples were collected at seven pulp
and paper mills in Japan, and their elements were deter-
mined using an X-ray fluorescence analyzer. Two of the
representative paper sludge samples were subjected to
incineration, and changes in brightness, yield, X-ray diffrac-
tion patterns, morphologies, and distribution of elements
were analyzed in terms of the incineration temperatures.
This allowed the collection of fundamental data to examine
the reuse of paper sludge-incinerated ash as papermaking
material. The incineration temperature examined varied
from 300° to 1000°C, because fluidized bed-type incinera-
tors are generally used for paper sludge combustion in the
temperature range of 600°–900°C in pulp and paper
mills. Incinerated ash samples were collected at five MSW
incineration plants in Tokyo and were investigated for
comparison.
Materials and methods
Materials
Fourteen paper sludge samples were collected at seven
representative pulp and paper mills in Japan. Detailed
information about each paper sludge sample in terms of,
for example, the original resources used for paper produc-
tion as well as their weight ratios and deinking processes
adopted are unknown. Talc (3MgO·4SiO2·H2O), kaolin clay
(Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O), titanium dioxide, and precipitated and
ground calcium carbonates are commercial fillers of paper-
making grade. About 1 g of a dried paper sludge sample was
set in a crucible, and heated at 300°–1000°C for 1 h in the
presence of air, using an electric muffle furnace (Eyela TMF
2000, Tokyo, Japan). Some incinerated ash samples were
pulverized in a container with balls made of agate using a
planetary ball mill (P-7, Fritsch, Kanagawa, Japan) for 3 min.
MSW-incinerated ash samples were obtained from mixtures
of bottom, grate, and fly ashes at five different MSW incin-
eration plants in the Tokyo metropolitan area, whose MSW
combustors were the continuous feed mass-fired-type incin-
erators with fire grates. The MSW incinerated ash samples
were refluxed in boiling water for 1 h to remove water-
soluble materials.
65
Analyses
Relative weight ratios of elements heavier than sodium in
paper sludge and incinerated ash samples were measured
by means of an X-ray fluorescence analyzer using an
attached determination program (Mesa 500, Horiba, Kyoto,
Japan). About 1 g of a sample was put on a thin polyethyl-
ene film, and X-rays generated at 15 kV and 500 µA were
irradiated onto the sample through the film for 100 s under
vacuum. Ash samples were pressed to pellet form using
an apparatus for preparing KBr pellets in infrared (IR)
measurements, and subjected to recording X-ray diffraction
patterns on a Rigaku RINT 1000 (Kanagawa, Japan) with
the reflection mode at 40 kV and 40 mA. A data base
system6 for X-ray diffraction patterns attached with the
above X-ray diffractometer was used for assignment of dif-
fraction peaks. Pyrolysis-gas chromatograms (Py-GC) of
paper sludge samples were recorded on a Shimadzu GC-
14B (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) attached with a vertical
microfurnace-type pyrolyzer.7 The gas components formed
from a 1-mg sludge sample pyrolyzed at 500°C were directly
analyzed by the GC equipped with a capillary OV-1 column
(0.25 mm  30 m), whose initial temperature, final temper-
ature, and program rate were set at 150°C, 300°C, and
5°C/min, respectively. Py-GC peaks were identified using
pyrograms of pure cellulose, spruce wood meal, and typical
deinking and sizing reagents. Distribution of elements in
incinerated ash particles and their morphology were
observed by a field-emission-type scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM: Hitachi S-4000, Tokyo, Japan) with an energy
dispersive X-ray analyzer (EDX: Horiba EMAX 5770X,
Kyoto, Japan) after platinum coating for 150 s.
Results and discussion
Elements in paper sludge
Figure 1 depicts the relative weight ratios of elements
heavier than sodium in 14 paper sludge samples. The major
three elements are silicon, calcium, and aluminum. Large
fluctuations of relative calcium content in the range from
6% to 42% are observed among the paper sludge samples.
Mill effluents of alkaline papermaking and/or coating, where
calcium carbonate is used as a filler and/or in coat-ing pig-
ments, give paper sludge with higher calcium content than
those of acidic papermaking. It is possible for silicon to mix
in the paper sludge as kaolin clay (Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O) or
talc (3MgO·4SiO2·H2O) used as paper fillers or coating pig-
ments. Moreover, silicate ions are often present naturally in
process water of paper mills. Sodium silicate is used as a sta-
bilizer of hydrogen peroxide, which is used in the deinking
process of secondary fibers and for bleaching of mechanical
pulps. These silicate ions present in effluents easily precipi-
tate as aluminum silicates in the presence of water-soluble
aluminum compounds such as aluminum sulfate and polya-
luminum chloride, which are added to effluents as coagu-
lants for suspended solids.8 Aluminum in Fig. 1 is derived
from kaolin clay used as paper fillers or coating pigments,
66
Fig. 1. Relative weight ratios of elements in 14 paper sludge samples
collected at 7 Japanese pulp and paper mills
and from aluminum sulfate or polyaluminum compounds
used as retention aids in papermaking or coagulants for
effluents. Magnesium and titanium in the paper sludge
originate from talc or magnesium carbonate and titanium
dioxide, respectively, used as paper fillers.
Paper sludge samples A and B in Fig. 1 are selected
as representatives having high and low calcium contents,
respectively, for the successive incineration treatments.
Because the paper sludge sample A is dark gray (brightness
ca. 10%), it contains carbon black and other ink compo-
nents, which may be formed in deinking of waste paper. On
the other hand, the paper sludge sample B, which has bright-
ness of about 40%, may be from effluents of papermaking
without any deinking processes.
Incineration of paper sludge
The selected paper sludge samples were heated at
300°–1000°C for 1 h, and changes in yield and brightness of
the residues were measured (Fig. 2). Both paper sludge
samples have similar yield patterns with increasing heating
temperature, and the patterns consist of three different
phases: the first phase at 20°–400°C, the second phase at
400°–700°C, and the third plateau phase at 700°–1000°C.
The difference in yield between the two paper sludge
samples are caused by different content of burnable organic
compounds such as pulp fibers, which are rejected during
the screening and drainage processes of papermaking. Cel-
lulose, which is the main component in pulp fibers, starts to
decompose at 200°–270°C and ignites at 390°–400°C. Thus,
cellulose and other organic compounds such as hemicellu-
lose and lignin in the paper sludge are thermally decom-
posed and ignite in the first phase. The inorganic hydrates
present in the paper sludge are probably partly dehydrated
in the second phase.
Calcium carbonate is decomposed together with decrys-
tallization to calcium oxide at about 800°C, when heated as
Fig. 2. Yields and brightness of paper sludge samples A and B heated
at various temperatures. Paper sludge A contains Ca  Si  Al  Mg,
whereas paper sludge B contains Si  Mg  Al  Ca (see Fig. 1)
a single component or even in the presence of burnable
cellulose. The paper sludge sample A certainly contains
calcium carbonate, as described in the following section.
However, no such yield decrease was observed around
800°C. This result indicates that calcium carbonate turns to
some compounds other than calcium oxide during heating
in the presence of aluminum and/or silicon compounds
below 600°C by sintering or fusion. In fact, when the heated
product of the paper sludge sample A was treated with
boiling water for 1 h, almost no weight loss was observed; if
calcium oxide is formed by heating, it becomes partly water-
soluble Ca(OH)2 and this brings about some yield loss by
the boiling-water treatment. It is unlikely that the burning
temperature of the paper sludge in the crucible exceeded
the setting temperature of the muffle furnace. This is
because neither weight decrease nor decrystallization of
calcium carbonate occurred at 400°–700°C, when calcium
carbonate or a mixture of calcium carbonate and cellulose
powder was heated at 400°–700°C.
Brightness of the heated products increased with increas-
ing heating temperature up to about 600°C, and then a
rough plateau level was observed at 600°–1000°C.
Unburned carbon residues entrapped inside the heated
products probably burn up to 600°C. The maximum bright-
ness values are about 65% and 57% for paper sludge
samples A and B, respectively. These values are lower than
those of commercial paper fillers, which have brightness
values of more than 80%. However, these incinerated ashes
may be used as paper fillers for producing some particular
papers, which require recycling of paper sludge but do not
require high brightness levels. Considering the incineration
temperature forming dioxin,9 incineration of paper sludge
at around 800°C may be suitable.
Figure 3 shows the Py-GC of the original paper sludge
samples A and B and their heated products at 300°, 500°,

Fig. 3. Pyrolysis-gas chromatograms of paper sludge samples A and B
heated at various temperatures. Peaks due to pyrolyzed products orig-
inating from cellulose, lignin, deinking reagents, and sizing chemicals
(alkylketene dimers) are marked as C, L, D, and S, respectively
and 900°C. Levoglucosan formed from cellulose by thermal
degradation is detected at a retention time of 2–5 min in the
Py-GC patterns of the paper sludge samples. This result
shows that wood pulp is the predominant organic compo-
nent in the paper sludge. Peaks due to pyrolyzed products
originating from cellulose, deinking reagents, sizing chemi-
cals (alkylketene dimers), and lignin in mechanical pulp are
marked in Py-GC patterns of the paper sludge samples in
Fig. 3. When the paper sludge samples are heated at 300°C,
almost no organic compounds are detected in the Py-GC
patterns, because the peaks at 1, 18, and 22 min are due to
some compounds adsorbed on the glass wool used for the
pyrolysis. In fact, these Py-GC patterns are almost identical
to those of the paper sludge heated at 500°C and 900°C.
Thus, most organic compounds present in paper sludge are
67
gasified and/or carbonized below 300°C, and then com-
pletely burn by 600°C, forming CO2.
X-ray diffraction analysis of paper sludge
X-ray diffraction patterns of the paper sludge samples
heated at 400°–1000°C are illustrated in Fig. 4. The original
paper sludge sample A, whose predominant elements are
calcium, silicon, and aluminum, has a relatively simple
pattern, which is composed of clear diffraction peaks due to
cellulose (broad peaks around 2θ 16° and 22°), talc, kaolin
clay, and calcium carbonate. The diffraction peaks due to
kaolin clay disappeared at 600°C by converting to amor-
phous metakaolin, and that due to talc disappeared at
1000°C. The diffraction peak due to calcium carbonate at 2θ
29.5° disappeared at 600°C, indicating that calcium carbon-
ate in the paper sludge turned to some compounds with
aluminum and/or silicon other than calcium oxide. As
described in the previous section, when calcium carbonate
or a mixture of calcium carbonate and cellulose were heated
at 600°C, neither yield reduction nor decrystallization of
calcium carbonate occurred. Almost all diffraction peaks
present in the original paper sludge disappear for the
product heated at 1000°C, and quite small peaks, which are
not due to calcium silicate (wollastonite)2 but probably due
to anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) and gehlenite (Ca2Al2SiO7), are
detected at 2θ of 28.2° and 31.7°, respectively.6 The paper
sludge sample B has a similar X-ray diffraction pattern, but
has no peak due to calcium carbonate. The sharp peak was
observed at 32.9°, which may be due to MgCO3 used as a
paper filler. Diffraction peaks of mullite (2Al2O3·4/3SiO2),
cristobalite (SiO2), and woolastonite (CaSiO3)2 were not
detected in the X-ray diffraction patterns of the paper
sludge-incinerated ashes.
SEM-EDX analysis
Scanning electron micrographs of paper sludge sample A
and the product heated at 800°C are shown in Fig. 5,
together with the corresponding distribution of elements. In
the original paper sludge, aluminum and silicon are present
in the same particles but calcium is not in most cases,
because the former two elements are present as kaolin clay
and the latter as calcium carbonate. In some particles, the
three elements seem to coexist. This may be due to either
physical adsorption of calcium carbonate particles on kaolin
clay particles or low EDX resolution among the three
elements. After heating at 800°C, calcium, aluminum, and
silicon are all present in the same particles, suggesting that
sintering or fusion occurs among these elements.
In the case of paper sludge sample B, some particles have
both magnesium and silicon but others have magnesium
only, suggesting that the former is due to talc and the latter
is due to magnesium carbonate (Fig. 6). Because the
diffraction peak due to MgCO3 in paper sludge sample B
disappears together with kaolin clay after heating at 600°C
(Fig. 3), these two components have the opportunity to
68

Fig. 4. X-ray diffraction patterns

of paper sludge samples A and
B heated at various tempera-
tures. Paper sludge A contains
Ca  Si  Al  Mg, whereas
paper sludge B contains Si 
Mg  Al  Ca (see Fig. 1). T,
Talc; K, kaolin clay; C, calcium
carbonate; M, magnesium
carbonate; A, anorthite; G,
gehlenite

Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrographs of paper sludge A and its heated product at 800°C for 1 h, and the corresponding distribution of Al, Ca
and Si. Bar 10 µm
 69

Fig. 6. Scanning electron micrographs of paper sludge B and its heated product at 800°C for 1 h, and the corresponding distribution of Al, Mg
and Si. Bar 10 µm

Fig. 7. Scanning electron micrographs of the paper sludge A and B, their ashes incinerated at 800°C for 1 h, and the same ashes after ball milling
for 3 min. Bar 0.1 mm

sinter together. However, there are no particles having both
magnesium and aluminum in the heated product in Fig. 6.
Thus, magnesium and aluminum do not appear to fuse
together even after heating.
Because the paper sludge-incinerated ashes have
irregular-shapes and heterogeneous distributions of particle
size, it is difficult to reuse them as paper fillers. On the other
hand, the ashes are convertible to fine powder by pulver-
ization using a ball mill (Fig. 7), and these fine particles are
able to be used as recycled paper fillers or coating pigments
in papermaking and coating processes. Many pulp fibers are
present in the original paper sludge, and disappear in the
70
Fig. 8. Relative weight ratios of elements in incinerated ash samples
collected at five incineration centers of municipal solid waste in Tokyo
before and after boiling-water extraction for 1 h
heated residues. Thus, reuse of paper sludge as papermak-
ing material may be feasible for particular cases by inciner-
ation of paper sludge at around 800°C and the successive
pulverization of the incinerated ash.
Analysis of incinerated ash of municipal solid waste
Differences between paper sludge-incinerated ashes
discussed in the previous sections and MSW-incinerated
ashes were investigated. Figure 8 shows the relative weight
ratios of elements heavier than sodium present in the MSW-
incinerated ash samples. Because only about 1 g of ash
sample collected from huge ash heaps are subjected to the
elemental analysis, the ratios may have large fluctuations
even among samples collected at the same incineration
plant. However, when the relative weight ratios are com-
pared among the five MSW-incinerated ash samples, similar
trends are observed. The major three elements are calcium,
silicon, and aluminum, and these three components occupy
about 75% in the detectable elements of the ash samples. A
part of calcium must be derived from garbage bags contain-
ing calcium carbonate filler, which is incinerated together.
Because some water-soluble inorganic compounds may
remain in the MSW-incinerated ashes, they were treated
Fig. 9. Yields of incinerated ash of municipal solid waste after boiling-
water extraction for 1 h
with boiling water to remove the water-soluble fractions.
Consequently the relative weight ratios of elements became
quite similar among the ash samples (Fig. 8). Yields after the
boiling-water treatment are shown in Fig. 9; about 5%–30%
of the MSW-incinerated ash is water soluble. Although
relative calcium content in these samples are higher than
those of paper sludge, the predominant elements are the
same between the MSW-incinerated ash and paper sludge.
This similarity of the predominant elements indicates that
paper-related materials are the major components in the
collected MSW.
Figure 10 illustrates X-ray diffraction patterns of MSW-
incinerated ash samples before and after the boiling-water
treatment. Consequently, similar X-ray diffraction patterns
were obtained for the five MSW-incinerated ashes. The dif-
fraction peaks at about 29.6° and 31.6° may be due to
calcium silicate (Ca8Si5O18)6 that is formed by incineration.
These two peaks are not detected in the X-ray diffraction
patterns of paper sludge-incinerated ashes, indicating that
this calcium silicate may be formed from calcium carbonate
and some silicate compounds under particular incineration
conditions used in the MSW incineration plants. All the
MSW-incinerated ashes collected were dark gray, clearly
having black carbon particles, probably because these ashes
were produced by incomplete combustion. Brightness of
these MSW-incinerated ashes were less than 10% but
increased up to 40% by heating the ashes again at 800°C
for 1 h. Thus, the first incineration temperature of MSW
is significant in order to increase brightness of MSW-
incinerated ash.
There are some common points between paper sludge-
incinerated ash and MSW-incinerated ash, and thus both
paper sludge and MSW collected at municipal incineration
plants have potential to be used as papermaking materials
by incineration under suitable conditions. However, MSW-
incinerated ash, once produced under conventional
procedures, has lower brightness and some water-soluble
fractions, compared with paper sludge-incinerated ash.

Fig. 10. X-ray diffraction pat-
terns of incinerated ash of
municipal solid waste before
and after boiling-water extrac-
tion for 1 h. Arrowheads, peaks
at 29.6° and 31.6° may be attrib-
uted to calcium silicate formed
during incineration
Moreover, although trace elements present in paper sludge-
incinerated ash and MSW-incinerated ash samples were
disregarded in this study, they may have some negative
effects on reuse and recycling processes.
Conclusions
This study reveals the feasibility of paper sludge for reuse
as papermaking materials. The predominant elements in
paper sludge samples are calcium, silicon, aluminum, and
magnesium, which are derived from paper fillers, coating
pigments, and coagulants. Incineration of paper sludge at
around 800°C is recommended in terms of brightness of
the incinerated ash. When the paper sludge is incinerated at
800°C, the residues contain talc and amorphous fused or sin-
tered compounds. Although paper sludge-incinerated ashes
have irregular shapes and large particle size distributions,
they may possibly be used as papermaking materials by pul-
verization through ball milling. The predominant elements
in MSW-incinerated ashes are the same as those of paper
sludge, indicating that major components in the collected
MSW are paper-related materials. However, the MSW-
incinerated ashes have 5%–30% water-soluble fractions
and low brightness, and thus incineration conditions must
71
be changed to reuse the MSW-incinerated ash as paper-
making materials.
Acknowledgments The authors thank Dr. Norio Matsukura of Nippon
Paper (now of Japan Pulp and Paper Research Institute), Mr. Yuzo
Igarashi of Nippon Paper, Dr. Tokiya Yaguchi of Oji Paper, Dr. Tohru
Katsura of Mitsubishi Paper, and Mr. Michitaka Kubota of Daishowa
Paper for kindly providing paper sludge samples. Mr. Takafumi Watan-
abe of the Environment Bureau of the Tokyo Metropolitan Govern-
ment arranged sampling opportunities for MSW-incinerated ash
samples. This research was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (Grant number 12556025) from Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science.
References
1. Yamada N, Fukui T (2001) Development of coating pigment from
paper sludge ash. Japan Tappi J 55:1537–1542
2. Johnston JH, Wiseman N (1996) Appita 96:39–45
3. Moilanen A, Mörsky P, Krogerus B, Ranta J, Sipilä K, Johansson A
(2000) Recycling and processing of ash from incineration of waste
paper and deinking sludge for paper filler. Pap Puu-Pap Tim
82:546–552
4. Abubakr SM, Hrutfiord BF, Reichert TS, McKean WT (1997) Reten-
tion mechanism of metal cations in recycled and never-dried pulps.
TAPPI J 80:143–148
5. Gregg JJ, Zander AK, Theis TL (1997) Fate of trace elements in
energy recovery from recycled paper sludge. TAPPI J 80:157–162
72

6. King M (ed) (1993) International Center for Diffraction Data. File
No. 21–181, Pennsylvania, p 192
7. Kitaoka T, Isogai A, Onabe F (1995) Sizing mechanism of emulsion
rosin size-alum systems, part 1. Relationships between sizing degrees
and rosin size or aluminum content in rosin-sized handsheets.
Nordic Pulp Paper Res J 10:253–260
8. Yasuda K (1987) Deposit cleaning of papermaking white water. Jpn
J Paper Technol 30:1–6
9. Hiraoka M (1990) Formation and control of dioxins in municipal
solid waste treatment. Waste Manag Res 1:20–37