English Grammar:

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ESL Resources

English Language Lesson: The Sentence

A sentence is a collection of words that work together to express a complete thought. Sentences form
the most basic building blocks of the English language. Once you’ve mastered the sentence, you have
created a foundation for all of your academic writing.

Types of Sentences

There are four types of sentences, categorized by the purpose of the sentence.
1. Declarative: A declarative sentence makes a statement.
That cloud looks like a pirate ship.
Summer classes take too much time.
I want to go home and take a nap.
2. Interrogative: An interrogative sentence asks a question.
Did you take pictures at Megan’s wedding?
Who put my dishes on the counter?
Did Jon play his guitar at the concert last night?
3. Imperative: An imperative sentence gives an order or command.
Please don’t leave your socks on the floor!
Turn right at the stop light.
Phil, pour us some glasses of soda.
Note: Imperative sentences may end with an exclamation mark.
4. Exclamatory: An exclamatory sentence expresses strong emotion.
Oh no!
What a coincidence!
Bother!
Note: Exclamatory sentences often do not have a subject and predicate.

Sentence Composition: Subject and Predicate

Sentences are composed of two parts: the subject and the predicate. The subject is the focus of the
sentence – it’s the thing being talked about. The predicate is what we are saying about the subject.

Examples:
Subject Predicate
The weather will be rainy and cold for the rest of the summer.
Abbi has a new baby named Micah.
You are going to the store with me whether you like it or not.

Not all sentences are as cleanly divided. In some cases, the subject of the sentence appears at the end:
Normal order: The car came around the corner.
Reversed order: Around the corner came the car.

In imperative sentences, the subject is often not stated. The recipient of the sentence is understood to
be the subject.
Stated: Turn the car at the stoplight.
Understood: (You) turn the car at the stoplight.

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In other cases, the predicate of the sentence is split on either side of the subject:
Normal: Barack Obama was elected president of the USA after a hard-fought campaign.
Split: After a hard-fought campaign, Barack Obama was elected president of the USA
This is true of interrogative sentences, or questions:
Where was the church?
The subject is “the church”; the predicate is “was where.”

Note: Words that modify the subject belong to the subject. Words that modify the predicate belong to
the predicate. Subject Predicate
Example: [The blue and green tent] [was slowly sagging to the ground.]

Advanced Sentence Composition: Subjects Verbs, Complements

Both the subject and the predicate of a sentence can be broken down into smaller parts. As we look at
the different parts, it may be helpful to keep this chart in mind:

Intransitive Indirect Object

(active)
SUBJECT + VERB OR
Action Direct Object

Transitive
simple OR compound OR
Predicate Adjective
Being
OR
Predicate Nominative

Subjects
Sometimes, there will be more than one thing composing the subject. Multiple parts of a subject will
be joined by an “and” or an “or.”

Simple subject: The hat was sitting on the table.

Compound subject: The hat and the gloves were sitting on the table.

You’ll notice that when a subject is compound, the predicate changes to match it. You can look at this
in more detail in the handout on verbs.

Verbs
The predicate of the sentence is broken down into several parts. The first part is the verb, the word
that indicates what the subject is doing or being. In the previous examples, the verbs are “was sitting”
and “were sitting” – the groups of words that indicate what the subjects, “the hat” or “the hat and
gloves,” were doing.

Verbs: Transitive and Intransitive

Verbs can be one of two types: transitive and intransitive. An intransitive verb can stand alone as an
action. It does not need additional information to make sense.

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Example: The girl blushed. (We wouldn’t ask “The girl blushed what?”)
We arrived. (We wouldn’t ask “We arrived what?”)

It is possible to elaborate on intransitive verbs by using modifiers (words that elaborate on how a verb
operates; ie. Where? When? In what manner?), but it is not necessary (see the resource on modifiers).

A transitive verb is a verb that suggests more information. A sentence with a transitive verb must
have an object, something or someone that receives the action of the verb.
Example: James is a drummer. (We couldn’t stop with the verb “is.” We would have to ask,
“James is what?”)
Kaitlin wants a candy bar. (The verb needs an object to tell us what Kaitlin wants).

Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive depending on what we want to express:
Example: Ben plays outside. (Intransitive: there is no object to the playing).
Ben plays the bass. (Transitive: There is an object that receives the playing).

Transitive Verbs: Being and Action

If the verb of a sentence is intransitive, it needs no further action and the sentence can end. If the verb
is transitive, it may be one of two types: action or being.

An action verb (transitive) suggests that something occurs. Unlike an action verb (intransitive), a
transitive action verb indicates that an action is being done to or upon something or someone.
Example: Vic invests money in the stock market. (Vic performs the investing
on the money).
Example: The hot dog stand sells bratwurst and sodas. (The hotdog stand performs the
selling of the brats and sodas.)
Example: After the show, Jarrod watched the television. (Jarrod performed the
watching on the television.)

A being verb indicates existence or a state of being. It tells us what the subject is. Being verbs must
take a predicate nominative or adjective (additional information after the verb, like an object but not
always a noun) because they elaborate on the quality or type of existence. There are eight being verbs:
am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been.
Example: Kaylin is a basketball player. (The verb connects Kaylin to what type of
thing Kaylin is).
Example: Ben is exasperated. (The verb connects Ben to the state Ben is in).
Example: Matt’s degree was a fake. (The verb connects Matt’s degree to the quality of
the degree).

Objects, Predicate Nominatives, Predicate Adjectives

As we mentioned earlier, transitive verbs need additional information to complete the sentence. There
are three types of this information: direct objects, predicate nominatives, and predicate adjectives.
Direct objects belong with action verbs while predicate nominatives and adjectives belong with being
verbs.

A direct object receives the action of an action verb. It is always a noun (person, place, or thing) that
is being acted upon.

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Example: The groomer trimmed the dog. (The dog is receiving the action of grooming).
I don’t remember this city. (The city is the object of my remembering).
Jana left the books in the rain. (The books received the action of being left).

Direct objects have a special quality: they can take additional information about to whom or for
whom the action occurs. The recipient the direct object is called the indirect object.
Example: The groomer trimmed the dog for Jed. (“The dog” receives the action of grooming,
but the grooming is done for Jed.)
Jana gave me the books. (“Me” is the recipient of the books Jana gave.)

A predicate nominative (PN) is a noun that stands for or redescribes a subject with a being verb.
Example: The heart is a muscle in the body. (“Muscle” renames “heart” – it tells the reader
what the heart is.)
The iphone is a powerful tool. (“Tool” renames “iphone.”)
One way to test if an object is a predicate nominative is to see if it can be reversed with the subject.
Example: Dr. Baldwin is the Vice President.
The Vice President is Dr. Baldwin.
(These sentences convey the same meaning, even if the subject and PN are reversed).

A predicate adjective (PA) is an adjective that tells us the quality of the subject. An adjective is a descriptor
that provides more information about a noun.
Example: After supper, the dog is tired. (“Tired” gives information about the state of being of “the
dog”).
The t-shirt was stained with sweat. (“Stained” tells us what state the t-shirt was in).

Sometimes, a predicate nominative has its own adjective, so remember to perform the reversing test:
Example: Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. (It looks like “tallest” is the predicate
adjective. However, “tallest” is describing “mountain” not “Mt. Everest.” Because we can reverse
the sentence and retain the meaning – The tallest mountain in the world is Mt. Everest – we have a
predicate nominative.)

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ESL resources

English Language Lesson: Identifying Parts of Speech

There are eight types of words in the English language. Words fall into different categories based on
their functions. In this handout, we will look first at types of words and then see how they can help us
further understand the parts of the sentence. [For a diagram of the parts of speech, see the final page of
this handout.]

Parts of Speech
There are eight forms of words in the English language, typically called the parts of speech. They are
nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

Nouns and Pronouns

Nouns are words that stand for people, places, things, or ideas. A noun can represent something that
physically exists (a mountain, a car) or a concept (a memory, love). Pronouns are words that stand in
for nouns in a sentence. Pronouns “rename” a noun.
Sample Nouns: Jeremy, freedom, cats
Sample Pronouns: he, it, they
Common noun and pronoun issues and errors are discussed further the handout on nouns.

Verbs

Verbs are words that express action or being. They can be intransitive (complete in themselves) or
transitive (requiring a complement to make sense). Transitive verbs can be action or being.
Sample intransitive verbs: sleeps, thrives, lingers
Sample transitive action verbs: carries, gives, shakes
Sample transitive being verbs: is, was, were
Common verb issues and errors will be discussed further in the handout on verbs.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers that provide further information about another word. An
adjective describes a noun. Articles (a, an, the) are categorized as adjectives.
Sample: the lazy schoolboy, the blue door, a quick run
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Sample: He swam rapidly towards the finish line. (“Rapidly” modifies the verb “swam” tells
us how he swam)
The deep red sweater sat on the table. (“Deep” modifies the adjective “red” telling us
just how red the sweater is.)
The choir sang very loudly. (“Loudly” modifies the verb “sang” describing how the
singing occurred. “Very” modifies “loudly” describing to what degree the
choir was loud.)
Adjective, adverbs, and modifiers will be discussed further in the handout on modifiers.

Prepositions and Conjunctions

Prepositions and conjunctions make connections between groups of words. A conjunction is a word
that connects words or groups of words. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating

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conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions

connect groups of grammatically similar words. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but,
or, nor, for, so, yet. Correlative conjunctions use pairs of coordinating conjunctions. Subordinating
conjunctions connect an adverb or a noun to the main clause.

Example: The canary and the parrot were sitting in the tree. (“And” is a conjunction
connecting the two nouns “canary” and “parrot”).
Example: I will go to the store, or you will go for me. (“Or” is a coordinating conjunction
connecting the two equal halves of the sentence.)
Example: Because I forgot my homework, the professor failed me. (“Because” is a
subordinating conjunction joining the clause discussing homework to the main
sentence. It gives the reason why the failing occurred.)
Example: After I went to the store, I checked out a book. (“After” is a subordinating
conjunction joining the clause discussing the store to the main sentence. It gives the
time when the checking on occurred.)
Using conjunctions are discussed further in the handout on phrases and clauses.

A preposition links a noun or pronoun to other words in the sentence. Prepositions are often used to
show relationships (often in logic, space, or time) between the noun and the rest of the sentence. The
group of words that the preposition connects is called the prepositional phrase. The phrase often acts
as a modifier (an adjective or adverb) phrase.
Sample - adverb: The dog crawled under the sofa. (The preposition “under” connects the verb
“crawled” to the noun “the sofa.” “Under” begins the prepositional phrase that tells
us where.)
Sample-adverb: The road runs past the windmill. (The preposition “past” connects the verb
“runs” to the noun “windmill.” “Past” begins the prepositional phrase that tells us
where.)
Sample-adjective: Get the yoghurt underneath the cheese. (The preposition “underneath”
connects the noun “yoghurt” to the noun “cheese.” “Underneath” begins the prepositional
phrase that tells us which.)
Common prepositions: in, on, beside, to, over, throughout. Preposition usage is discussed in more
detail on the handout on prepositions.

Note: Some words can serve as both prepositions and conjunctions. A preposition can only be
followed by a noun, while a subordinating conjunction can be followed by a noun or by a clause.
Example: After supper, we will go to the park. (Preposition: followed by a noun).
After we lost the playoffs, we went home and cried. (Sub. conj: followed by a clause).

Interjections

Interjections are words used to express strong emotion. They have no grammatical relationship to the
rest of the sentence and are rarely found in academic or formal writing.
Sample interjections: Hey! Ouch! Damn! Pow!

Note: In the last lesson, we identified words based on function. A noun may also be a predicate
nominative, or it may be a direct object, etc.

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Parts of Speech -Overview

Conjunctions

Adjective Adverb Interjections

Nouns Pronouns Verbs

Preposistions

 Nouns/Pronouns (Things) + Verbs (Action/Being) make a sentence.

 Adjectives modify nouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adverbs, and adjectives.
 Prepositions link a noun or pronoun to the rest of the sentence.
 Conjunctions join each part of speech or of a sentence to similar parts.
 Interjections express strong emotion.

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Phrases and Clauses
Walton College of Business Writing Center
What is a Clause?
 A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject
and a verb.

 Each of the following samples is a clause:

The toddler must eat her carrots and peas…

…before the mother will give her any dessert.
When you call my name…
…I will be there.
Independent Clauses
 There are two types of clauses: independent clauses and
subordinate clauses.

 Independent clauses are clauses that act as complete

sentences. An independent clause is a complete thought; it
does not require any additional information to be logical.

 Examples:

The toddler must eat her carrots and peas.

I will be there.
Subordinate Clauses
 Subordinate clauses, also called dependent clauses, are
clauses that rely on independent clauses to make sense.

 Subordinate clauses are not complete thoughts and express

only portions of a larger thought.

 Examples:

Before the mother will give her any dessert.

When you call my name.
Subordinate Clauses (con’t)
 A subordinate clause may serve as a noun (describing a
thing), an adjective (modifying a noun or pronoun) or
an adverb (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb).

 Subordinate clauses usually begin with dependent

words – words that indicate that the clause will be
modifying an independent clause (examples: although,
when, while, who, before)
Connecting Clauses
 Example:

After the boat reached the dock, hundreds of passengers

embarked.

The complete thought is that hundreds of passengers

embarked. The subordinate clause adds information by
telling us when that occurred. The word “after” is the
dependent word, indicating that a subordinate clause will
follow.
Connecting Clauses (con’t)
 Example:

The band who opened the show gave a terrible performance.

Here, the subordinate clause is in the middle of the sentence.

The complete thought is that the band gave a terrible
performance. The subordinate clause (“who opened the show”)
adds information by telling us more about the band. The word
“who” is the dependent word, indicating that a subordinate
clause will follow.
Combining Clauses into Sentences
• So far, the sentences that we have looked at have been
composed of a single clause. However, often we want to
write a sentence that contains several thoughts. We can
combine subordinate clauses and independent clauses to
form more complex sentences.

• There are four types of sentence combinations: simple,

compound, complex, and compound-complex.
Combining Clauses into Sentences (con’t)
 Simple Sentences: A simple sentence contains a single independent
clause.

Example: He waited for morning.

 Compound Sentence: A compound sentence contains at least two

independent clauses.

Example: Rome is sunny in spring, but Russia is rainy.

 In a compound sentence, the two independent clauses are usually joined

by a coordinating conjunction, a conjunction that joins two similar
things. The coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so.
Combining Clauses into Sentences (con’t)
 Complex Sentence: A complex sentence contains an
independent clause and a subordinate clause.

Example: Because Amy got sick on the river, Jarrod took her
home.

 Compound-complex Sentence: A compound-complex

sentence contains two independent clauses and at least one
subordinate clause.

Example: The cyclist who won the race will be at the event, but
the photographers won’t arrive until later.
Using Clauses with Intent
 The way that we order clauses sends a message to the
reader about which pieces of information we as writers
think are most important.

 When writing, it is also important to vary the types of

sentences you use. Alternate styles to keep your reader
interested.
Sample Boring Paragraph
 Paul Revere is an American hero. He carried a message
about the British. The British were going to attack the
colonies. The message warned people about their
methods.

 This sample paragraph uses too many simple sentences.

Readers are likely to get bored and lose interest.
Sample Fixed Paragraph
 The American hero Paul Revere is credited with spreading
a message about the British. The message warned
people that the British were about to attack the colonies
and explained the methods they would use.

 This revision uses strategies to connect clauses into

longer sentences, making the paragraph more interesting
to read.
Phrases
 A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a
subject and a verb (it may, however, contain verbals).

 There are three types of phrases: verbal phrases,

adjective/adverb phrases, and prepositional phrases.
Verbal Phrases
 Verbal phrases use verbals, words derived from verbs that
act as nouns, adverbs, or adjectives in a sentence. There are
three types of verbals: infinitives, participles, and gerunds.

 Infinitive phrases consist of an infinitive verb form (“to __”)

plus an object. They can be nouns, adjectives or adverbs.

Example: Emily brought me flowers to make up for her mean

joke.
Verbal Phrases (con’t)
 Participial phrases consist of a present or past participle verb
form and an object. They are used as adjectives.

Example: The baseball coach spitting tobacco on the dugout

floor disgusts me.

 Gerund phrases begin with a gerund and are used as nouns.

Example: He loves embarrassing his relations.

Adjective/Adverb Phrases
 Adjective and adverb phrases are groups of words
that work together to modify a noun or pronoun
(adjectives) or an adjective, adverb, or verb (adverb).

Examples:

The glowing, green balloon burst.

Jacob very nearly destroyed his computer.
Prepositional Phrases
 Prepositional phrases open with prepositions and
connect nouns and pronouns to other words in the
sentence. Prepositional phrases act as adverb and
adjective phrases.

Examples:

In the midnight air, her perfume reminded me of wisteria.

I screamed for Jerry to jump off the roof.
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ESL Resources

English Language Lesson: Nouns, Pronouns, and Articles

Once you know the basics of sentence construction, let’s look at the types of words in detail.
Remember that there are eight types of words: nouns, pronouns, verb, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. In this lesson, we’ll look at nouns and pronouns in
detail. We’ll also look at articles, a special kind of adjective that we use with nouns.

Nouns and Articles

A noun is a word that represents a person, place, object, or idea. Nouns can be concrete items such as
a fan or a brick; named people or places such as President Sarkozy or Berlin, Germany; or abstract
ideas such as love or hatred. In a sentence, nouns are subjects, direct objects, predicate nominatives,
and objects of prepositions. An article is a determiner that may or may not precede a noun. Articles
can be tricky – while some languages use them, others do not, and they operate differently in almost
every language. The chart below provides a visual overview of the information in the handout. It may
help you to reference it as we work through the lesson.1

Common Proper
Nouns Nouns

Singular Plural
“the”or no article “the” or no article

Countable Non-Countable

Singular Plural

Specific Non-Specific Specific Non-Specific Specific Non-Specific

“the” “a” OR “an” “the” Quantity words “the” Quantity words
(“some, “a little,” etc.) (“some, “a little,” etc.)
OR OR
No article if noun is No article if noun is
used as a used as a
generalization generalization

Common vs. Proper Nouns

Common nouns are nouns that discuss general things. As we mentioned already, a noun can be an
object or an abstraction. It can also refer to a quality (darkness, pride, smoothness) an action
(swimming, effort, operation) or a concept (art, minority, belief).

1
Developed by E. Baldwin and R.J. Stripling. First printed for the QWC at University of Arkansas

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Proper nouns are nouns that refer to a person, place or thing that is formal and specific. The first letter
of a proper noun is always capitalized. The list below contains both proper and common nouns. The
proper noun is one specific form of the common noun.
Proper Common
Mt. Everest a mountain
Asia a continent
Maxwell Secondary School a high school
Lake Tahoe a lake / a body of water
Hugh Jackman an actor
Mike Bebee a politician
Nigerians a people group
Roman Catholic a religion

Plural or Singular?
Common nouns and proper nouns can be either plural (representing multiple things) or singular
(representing one thing). Normally, a plural nouns ends in an “s”.
Example ball (singular) balls (plural)
mountain range mountain ranges
An American Several Americans
Notice two things: first, if a word has two parts – a descriptor and a noun, such as “mountain range” –
only the main word (not the descriptor) receives the “s” [example: “Commander in chief” 
“commanders in chief”; “soccer ball”  “soccer balls”] Second, proper nouns can be made plural as
well - “Americans.”

There are a few general exceptions to this rule.

1. Words ending in “y” – If there is a consonant before the “y”2, the “y” becomes “ies”
Examples: baby  babies; lady  ladies
– If there is a vowel before the “y”, add an “s” as usual
Example: monkey  monkeys; valley  valleys
2. Words ending in x, sh, ch or s – Add an “es”
Example: church  churches; fox  foxes
3. Words ending in “f”or “fe” – Change the “f” or “fe” to a “v” and add “es”
Example: leaf  leaves; calf  calves

There are many, many exceptions to pluralization rules. Some words are both singular and plural,
such as “sheep” and “deer.” Some words change internally (“foot”  “feet”; “mouse”  “mice”).
Some words add letters other than “s” (“radius”  “radii”; “criterion” “criteria”). Your best friend
in learning these is a good English dictionary. The internet can be a valuable resource as well.

Articles
There are two types of articles: definite (specific) and indefinite (non-specific) . An indefinite article
modifies a general noun or a noun that the reader is not already familiar with. A heart beats 74 times a
minute doesn’t refer to one particular heart; it refers to the body part in general. The heart that was
going to be transplanted beat only 56 times a minute refers to a specific heart – one that a patient is

2
Reminder: Consonants are : b c d f g h j k l m n p q r s t v w x y z
Vowels are: a e i o u

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waiting for! As we work through the types of articles, refer back to the chart on page 1. It will help
you keep the articles in order.

In order to determine which article is needed, we need to determine which type of noun the article will
accompany. Proper nouns are the easiest to identify.

A proper noun may be either plural or singular, but it is always specific.

Because a proper noun refers to a particular thing, it must always be specific.
A singular proper noun usually takes no article; however, in certain cases,
it may take a “the.”
Example: McDonalds is my favorite restaurant.
McDonald’s is the proper noun taking no article.
The Pacific Ocean is home to the Great Barrier Reef.
The Pacific Ocean and the Great Barrier Reef are both proper nouns.
Because a specific type of noun is included in the name (“Ocean” and
“Reef”), the proper noun takes the specific article.

A plural proper noun usually takes a “the”; however, in certain cases it takes no article.
Example: The Great Lakes are home to fascinating birds and fish.
The Great Lakes is a plural set of specific mountains – a named noun
– which takes the article.
Americans are often poor travelers overseas.
Referring to a non-specific group of Americans, the plural proper noun cannot
take a specific article, so it takes none.
The Americans dined at a pizza shop.
Because this refers to a specific set of Americans, the specific article is
needed.

A common noun may be either countable or non-countable.

A countable noun is an individual object that can, as the name suggests, be
counted. If you can have one, two, three, etc. of the noun, it is countable.
Example: “Table” is a countable noun: “one table” “two tables” etc.
“Patriot” is a countable noun: “one patriot” “two patriots””
A non-countable (uncountable) noun refers to items that are not individual and therefore cannot be
counted. Because they cannot be counted, they do not have a plural form.
Example: “Air” is a non-countable noun. You cannot say “one air” “two air” etc.
“Patriotism” is a non-countable noun. You cannot say. “one patriotism” “two
patriotism” etc.
A non-countable noun may be either specific or non-specific.
If the non-countable noun refers to something unique OR something that has
been mentioned before, it is specific and takes the article “the.”
Example: Jennifer gave the facts to the board of directors.
Because these facts are specific, we use “the.”
If the non-countable noun refers to something general, it is non-specific. You may either use no article
or a quantity word. A quantity word indicates the amount of the noun you are discussing.
Example: Hard work brings about results.
“Hard work” is a general concept, so it takes no article.
A little hard work goes a long way.

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Much hard work will get the job done.

“Hard work” is still general, but these descriptors indicate an amount.

A countable noun may be either singular or plural.

A singular countable noun may be either specific or non-specific.
A specific singular countable noun describes one of a unique thing OR
one of a thing that has already been introduced to the reader. For these
nouns, you must use the article “the.”
Example: Rachel put the dog outside.
There is one dog, and it is a specific dog (the one that went outside).
Al Gore encourages us to protect the earth.
There is only one planet earth, so it is specific.
A non-specific singular countable noun describes one of a general thing OR one of something that has
not yet been introduced to the reader. For these nouns, use the article “a” or “an.”3
Example: Amy needs to get a car now that winter is coming.
Amy has not yet selected a specific car, so the general article is used.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
Neither the apple nor the day is particular, so the general articles are used.

A plural countable noun be either specific or non-specific.

A specific plural countable noun describes more than one of a unique thing OR more than one of a
thing that has not already been introduced to the reader. For these nouns, you must use the article
“the.”
Example: The websites about Sarah Palin have received thousands of hits today.
These are multiple, but specific, websites (the ones about Sarah Palin), so they take
the article “the.”
“Of course we’re crazy; we’re the children of the insane.” –The Beatles
Specific children (the ones of the insane) and specific insane (the ones that had the
children) are mentioned, so they both take the article “the.”
A non-specific plural countable noun references more than one unique thing or more than one of a
thing that has already been introduced to the reader. For these nouns, use no article or use a quantity
word (just as you do with a non-countable noun).
Example: Pumpkins are native to the United States.
Because we are referring to all pumpkins, no article is needed.
Some children like to chase the ice cream truck.
The sentence suggests quantity of general children, so the quantity word
“Some” is used.
People will sometimes let you down.
“People” is used as a generalization here, so no article is needed.
.
Pronouns
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns in a sentence. The pronoun is substitute word, and the
antecedent is the noun that it is substituting.
Example: Marcus left his cloak on the table.

3
If the noun starts with a consonant or consonant sound, use the article “a.” Example: a house, a university
If the noun starts with a vowel or a vowel sound, use the article “an.” Example: an oak, an elephant

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The pronoun here is “his.” It is standing in for the antecedent “Marcus.” This allows us to
avoid saying “Marcus left Marcus’s cloak on the table.”

Just as there are several functions for nouns, there are several types of pronouns:

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are pronouns that stand in for the three persons in English speech – first second and
third person. Remember from lesson 1: there are different ways nouns can act in a sentence (subject,
direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative). Similarly, there are three types of personal
pronouns for each person – nominative (in which the person is the subject of the sentence), possessive
(in which the person owns something), and objective (in which the person is the object of the
sentence). The chart below breaks down personal pronouns by their number, type, and case:

First person Second Person Third Person

Singular
-Nominative I You He, she, it
-Possessive My, mine Your, yours His, her, hers, its
-Objective Me You Him, her, it
Plural
-Nominative We You They
-Possessive Our, ours Your, yours Their, Theirs
-Objective Us You Them

Examples:
Nominative case: Pronoun acts as a subject or predicate normative
I want cake. You want cake. He wants cake.
It must have been she. Was it you who told the baker? The culprit is he.
Objective case: Pronoun acts as a direct or indirect object.
Give the cake to me. I asked you for it. Have you seen them with it?
Possessives: Pronoun indicates ownership.
Our cake tastes the best. Your cake is dry and crumbly. The worst cake, however is theirs.

Note: Personal pronouns may also be reflexive or intensive. These are called compound personal
pronouns and are formed by adding “-self” or “-selves” to the end of a personal pronoun.
Reflexive personal pronouns shows the action of the verb coming back on the subject.
Example: I enjoyed myself. She treated herself to a bubble bath.
Intensifying personal pronouns add emphasis to the antecedent. They follow immediately after the
noun and can be removed without changing the overall meaning of the sentence.
Example: The president himself came to the ball.
The baker herself didn’t think she could have made a better cake.
Never use an intensifying pronoun on its own.
INCORRECT: Myself went to the bakery to pick up the cake.
CORRECT: I went to the bakery to pick up the cake.
INCORRECT: Jenna and myself thought it tasted like heaven.
CORRECT: Jenna and I thought it tasted like heaven.

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Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns join clauses to make a complex sentence. Relative pronouns are used at the beginning of
the subordinate clause which gives some specific information about the main clause. Within their clauses
they may be used as subjects, objects, and possessives.

The relative pronouns are: that, who, whom, whose, which, where, when, and why.
Reference to People Things Place Time Reason
Function
Subject Who/that Which/that
Object That/Who/ Which/that Where When Why
Whom
Possessive Whose Whose/
of which4

Note the use of relative pronouns below. The larger clauses are in parenthesis.
Relative pronoun used as a subject:
These are the dogs (that I wanted to adopt).
After a year, Jeannie finally got used to her neighbors (who played music all night).
Relative pronoun used as an object (pronouns in brackets are optional and could be eliminated)
The town ([which/that] I wanted to live in) is now a ghost town.
I was surprised by the party([which/that]) my friends threw.
Shelly did want to work with the man (who) wasted her time.
Relative pronoun used as a possessive:
Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun is in English.
The dog (whose bone went missing) is whining at the back door.
The lawyer (whose client went missing) lost the case.
The water bottle (whose cap was leaking) was thrown away.

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns begin questions and have no antecedent.
The interrogative pronouns are: who, whom, which, and what.
Example: Who took my book?
Which way is the grocery store?
What is the quickest way to get to the airport?

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point out or make reference to something. When spoken, they do not
require antecedents . In writing, they may or may not take antecedents.
The demonstrative pronouns are: this, that, these, those.
Example: Is this the dress that is on sale?
That is clearly the best way to proceed.
These paintings are clearly superior to those.
Note: There is some overlap in words between demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative
adjectives. The pronouns will fill a noun role, while the adjectives will modify:
Pronoun: This is the week Jessica specified for the trip.
Adjective: Jessica specified this week for the trip.

4
Adapted from the OWL @ Purdue. 2009.

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Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to one or more unspecified beings, objects, or places.
They are often concerned with number, portion, or amount.
There are many indefinite pronouns. We can classify them by group:
Single indefinite pronouns: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, enough,
everybody, everyone, everything, less, little, much, neither, no one, nobody, nothing, one,
other, somebody, someone, something
Example: No one wanted to come to the show with me.
One of the clowns was terrifying.
Someone call for help!
Plural indefinite pronouns: both, few, fewer, many, others, several
Example: Several players stormed off of the field.
Others stayed behind to wait for the referee’s call.
Plural OR singular indefinite pronouns (also called amount pronouns): all, any, more, most,
none, plenty, some, such.
Example: All of the gold was wasted. (singular)
All of the children were brats.

Common Pronoun Errors

There are several errors that frequently appear with pronoun usage:

1. Sexist Pronouns: Do not use masculine pronouns to refer to groups that can include both genders.
“Each doctor got out his syringe.”
Should be The doctors got out their syringes.
“This is a great step for mankind.”
Should be  This is a great step for all people (OR for all humankind).

2. Vague use of pronouns: Pronouns must have clear antecedents in noun form.
“I kicked the table with the book before it fell on the ground.” [It is unclear in this sentence
which of the objects fell on the floor. Is it the book or the table?]
Should be  I kicked the table, causing the book to fall on the ground.
“Emily wanted to play with my dog before she walked with me.” [It is unclear in this
sentence who is doing the walking – Emily or the dog?]
Should be  Before Emily and I went on our walk, she wanted to play with the
dog.
“I went to the rally. That wasn’t a good idea.” [It unclear what the antecedent for “that” is.]
Should be  My decision to attend the rally was a bad idea.

3. Inappropriate use of “who,” “which” and “that”: Only people are “who” and “which.” Animals and
objects are “that.”
“This is the pony who loves carrots.”
Should be  This is the pony that loves carrots.
“The astronauts that returned from space were tired.”
Should be  The astronauts who returned from space were tired.

Sources: The St. Martin’s Handbook (Bedford-St. Martin’s); The OWL @ Purdue

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ESL Resources

English Language Lesson: Verbs

Just as nouns, the first of the eight parts of speech, play a key role in a sentence, so do verbs. In this
lesson, we’ll look at verbs – action or being words – and the way that they can be changed according
to tense. We’ll also look at verbals and common verb errors.

Verbs
There are two types of verbs: action verbs and being verbs. Action verbs tell what something is, was,
or will be doing.
Examples: Jennifer ate pizza sticks for dinner.
Please don’t ring the bell so loudly; it hurts my ears.
After the cathedral, the tour group will visit the museum.
Being verbs (also called state-of-being verbs and linking verbs) indicate that something exists in a
form or state. The subjects in being verb sentences aren’t doing anything. A being verb tells us what
something is, was, or will be.
Examples: That dog is covered in fleas.
The new prime minister will be good for the country.
Where was the missing manuscript?
Note: Some verbs can act as either a being verb or an action verb. To determine the difference, ask if
the subject is performing the action of the verb.
Examples: This salad tastes strange.
The sommelier tastes the wine.
In the first example, the salad is not performing the tasting; “tasting strange” is the
state of being of the salad. In the second example, the sommelier is
performing the action of tasting on the wine, making it an action verb.
The rugby team looked exhausted after the match.
The curator looked at the statue for a long time before leaving.
In the first example, the state of being of the team is “exhausted”; they are not
performing an action. In the second example, the curator is doing the action
of looking.

Verb Forms and Auxiliary verbs

Regular verbs can be conjugated into four forms. These forms are important, since they are the basis
for all conjugations. All verbs have an infinitive form or a base form before conjugation. The
infinitive form of a verb always begins with a “to.” Examples: to be, to eat, to smell, to run, to
pontificate, to scream, etc.

Examples:
Infinitive Present Past Present Participle Past Participle
To allow Allow(s) Allowed Allowing Allowed
To bake Bakes(s) Baked Baking Baked
To rejoice Rejoice(s) Rejoiced Rejoicing Rejoiced
To snore Snore(s) Snored Snoring Snores
To touch Touch(es) Touched Touching Touched

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There are some important things to note. First, present tense has a slight deviation for third person –
the addition of an “s” (see the chart under person and number). Second, past and past participle are
identical in regular verbs; they are simply the addition of “ed” to the present form. Third, some verb
endings (such as those ending in “ch”) add a letter to the present tense – a good dictionary will help
you identify those.

Auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs) are words which are added to the primary forms to create
verb phrases. There are two types of auxiliary verbs: primary and modal.
Primary auxiliary verbs: Primary auxiliary verbs have two important properties. They change to
match the subject of the sentence, and they can also stand on their own as independent verbs. There
are three primary auxiliary verbs: have, do, and be.
Do: “Do” is used to express the negative, provide emphasis, and ask questions:
Examples: Hemmingway doesn’t live in Cuba anymore. (negative)
Does Darren know how to set the Tivo? (question)
I do have three puppies for sale. (emphasis)
Notice that the auxiliary can be split from the primary verb (#1 &#2)
Have: “Have” is joined with participles to create the present form of verbs (see below: verb
tenses). Have is also combined with modal verbs to express possibility.
Example: I have gone to the store five times this week.
The unicorn must have been a figment of your imagination.
Kaylin must have left the water running.
Be: “Be” verbs are combined with participles to create progressive verbs. (see below: verb
tenses).

Verb Properties
In English, verbs change based on how they are used in a sentence. Verbs can be transformed out of
their infinitive form according to five properties: tense, mood, person, number, and voice. The
transformation all use one of the four verb forms

Person and Number

A verb changes according to person and number. Person indicates who is doing or being the verb.
Number indicates how many are doing or being. The table below is often used to help conjugate verbs
according to person and number (pronouns are added as sample subjects):

Singular Plural
st
1 person 1 person – me/I More than one person – we/us
2nd person 1 person – you More than one person – you (all)
3rd person 1 person – he/she/it More than one person - they

Verbs change according to their person and number. Example (to throw):
Singular Plural
1st person I throw We throw
2nd person You throw You (all) throw
rd 12
3 person He/she/it throws They throw

1
When conjugating according to person and number, notice that there is a slight deviation for 3 rd person present
(see above “throw” versus “throws”), but for the remaining conjugations, all of the verbs remain consistent.

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Verb tense
The tense of a verb indicates when in time the action or being of the verb occurred. Regular verbs in
English change their form into six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future
perfect. Each of the tenses is made up of one of or a combination of the four forms (past, present, past
participle, present participle). The first three tenses (past, present, and future) can also take progressive
forms.

-Present indicates that something occurs or is now, at the current time. Present verbs take the
present verb form.
Example: I sing in the choir.
The lungs take in the air and transport it to the heart.
Californians like surfing in the ocean.
-Present progressive3 indicates that something is in the act of occurring now. Present
progressive takes the present tense “to be” + present perfect form
I am singing in the choir.
The lungs are taking in the air and are transporting it to the heart.
Californians are liking surfing in the ocean.

-Past indicates that something happened at a fixed time before the present. Past verbs take the
past form.
Example: The horses ate oats some days and grain on others.
The band Yellowcard played an amazing show.
Cathleen woke from a terrible nightmare.
-Past progressive indicates that something occurred over time in the past. Past progressive
verbs take the past tense “to be”+ present participle form.
The horses were eating oats some days and grain on others.
The band Yellowcard was playing an amazing show.
Cathleen was waking from a terrible nightmare.

-Future indicates that something will happen or be at some time after the present. Future verbs
take “will” + present form OR present tense “to be” + “going to” + present form.
Example: The surgeon will begin the operation tonight.
I am going to clean the garage sometime soon.
The barrista will get you some coffee.
-Future progressive indicates that something will be happening over time in the future. Future
progressive takes “will be” + present participle OR present tense “to be” + “going to be” +
present participle.
The surgeon will be beginning the operation tonight.
I am going to be cleaning the garage sometime soon.
The barrista will be getting you some coffee.
Note: Note that, in formal English, “will” is occasionally replaced by “shall” (Example: The
surgeon shall begin the surgery tonight).

2
There are some irregular verbs that do not behave this way. The most significant of these is “to be.” There is a chart at the end of this
lesson conjugating “to be.” A good English dictionary will indicate the remainder of the irregular verbs.
3
“Progressive” verb forms are also often called “continuous.”

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-Past perfect indicates that something in the past occurred before something else in the past. Past
perfect is formed by past tense “to have” + the past participle.
Example: I had gone to the store to get some apples when the shooting started.
The earrings had been gold before they discolored.
The dog had chewed a hole in the sofa before the babysitter noticed.
-Past perfect progressive indicates that something had been happening in the past before
something else. Past perfect continuous is formed by “had been” + present participle
Example: I had been getting my milk at the corner market before it closed.
Car sales had been increasing until the economic crisis.
The dog had been chasing the cat every day until the cat ran away.

-Present perfect indicates that something occurred in the past and continues up to the present.
Present perfect is formed by present tense “to have” + past participle form
Example: I have worked on my home every spare minute.
Bono has offered thousands of dollars to charity.
Stephanie has not seen the movie Moulin Rouge.
NOTE: The present perfect refers to a non-specific time – when the verb occurred doesn’t
matter. You cannot use the present perfect with specific times (ie. Yesterday, tomorrow, in
1946, at 3:00, etc., when I graduated, after work). You can use the present perfect with non-
specific time words (etc. ever, once, before, several times, since, etc.)
-Present perfect progressive indicates that an action that started in the past is still going on.
The present perfect continuous is formed by present tense “to have” + “been” + the present
participle form
Example: I have been working on my home every spare minute.
Bono has been offering thousands of dollars to charity on a weekly basis.
Jana has not been seeing Jed since they broke up.

-Future perfect tense indicates that something in the future occurs before something else in the
future. Future perfect tense is formed by EITHER using “will have” + past participle form OR
using present tense “to be” + “going to have” + the past participle.
Example: Patricia will have set up the stage by the time we get there.
The antiques shop is going to have acquired several pieces at the auction.
I am going to have called the phone company before you get here.
-Future perfect progressive indicates that something will be happening up to a particular
point in time in the future. Future perfect continuous is formed EITHER by using “will have
been” + the present participle OR by using present tense “to be” + “going to have been” +
the present participle.
Example: You will have been waiting for hours when the train arrives.
He is going to have been living in Malta for three days when his wife arrives.
I will not have been studying here that long.

Use the chart below as a quick reference for verb forms:

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PAST Simple past Past Progressive Past Perfect Past Perfect Progressive
tenses
Past Past tense “to be” + present “Had” + past “Had Been” + present
participle participle participle

I played checkers. I was playing checkers. I had played I had been playing checkers.
checkers.

PRESENT Simple present Present Progressive Present Perfect Present Perfect Progressive
tenses
Present Present tense “to be” + Present “to have” + Present tense “to have” +
present participle past participle “been” + present participle

I play checkers I am playing checkers. I have played I have been playing checkers.
checkers.

FUTURE Simple future Future Progressive Future Perfect Future Perfect Progressive
tenses
“Will” + present OR “will be” + present “will have” + past “will have been” + present
present tense “to be” + participle OR present tense participle OR present participle OR present “to be”
“going to” + verb “to be” + “going to be” + tense “to be” + “going + “going to have been” +
present participle to have” + past preset participle
participle

I will play checkers. I will be playing checkers. I will have played I will have been playing
I am going to play I am going to be playing checkers. checkers.
checkers. checkers. I am going to have I am going to have been
played checkers. playing checkers.

Verb Voice
Verb voice indicates who is performing the action of the verb. Active voice indicates that the subject is
performing the action of the verb.
Example: Dr. Walter sent us an email about the homework.
The subject of this sentence “Dr. Walter” is performing the verb “sending.”
Passive voice indicates that the subject was not performing the action. In passive voice, the object of
the action has become the subject of the sentence. Passive voice is formed by adding a “to be” verb to
the past participle.
Example: The homework was sent to us.
The subject of this sentence “the homework” did not perform the verb – it did not do the
sending. It was the object of the verb.
We use active voice when we want to emphasize the performer of the verb. We use passive voice
when we want to emphasize the action itself over the actor or the recipient.
The pitcher slapped the batter. Here, the pitcher is the most important part of the sentence.
The batter was slapped. Here, we don’t know who performed the slapping. The receiver of the
action – the batter – is emphasized.
In some cases, the actor of the verb will be attached to the end of the sentence:
The batter was slapped by the pitcher. The batter is still the subject, but the performer of the
verb (the pitcher) has been added to give more information.
Passive voice must be used with caution. It is not incorrect, but, because it hides the actor of the
sentence, it often makes writing weaker. Passive voice is best used to hide the actor or emphasize the
recipient of the action. Note the difference in these sentences:
We were saved by the Coast Guard. (The emphasis here is on “we” – the recipients of the saving).
The Coast Guard has saved us. (The emphasis here is on the Coast Guard – the subject performed
the verb of saving.)

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Verb Mood
There are three verb moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Most of the time, we use verbs in
the indicative mood – the moods that indicates the verb is acting or being:
Example: We played cricket all night.
Chris is a cashier at the liquor store.
I changed the oil in my car.
Verbs in the imperative mood indicate the giving of a command.
Example: Call the doctor!
Please pass the peas and carrots.
Get your hair cut, punk.
Verbs in the subjunctive mood express something that might be. A subjunctive verb can indicate a
hypothetical situation, a desire, a reality that is not fact, or a demand.4
Hypothetical: If Charlie were to get a kidney infection, we would go to the hospital.
Desire: I wish I were an Oscar Meyer wiener.
A reality that is not fact: If I were the president, I would have health care fixed already.
Suggestion: You should keep your hands on the steering wheel.
Demand: Dr. Meyer insisted that Emily marry him.
NOTE: These verb conjugations don’t follow normal tense rules. There are two exceptions that
subjunctive verbs encounter:
1. In the present tense, drop the “s” from the third person.
2. In past tense, “was” always becomes “were”.

Examples:
Incorrect, If Amy was not so punctual, we would be late.
Correct: If Amy were not so punctual, we would be late.
Incorrect: Abbi’s mom insisted that she takes extra time with the baby.
Correct: Abbi’s mom insisted that she take extra time with the baby.

Verb Errors
If a sentence begins using a certain set of verb forms, it must use those forms throughout the entire
sentence. It cannot shift in the middle of the sentence:

1. The sentence needs to maintain a single PERSON and NUMBER:

Incorrect: Nurses get less pay than doctors, even though a nurse works just as hard.
Correct: Nurses get less pay than doctors, even though nurses work just as hard.
Incorrect: I have difficulty seeing another person’s position, especially if they contradict my
opinion. (singular has become plural)
Incorrect: I have difficulty seeing another person’s position, especially if their opinion
contradicts mine. (singular has become plural)
Correct: I have difficulty seeing other people’s positions, especially if their opinions contract
mine.

2. The sentence needs to maintain a single VERB TENSE:

Incorrect: Germany produces most of the world’s oil, but England produced most of the corn.
Correct: Germany produces most of the world’s oil, but England produces most of the corn.

4
Adapted from the Quality Writing Center at UofA and from Ann Bakto’s When Bad Grammar Happens to Good People

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3. The sentence needs to maintain a single VOICE:

Incorrect: The referee approached me, and I was asked to leave the game.
Correct: The referee approached me and asked me to leave the game.
Correct: I was approached and asked to leave the game by the referee.

4. The sentence needs to maintain a single VERB MOOD:

Incorrect: Keep your hands on the wheel, and you should check your rearview mirror.
(imperative has become subjunctive)
Correct: Keep your hands on the wheel and check your rearview mirror.
Correct: You should keep your hands on the wheel and should check your rearview mirror.

Verbals
Verbals are words derived from verbs that act as nouns, adverbs, or adjectives in a sentence. There are
three types of verbals: infinitives, participles, and gerunds.
Infinitives
Infinitive phrases consist of an infinitive (a verb form before conjugation: to dance, to fly, to
circumnavigate, etc.) plus an object. They are usually used as nouns, but they can also be used
as adjectives or as adverbs.
As noun (subject): To understand Greek verbs would make me so happy.
As noun (object): Charlotte wanted desperately to make Letticia understand.
As adjective: Adree had nothing to satisfy the baby’s screams.
As adverb: To promote world peace, she was willing to travel to the ends of the earth.
Participles
Participles are adjectives formed from verbs. They come in two tenses: present and past.
Present participle verbs take the present participle form; past participle verbs take the past
participle forms.
Participles can be used as adjectives all by themselves:
Example: howling wolves
hovering aircraft
broken heart
rejected suitor
Participial phrases consist of a participle plus an object. They are used as adjectives.
Example: The creature suffering in the dungeon was once beautiful.
Surprised by the intensity of her disgust, Felicity stared at the cockroach
scurrying across her omelet.
Irving, screaming like a banshee, went careening from the room.
 Gerunds
Gerunds are verbs in the present participle form that are acting as nouns. Gerunds will
always have the –ing ending.
Example: Swimming is an excellent form of exercise.
Melting candles for their wax produces a lovely scent.
Gerund phrases begin with a gerund (an -ing word which looks exactly like a present
participle, but which is used as a noun.) A gerund phrase can be used in any way a
noun can:
As subject: Playing canasta has been her downfall.
As direct object: He loves embarrassing his relations.
As subjective complement: One of his milder vices is carousing until dawn.
As object of preposition: She amused herself with bungee-jumping from
helicopters.

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English Grammar:
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ESL Resources

English Language Lesson: Modifiers – Adjectives and Adverbs

Nouns and verbs make straightforward statements about what things are and what they do. However, the
world is not black and white – there are infinite details that need to be expressed. Modifiers give
additional information about nouns, pronouns, verbs, and themselves to make those things more definite.
There are two types of modifiers: adjectives and adverbs.

Adjectives
Adjectives are words that modify nouns and pronouns. Adjectives answer the questions: What kind?
Which one? And how many?
What kind? Yellow balls, endangered species, gigantic tower
Which one? His girlfriend, that sofa, whose music
How many/much? Both books, several hours, more time
Adjectives may come before or after a noun. They may also come at the end of a sentence with a “to be”
verb (see predicate adjectives, from parts of speech lesson).
Blue dolphins play in the Pacific.
The portrait, priceless to collectors, was stolen out of the museum last night.
Lipstick is expensive.

Types of adjectives
Adjectives can take several forms:

~Articles: Remember from the nouns lesson, the three articles a, an, and the are adjectives.
Example: Pass me a plate.
The digital camera was dropped and all the files were deleted.

~Titles: Mr., Mrs., Dr., Rev., Jr. and other name-modifiers are adjectives.
Example: Mr. Rogers had a children’s show with a train and puppet.
Mt. Kota Kinabalu is the tallest mountain in Java.

~Possessives: Just as there are possessive pronoun forms, there are possessive adjective forms.
These forms are my, you, his, her, its, our, their
Example: Lord Percival gambled all his money on horses.
The students fumbled for their textbooks.

~Comparative: Adjectives can indicate comparisons between relationships. Many adjectives have
a comparative form indicating that something is better or more than something else and a
superlative form indicating that something is the best or most.
Example:
Positive (Normal) Comparative Superlative
Good Better Best
Tall Taller Tallest
Bad Worse Worst

~Numbers: Numbers are classified as adjectives because they modify how many of a noun.
Example: There are nine eggs in that nest.
Sixteen children were caught in the blast.

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 Pg 2

~Nouns: Nouns can sometimes be used as adjectives if a noun is modifying another noun.
Example: The cookie jar was empty this morning.
The mountain range spread across the land.

~Demonstrative adjectives: The demonstrative pronouns (see noun lesson) can also be used as
adjectives:
Example: That doctor is being sued for malpractice.
Don’t put those apples in the pie; they have worms.

~Indefinite adjectives: Like indefinite pronouns (lesson 4), adjectives can express non-specific
amounts:
Example: No girls are allowed in the boy’s tree house.
I only donate some money to charity.
Over the past few weeks, I’ve seen many cats lurking in my neighborhood.
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Adverbs answer the questions how?
When? Where? How much/To what extent?
How? Peter’s heart beat rapidly when he saw the girl walk by.
When? Immediately after receiving the order, the troops began to March.
Where? The dog moved backwards.
How much/To what extent? Kim jumped slightly to the left.
Many adverbs can often be recognized by their –ly ending. Many adjectives can become adverbs with the
addition of –ly.
She was quick.  She moved quickly.
The puppy looked happy.  The puppy wagged his tail happily.

Purposes of Adverbs
~ MANNER - these answer the question “how?”
Example: She speaks Italian beautifully.
He works well.
You must drive your car carefully.
Eat quietly.
~PLACE - these answer the question “where?”
Example: We saw you outside.
We were sitting here.
We looked everywhere.
~TIME - these answer the question “when?”
Example: Afterwards we decided to go by car.
I've done that journey before.
We haven't started yet.
He still wears old-fashioned clothes.
~FREQUENCY - these answer the question “how many times?”
Example: She is always honest.
They sometimes spend the whole of Saturday fishing.
I have often wondered how they did that.
~ DEGREE - these answer the question “to what extent?”
Example: The bottle is nearly empty.
They should be able to pass their exams quite easily.

ELL7: Modifiers ehb 2009

 Pg 3

We had almost reached the hut when the rain started.

I am just beginning a new course.

~Like adjectives, adverbs can be comparative. Most adverbs are compared using “more” or “most.”
Quickly  more quickly  the most quickly
Happily  more happily  the most happily
Some adverbs (often the ones that do not end with -ly) can take the –er and –est.
Fast  faster  fastest

Adjective and Adverb Reminders:

1. Adjectives and adverbs are single words, but they can operate as phrases as well.
Example: The blue ball (single word)
“Blue” modifies “ball” - Answers question “what kind?”
The very blue ball (phrase)
“Blue” modifies “ball” - Answers question “what kind?”
“Very” modifies “blue” - “to what degree?”
Example: My use of adverbs is almost always perfect.
“Of adverb” modifies “use” – Answers question “what kind?”
“perfect” modifies “use” – Answers question “What kind?”
“Always” modifies “perfect” – Answers question “When?”
“Almost” modifies “always” – answers question “To what extent?”

My use (of adverbs) is (almost always perfect)

2. Some words function both as adverbs and as prepositions. See lesson 9 on prepositions for
how to distinguish between the two.
3. “Here” and “there” are adverbs and cannot be the subject of the sentence:
Example: There is Jenny!
The subject of this sentence is “Jenny.” “There” modifies “is” by answering “where?”

Modifier errors
Misplaced Modifiers.
Modifying phrases must go next to the word that they modify. If a modifier is in the wrong place, the
meaning of the sentence can change.

Adverb Example: My sister walked in as I was scrubbing the floor with her new baby.
The modifying phrase “with her new baby” should logically modify how the sister walked. The
sister walked into the room together with her new baby. However, the modifier is closest to the
verb “scrubbing.” What this sentence actually suggests is that I was using the baby to scrub the
floor!
Corrected: My sister walked in with her new baby as I was scrubbing the floor.

Adjective Example: “One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas.” –Groucho Marx

The modifying phrase “in my pajamas” should be modifying “I.” Logically, the speaker did the
shooting while he was wearing his pajamas. However, the modifier is closest to the noun
“elephant.” What the sentence actually says is that the elephant was in the pajamas.
Corrected, one morning, while in my pajamas, I shot an elephant.
Note: In some cases, you may have to add or change words to make the sentence make sense.
ELL7: Modifiers ehb 2009
 Pg 4

Dangling Modifiers
Modifying phrases must have a word to modify. A modifier cannot “dangle” alone in a sentence.
Example: Having finished the assignment, the tv was turned on.
The modifying phrase “Having finished the assignment” has nothing to modify. The only other
noun in the sentence is “tv,” and clearly the tv didn’t finish an assignment.
Corrected: Having finished the assignment, Andy turned on the tv.

Example: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab instructions carefully.
The person or persons who failed to study the instructions is missing from the sentence.
Corrected: The class failed to study the lab instructions carefully and failed the experiment.

Use Caution!
Sometimes in a sentence, a modifier can logically modify more than one word. Be careful to specify
which word is being modified.
Example: The family nearly lost everything in the tornado.
The family lost nearly everything in the tornado.
In the first example, the placement of “nearly” makes it an adverb, modifying “lost.” This
sentence suggests that the family almost suffered lost, but did not. In the second example,
“nearly” is an adjective modifying “everything.” This sentence suggests that the family lost a
great deal – almost everything.

Note: In scholastic writing, one common modifier error occurs when the author of a story is used as an
adjective, leaving the pronoun without an antecedent:
Example: In Tim O’Brien’s “The Things They Carried,” he writes about warfare.
The writer intends “he” to refer back to Tim O’Brien, but because the author was used as an
adjective describing “The Things They Carried,” it’s difficult to tell to whom the pronoun refers.
Correction: In “The Things They Carried,” Tim O’Brien writes about warfare.

ELL7: Modifiers ehb 2009

 Common English Idioms
Idioms are phrases or expressions with a figurative meaning. In other words, their meaning
should not be taken literally; rather, idioms use metaphor to express an idea.

It is generally unwise to use idioms in your academic writing, as they often come across as cliché
and informal. However, you are likely to encounter many idioms in your reading.

There are too many idioms in English to list here, but below are some of the most common
English idioms. You may wish to purchase a dictionary of idioms that you can refer to when you
encounter an unfamiliar idiom.

A dime a dozen: common

Finding a good bass player is difficult, but guitar players are a dime a dozen.

Adding insult to injury: making a bad situation even worse

Jamal was in a bad enough mood already, but Orville added insult to injury by mocking him.

All bark and no bite: seemingly assertive/aggressive but actually harmless

Dana’s loud voice makes her seem threatening, but she’s all bark and no bite.

All of a sudden: suddenly

I was walking to class when all of a sudden a dog ran out in front of me.

Back to square one/back to the drawing board: having to start over from the beginning

When their experiment failed to produce expected results, they were back to square one.

Barking up the wrong tree: pursuing something unattainable

If you’re trying to convince me to change my mind, you’re barking up the wrong tree.

Beating a dead horse: continuing to discuss an issue that has already been decided

Stop beating a dead horse! We made our decision a long time ago.

Beating around the bush: not speaking directly about something

Stop beating around the bush and just tell me whether you stole my backpack.

Being between a rock and a hard place: having to decide between two bad options

We’re between a rock and a hard place: either we spend money on a lawyer or we try to defend
ourselves in court.

Biting off more than you can chew: taking on more responsibilities than one can manage

Taking difficult courses is good for you, but don’t bite off more than you can chew.

Biting the hand that feeds: harming someone who has offered or is offering support

For candidates to criticize the sponsors donating money to their campaigns is like biting the
hand that feeds them.

Break a leg: good luck!

You’re about to give your performance of King Lear? Break a leg!

Coming down to the wire: nearing the deadline or final decision

The team’s project was coming down to the wire: all they needed to do was proofread the paper.

Cost an arm and a leg: expensive

This tuxedo looks good, but it cost me an arm and a leg.

Counting one’s chickens before they hatch: making a premature assumption

It may look like you’ll win the election, but don’t count your chickens before they hatch.

Crossing one’s fingers: hoping something will happen

I’m crossing my fingers that you’ll win the spelling bee!

Crying over spilled milk: complaining about an insignificant loss or failure

Stop crying over spilled milk. I know that was your favorite phone, but you can get a new one.

Crying wolf: raising a false alarm

When Vassar said there was an emergency, we all ran outside, but it turned out he was just
crying wolf.
Cutting to the chase: getting to the point

Cut to the chase and tell me: do we need a diversity policy or not?

Driving up the wall: annoying someone

Your constant interruptions are driving me up the wall!

Drop in the bucket: a small, insignificant part

Earth may seem big to us, but to the entire universe, it’s just a drop in the bucket.

Every dog has its day: everyone has the opportunity for success or good luck at some point

Things may look rough for you now, but just remember that every dog has its day.

Flash in the pan: something that works well at first but cannot be repeated or sustained; a fad

The store’s early success was just a flash in the pan, and it went out of business soon after.

Going out on a limb: doing or saying something risky

I may be going out on a limb here, but I really think we should hire more tech support.

Going the extra mile: doing more than the minimum

Andy only needed to work for three hours, but he went the extra mile and worked for four hours.

Good Samaritan: someone who altruistically helps others

When my brother’s car broke down on the highway, a Good Samaritan helped him fix it.

Having the ball in one’s court: being in charge of making a decision

The ball is in your court: do you want to stay here in the safe room or go look for help?

Hitting the nail on the head: describing or doing something exactly right

He hit the nail on the head when he said the Civil War was the bloodiest conflict in the U.S.

Icing on the cake: something extra

We already knew which TV we wanted, so finding out it was on sale was just icing on the cake.
In the bag: guaranteed (usually victory)

After Ricky passed the car in first place, he had the race in the bag.

Judging a book by its cover: assuming something based on outside appearance

Pete may look like a weakling, but don’t judge a book by its cover—he’s actually a pro boxer.

Jumping/hopping on the bandwagon: joining a popular trend

At first, Rob was skeptical about the popular new album, but he eventually jumped on the
bandwagon and bought it.

Keeping an eye on something/someone: watching something or someone very carefully

Keep an eye on Del—he’s quite the prankster.

Knowing the ropes: knowing how to do something

Lonnie has been working here for twenty years, so he definitely knows the ropes.

Letting the cat out of the bag: revealing a secret

Jerry’s party was going to be a surprise, but Stacy let the cat out of the bag.

Off the record: said in confidence

This is purely off the record, but I hate our company’s new policy against tennis shoes.

One’s own flesh and blood: one’s family

Stay close to your friends, but stay even closer to your own flesh and blood.

On the fence: undecided

I’m still on the fence about whether I should take organic chemistry next semester.

On the same page: in agreement

We shouldn’t make a decision until everyone is on the same page.

Out of the blue: suddenly and unexpectedly

As I was crossing the street, a pickup truck came speeding down the road out of the blue.
Over the top: excessive

A practical joke every now and then is harmless, but Emily’s prank was over the top.

Passing the buck: shifting responsibility to someone else

The mayor, hesitant to make a decision on the new law, passed the buck to the city council.

Piece of cake: something easy

That test was a piece of cake—I got an A without even studying!

Playing devil’s advocate: pretending to oppose something in order to show the weaknesses of it

I agree with you, but let me play devil’s advocate here: won’t this cost the city a lot of money?

Preaching to the choir: speaking or writing persuasively to people who already agree

Trying to convince environmentalists that we need to save trees is preaching to the choir.

Pulling the plug: ending a process

After months of disappointing polls, the candidate pulled the plug on his campaign.

Pulling one’s leg: tricking or playing a joke

We thought the lodge might be haunted, but it was just Josh pulling our leg.

Putting all of one’s eggs in one basket: investing entirely in just one possibility or option

You should invest in multiple stocks. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.

Putting the cart before the horse: doing things in the wrong order

Ordering textbooks before you know what classes you’re going to take is like putting the cart
before the horse.

Rule of thumb: a simple, practical principle for doing something

A good rule of thumb when revising your papers is to read them out loud to yourself.

Running out of steam: using up all of one’s energy

April was doing great at the beginning of the race, but she quickly ran out of steam.

Saved by the bell: saved by a timely intervention

Randal hadn’t studied for the exam, but he was saved by the bell when the professor rescheduled
it at the last minute.

Slap on the wrist: a minor punishment or scolding

Since this was Hank’s first time speeding, the police officer just gave him a slap on the wrist.

Spilling the beans: revealing a secret

Well, did you or did you not steal his wallet? Spill the beans!

Starting from scratch: starting over from the very beginning

When their experiment failed to produce expected results, the scientists had to start from scratch.

Starting/getting off on the wrong foot: getting a bad start to a relationship

Dorothy and Sophia started off on the wrong foot when they first met, but they soon became best
friends.

Stealing someone’s thunder: taking the credit for someone else’s accomplishments; challenging
one’s authority

How dare you try to steal my thunder by pretending you thought of that idea?

The last straw: something in a series of annoyances that finally causes one to lose one’s temper

Burke was doing a good job handling the lawyer’s tough questions, but when the lawyer asked
him to confess, that was the last straw.

The whole nine yards: everything

Bianca’s birthday party had it all: cake, games, and balloons— the whole nine yards.

Tongue-in-cheek: not meant to be taken seriously; ironic

The movie we saw last night was a tongue-in-cheek parody of bad horror movies.

Under the weather: sick

I’m feeling under the weather today; I think I should stay home.

Water under the bridge: a past event that should be forgotten

Sal, I know we had a nasty fight last summer, but that’s water under the bridge.

When pigs fly: never

When Phil asked Dr. Brown if he could have extra credit, she replied, “Sure—when pigs fly!”
 Capitalization
Always Capitalize:
The first word of a sentence.
The first word of a line of poetry.
The first word of a quotation when quoting a whole sentence.
Example 1:
 John said, “It’s about time we got to work!”
The first word in a parenthetical sentence, unless the parentheses are inside a sentence.
Example 2:
 John and I were not very close. (It’s hard to be that close with your boss.)
Capitalizing the first word of a sentence following a colon is optional.

Proper nouns and proper adjectives

Proper nouns are capitalized. These are nouns that refer to something specific.
Example 1:
 The director of Avatar is James Cameron.
Both Avatar and James Cameron are capitalized because they are proper nouns.
An adjective that is derived from a proper noun is called a proper adjective.
 America → American
 Spain → Spanish
Certain things are capitalized as a rule:
Names of brands
 Example 2: iPod, eBay, FedEx.
Follow the style, spelling, and capitalization that you see on the product.
Religious terms such as God, The Bible, and other such things
Titles, such as professor, Dr., and president are capitalized when referring to a specific individual
in that role.
 Example 3:
 President Obama or Doctor Jenkins
Not all capitalization is correct. For instance, when referring to a compass direction, you will not
capitalize unless you are referring to a specific geographic region:
 People in the South and parts of the West are used to wide open spaces.
 You must go north to reach Canada.
 Do & Make: Confusing Verbs
Do and Make are two verbs which usually confuse ESL students. Let us learn about how
to use each one properly and identify its meaning.

Verb to Do

DO is a transitive verb which has an object, it is used as follows:

1- DO is used when talking about work, jobs or tasks. Note, “Do” do not produce
any physical and real object.

• Sally Did her assignment before she slept.

• Jerah’s mom started doing the housework before she got out.

• All children like to act out the doctor’s job.

2- DO is usually used in order to refer to activities in general without being specific.

In these cases, so, we normally use the indefinite pronouns, something, nothing,
anything,

Everything etc.

 I need to do anything to save them.

 She will do everything in her birthday party.
 He was unable to do anything.
3- English speakers sometimes tend to use verb to do instead of the major verb when
the meaning is clear or previously mentioned to avoid any redundancy.

• Do I need to do my hair? (Do = brush or comb)

 S: Did you clean the car?

 T: I do not need to do it.

• She the slept before doing the dishes (washing)

• Donna did the kitchen and her husband did the laundry (cleaned, washed)

4- Verb to do is used as an auxiliary verb for making questions:

 Do you speak English?
 Did you see John?
Verb to Make

1- Make is used to express the idea of producing, constructing, creating, or building

something new. Verb to make is also used to refer to the substance or the material
of which something is made or the country of manufacturing.
 This table is made of wood.
 Her ring is made of gold. It was made in France.

• His new car was made in Japan.

Note: when the thing is made of more than one material, we use the preposition “from”
instead of “of”:

 This vase was made from glass, metal, and plastic.

2- Verb to make is also used for producing an action or reaction:

• Lightening may make fire.

• This news made her cry.

• Do not make me angry!

3- Verb to make is further used after some expressions forming collocations about
plans and decisions:

• We made our arrangements for the trip.

• make a choice before it is too late.

• My professor returned the paper without making a comment.

• My neighbor’s kids always make noise.

• The president will make a speech?

4- Verb to make is always used with Food, Drink and Meals:

• My mom often makes a cake on Sundays.

• Can you make me a cup of tea?

• She made dinner for the whole family.

 Common collocations with Do and Make

A collocation is a combination of words or expressions used together to denote a certain

meaning different than the individual words. The following expressions are collocations
that use verbs do and make:

Verb to Do Collocations

The following expressions are commonly used with Do:

A crossword An assignment Good The gardening

A dance Anything harm The housework
A drawing Badly Laundry The ironing
A favor Business The lawns The dishes
A job Chores Nothing The rest
A painting Everything Research The shopping
A project Damage right The washing
(the right thing)
A service Exercises Something Well
Work wrong Assignment The best
(the wrong thing)
Hair Homework The job The nails

Verb to Make Collocations

The following expressions are commonly used with MAKE:

Bed A joke Alterations Famous

A bet Advances An appointment Fun of someone
A cake A suggestion An announcement Love
A call A statement An attempt Lunch
A change A speech An effort Inquiries
A choice A sound An error Peace
A comment A scene An escape Possible
A complaint A sandwich An exception Progress
A confession A reservation An excuse Money
A connection A request An impression Room
A cup of coffee / A promise An observation Sales
tea
A date A profit An offer Sense
A decision A prediction Amends Someone rich
A demand A point Arrangements Someone smile
A difference A plan Breakfast Sure
A discovery A pass at someone Certain Trouble
A face A noise Clear War
A fool of himself A living Dinner Her mind up
A fortune A loss Faces His way
A friend A list A mistake A mess
A fuss A line
 Clichés
Clichés are general statements, common sayings, or idiomatic expressions that add no evidence or
strong support to an argument. Because clichés are figurative speech, it is sometimes hard to
identify their exact meanings, and the meaning is often dependent upon the context in which they
are used.

1. Examples:
A. Busy as a bee
B. Pretty as a picture
C. Good things come to those who wait
D. All that glitters is not gold
E. Every rose has its thorn

Clichés are not acceptable in academic writing, and should never be used in professional writing.
Clichés, like other forms of figurative writing, can cloud your meaning. Specificity and directness
are always better than generalization and redundancy.

2. Avoiding Clichés
A. Use your own words in your writing.
B. Do not pay much attention to embellishing your style from the very beginning;
instead, focus on the messages you want to convey to your audience.
C. If you are looking for a synonym, consult a thesaurus.
D. Look at the ways in which your favorite authors express their ideas.
E. If you are struggling with style and specificity, make an appointment with the
Business Communication Center.