KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD

ENGINEERING
LESSON 1

ENGR. ELIZABETH C. LUMIOAN

elilumioan@ksu.edu.ph
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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 1 MODULE Page No.: 1 of 5

Early roads with hard surfaces were found in the land of Mesopotamia. These roads were constructed as early
as 3,500 B"C. Another stone surface roads were also found in the Mediterranean island of Crete, similarly
constructed as those in the Western Hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of Central South America.

The early road systems were constructed primarily for the following purposes:
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for defense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between neighboring towns and cities.

HIGHWAYS AS PART OF THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

It is important to keep in mind that highway transportation is part of a larger transportation system
that includes air, rail, water and pipeline transportation. In this system, highways are the dominant mode of most
passenger and freight movements.
For passenger travel, highways account for about 90 percent of all passenger-miles. On the freight side,
commercial trucks account for about 37 percent of the freight ton-miles and, because commercial trucks
transport higher-valued goods than other modes of transportation (with the exception of air transportation),
nearly 80 percent of the dollar value of all goods is transported by commercial trucks. While highways play a
dominant role in both passenger and freight movement, in many applications there are critical interfaces among
the various transportation modes.
For example, many air, rail, water and pipeline freight movements involve highway transportation at
some point for their initial collection and final distribution. Interfaces between modes, such as those at water
ports, airports and rail terminals, create interesting transportation problems but, if handled correctly, can
greatly improve the efficiency of the overall transportation system.

HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION AND THE HUMAN ELEMENT

Within the highway transportation system, passenger options include single-occupant private vehicles,
multi-occupant private vehicles, and public transportation modes (such as bus). It is critical to develop a
basic understanding of the effect that highway-related projects and policies may have on the individual highway
modes of travel (single-occupant private vehicles, bus and so on) because the distribution of travel among
modes will strongly influence overall highway-system performance. In addition, highway safety and the
changing demographics of highway users are important considerations.

PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION MODES AND TRAFFIC CONGESTION

Of the available urban transportation modes (such as bus, commuter train, subway, private vehicle,
and others), private vehicles (and single-occupant private vehicles in particular) offer an unequaled level of
mobility. The single-occupant private vehicle has been such a dominant choice that travelers have been willing
to pay substantial capital and operating costs, confront high levels of congestion, and struggle with parking-
related problems just to have the flexibility in travel departure time and destination choices that is uniquely
provided by private vehicles. In the last 50 years, the percentage of trips taken in private vehicles has risen
from slightly less than 70 percent to over 90 percent (public transit and other modes make up the balance).
Over this same period, the average private-vehicle occupancy has dropped from 1.22 to 1.09 persons per vehicle,
reflecting the fact that the single-occupant vehicle has become an increasingly dominant mode of travel.

Traffic congestion that has arisen as a result of extensive private-vehicle use and low-vehicle occupancy
presents a perplexing problem. The high cost of new highway construction (including monetary, environmental
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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 1 MODULE Page No.: 2 of 5

and social costs) often makes building new highways or adding additional highway capacity an unattractive
option. Trying to manage the demand for highways also has its problems.

For example, programs aimed at reducing congestion by encouraging travelers to take alternate
modes of transportation (bus-fare incentives, increases in private-vehicle parking fees, tolls and traffic-
congestion pricing, rail- and bus-transit incentives) or increasing vehicle occupancy (high-occupancy vehicle
lanes and employer-based ridesharing programs) can be considered viable options. However, such programs
have the adverse effect of directing people toward travel modes that inherently provide lower levels of
mobility because no other mode offers the departure-time and destination-choice flexibility provided by private,
single-occupant vehicles. Managing traffic congestion is an extremely complex problem with significant
economic, social, environmental, and political implications.

Highways in the Philippines

In the early part of 1900, transportations in this country depended largely on trails, waterways, railroad,
earth roads and partially graveled roads. Highway in the Philippines at that time is nothing more than a dream
to most Filipinos.
The American government initiated the development of roadways in the Philippines, connecting towns,
cities and provinces. The popular Macadam road type was introduced. It gained wide acceptance because of the
abundant supply of stones and gravel.
After the Second World War, the new independent Philippine government continued the rehabilitation
and construction of roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese
government. Other financial grants and aids received from the U.S. government were used in the construction
and rehabilitation of roads and bridges. Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were constructed
through the financial assistance and loans from foreign banks. Alongside with the industrialization program of
the governrnent, vehicles of various types and sizes started flooding the roadways.
Recent Land transportation records revealed that, more than 80,000 brand new vehicles were added to
their lists every year. At an average of 5.00 meters road occupancy by these vehicles, the DPWH must open 400
kilometers new roads every year.
This data did not include the roadway for second hand or surplus assembled cars. With this statistical
report, solution to traffic problems is nowhere in sight. Traffic problems are expected to worsen year after year.
The year 1960 to early part of 1980 was considered an autornobile age.
Cars were no longer regarded as luxury item but a necessity in transporting people and goods, a
necessity for survival, Government new concept of development is to get the farmers 'out of the mud. It was
during this decade that road construction became a matter of priority of the goverrnment under the slogan: "
This nation is on Wheels”

Planning Dif{iculties
Development and maintenance of roads and highways is a continuing process alongside with the
technological advancement. New equipment and management techniques revolutionized, the construction and
maintenance methods. Advance knowledge in the field of soils, highway materials, and designs were adopted
for reliability and economic considerations. Engineers are conscious of the need for roadways to be safe, useful,
and attractive. This needs include improvement of the roadside, erosion control, and noise abatement. They are
aware of the fact that highways are vital to the country's development. Unfortunately, highway planners are
confronted with problems categorized as follows:
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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 1 MODULE Page No.: 3 of 5

1. Financial
2. Political
3. Technical

The present economic condition is related to the government budgetary expenditures for payment of foreign
debt amortization amounting to billions of pesos a month. Appropriations of funds for road constructions and
maintenance, meet severe difficulties that sometimes, highway development plans are shelves temporarily for
lack of funds.
Comprehensive road development plans that are carefully studied by technical experts are twisted, or flexed
down by political muscles, to suit political interests" Roads and highways plan were either; deferred- amended
or realigned for political reasons. As a consequence, different laws with conflicting purposes and procedures
impede or obstruct implementations causing delay or no action at all"
Politicians now control DPWH projects as their source of, political funds. Highway district engineer’s
qualification is simply subservience to the politician. "Do what I say or get out of my district". Listing of projects
given to the district engineer has the corresponding name of favored contractors- the willing victims giving SOP
in cash advances.
Rational Planning is no longer the objective process, based on training, and expertise concerning the actual
needs of the people, but is rather, a political decision. Not even the Secretary of Public Works and Highways
could say no because politics is the power that controls appropriations, budget and appointments of the president's
cabinet members.
As a consequence, public confidence tremendously eroded. Not only in the government’s ability to abate these
problems, but also in the proficiency of the technical men to offer solutions. Planners are now operating in a world
of rapid change and uncertainty, in the political atmosphere where decisions by magic, or oracles, carry more
weight than those based on professional training, expertise and experiences. Indeed, our professionals more
particularly the technical men, seems to have lost confidence in thyself, or even the solutions that they offer.

Community Involvement
In a democratic government, the public has the right to hear and be heard. Much more to participate in public
hearing where planning and decision-making will be conducted before major decisions are made. It is a common
practice to call public hearing after all major decisions were made and approved. Indeed, public hearing is no
more than information forum for the public to know what the administration wants for them, rather than,
what the people wants from them. Public hearing should involve the public from the start of planning to give
them a chance to participate in the discussions and involve them in:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials, non-government organizations, influential persons and
conservative group of the community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this function
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops, hearing and other related
activities.

Highway Economy
A Country who will not avail of loans or grant from foreign financing institutions will not feel the great
impact of their infrastructure projects, if domestic income through taxes alone will be depended on. Financing

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KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 1 MODULE Page No.: 4 of 5

institution such as the World Bank insists that projects to which they make grants or loans be justified primarily
on the economic basis. According to W. Gillespe, professor of Civil Engineering at the Union College:
"A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which is truly the cheapest is not
the one which has cost the least money, but the one which makes the most profitable returns in proportion to
the amount expended upon it. "

There are many designs and administrative decisions that does not involve public policy, but these
should be made by selecting the alternative that is cheapest in the long run. Meaning'. The result .from an
economic study that is reasonably interpreted must prevail.

The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportations are enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services, police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefit to transportation and increase property assessment. Benefit to motor vehicle
users through lower cost of operations and maintenance.
6. Benefit in time saving.
7. Less road accident.
8. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.
9. Most of the country's expenditures for highways and public transport facilities are based on the principle
of "Pay as you go,,
10. Meaning, road appropriations and expenditures depend on tax collections.

Legally, the appropriation and expenditures of taxes being the people's contribution to the government must
be prorated proportionally to the different provinces municipalities and cities in terms of infrastructure projects
and not just be concentrated in specific place. Under that principle, progress of the country would be very slow
considering the meager amount each province will get, and the infrastructure it will accomplish. Hence,
borrowing from foreign banks is the ultimate solutions of the government to deliver impact infrastructure
projects to boost the economy and move quickly forward.
Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are:
1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.No impact project will be seen because the "pay as
you go" fund is scattered throughout the entire road system where the situation is most
critical.Borrowings encourage investors because of its progress. Counter Arguments of those Against
Financing Infrastructures through Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies
obstructing other more important improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements, no more funds available to rnaintain the
existing system.
3. With much ;rmount available temptation is there to over build and recklessly spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds.

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 Doc. Ref No.:
KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 1 MODULE Page No.: 5 of 5

Computation and Survey

Early engineering approach to highway and transportation problems were based on the results of their
computations with the aid of slide rule and replaced by calculator machine. This method is time consuming and
was totally discarded in the advent of computers and its appurtenances.

Location of the Proposed Highway

Early roads started from trails. Movements of people and the use of motor vehicles prompted road agencies
to improve road alignment minimizing sharp curves. Road width was standardized and grades were flattened.
New highway locations are blended with curvature grades and other roadway elements to offer; comfortable
easy driving, free flowing traffic arteries, comply with the rules on safety standards.

To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the control, and minimum design speed,
roadway cross sections, and maximum slope with the following considerations:
1. Reliable cost estimate.
2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.

Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into 4 stages.

1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between the terminal points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way, the highway and the structure for construction.

Activities Under stage I Reconnaissance survey of the entire area

1. Stereoscopic examination of largo-scale aerial photographs of each route.
2. Determination of the detailed control of photography and land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods.
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps"
5. Selection of the best route

Stage III Preliminary Survey of the best route.

1. Preparation of large scale topographic maps using the route photograph and Photogrammetric methods
or preparation of large scale topographic maps by ground survey guided by best route location made
on photographs in the second stage.
2. Design of the preliminary location

Stage - IV Location Survey

Staking of the right of way and the highway and structures for construction

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