Mathematical Modeling of Dynamic Systems

Electrical Analogy of Mechanical System

The concept of an analogous system is very useful in practice since one type of system may
be easier to handle experimentally than others. Systems remain analogous as their differential
equations or transfer functions are of identical form. The electric analog of any other kind of system is
of great importance because of our acquaintance with electrical engineering systems. Here our
special emphasis is on electric analog of mechanical systems.
Any mechanical system can be represented by any one of the following mathematical models
depending on their internal characteristics.
1. Partial differential equations involving one or more independent variables together with partial
derivatives of the dependent variables with respect to the independent variable.
2. Time varying differential equations are those in which one or more terms depend explicitly on the in
dependent variable, time t.

Mechanical Couplings
Common mechanical coupling devices, i.e. (i) friction wheel (ii) gears (iii) levers, etc, also have
electrical analogs.

Gear Trains
A gear train is a mechanical matching device that transmits energy from one part of the system
to another part to attain maximum power transfer. Transformers are electrical analogous of gears. In
the ideal case friction and inertia of the gears are neglected. In practice gear trains exhibit back lash.
Fig. shows the schematic diagram of two gear trains.
The gear 1 transmits power with N1 teeth is called primary gear and the gear receives power
with N 2 teeth is called secondary gear. Let the angular displacement of gear 1 is 1 and that of gear
2 is  2 . The moment of inertia and viscous friction of gear 1 are denoted by J1 and B1 respectively
and those of gear 2 are denoted by J 2 and B2 respectively. Let TM is the motor torque and TL is the
load torque. The torque balance equation on the motor (primary) side is
d 2 d
TM = J1 21 + B1 1 + T12
dt dt
Where T12 is the torque transmitted from gear 1 to gear 2. Thus the torque produced by the motor is
equal to the sum of motor inertia torque, friction torque and the torque T12 transmitted through gears.
Assuming there is no power loss, the work done by one gear is equal to that of the other. Thus
T12 1 = T21  2
The distance traveled along the surface of each gear is the same.

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Thus, 1 r1 =  2 r2

J1,B1

J2,B2
The number of teeth on the surface of the gear is proportional to the gear radius. Thus we have,
N1 N
= 2
r1 r2
N1r2 = N 2 r1
T12  r N
We can write, = 2 = 1 = 1
T21 1 r2 N2

The torque balance equation on the load (Secondary) side is

d 2 2 d
T21 = J 2 2
+ B2 2 + T L
dt dt
N
From above T12 = T21 1
N2
d 21 d N d 21 d 1 N1 d 2 2 d
TM = J1 2 + B1 1 + 1 T21 = J1 2 + B1 + [ J2 2
+ B2 2 + T L ]
dt dt N2 dt dt N2 dt dt
d 21 d 1 N1 N 1 d 21 N d 1
= J1 2
+ B1 + [ J 2 2
+ B2 1 + TL ]
dt dt N2 N 2 dt N 2 dt
N1 2 d 21 N d 1 N
= [ J1 + J 2 ( ) ] 2
+ [ B1 + B2 ( 1 ) 2 ] + 1 TL
N2 dt N2 dt N2
N1 2
From equation we find that the moment of inertia J 2 is reflected on the motor shaft as ( ) J 2 , load
N2
N1 2
viscous friction B2 is reflected on the motor shaft as ( ) B2 and the load torque is reflected on the
N2
N1
motor shaft as TL .
N2
N1 2 N N
J Leq = J1 + J 2 ( ) ; B Leq = B1 + B2 ( 1 ) 2 ; Tleq = 1 TL .
N2 N2 N2

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The electrical analog circuits, both on T – V (torque - voltage) and T – i (torque - current) analogy
basis, are shown in figs. (a) and (b), respectively.

B1 B2
B1
N1 2
( )
N2

B2 N1 2
J2 ( )
N2

J2
J1
N1
J1 (a) (b) TL
N2
Fig. (a) Analogous electrical circuit by T – V analogy.
(b) Electric analogy circuit referred to shaft 1.

Transfer Function
The transfer function of a linear time invariant continuous system is defined to be the ratio of
Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable with all the
initial conditions taken to be zero. The complete transfer function of a system is obtained by
determining the transfer function of the various components of the system and then combining them
according to their connections. Since the characteristics of linear systems depend only on the
properties of elements in the system, the transfer function describes the same.
Consider the linear time invariant system defined by the following differential equations:
d n y (t ) d n−1 y (t ) dy (t )
a0 n
+ a1 n −1
+ ….. + a n −1 + a n y (t )
dt dt dt
d m x(t ) d m−1 x(t ) dx(t )
= b0 m
+ b1 m −1
+ ........ + bm−1 + bm x(t ) (n  m)
dt dt dt
Where y is the output of the system and x is the input. The transfer function of this system is the ratio
of the Laplace transformed output to the Laplace transformed input when all initial conditions are
zero, or
L[output ]
Transfer function = G(s) = zero initial conditions
L[input ]
Y ( s) b0 S m + b1 S m−1 + .......... + bm−1 S + bm
= =
X ( s) a0 S n + a1 S n −1 + ........... + a n −1 S + a n
By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by algebraic
equations in s. If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the
system is called an nth order system.

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 Advantages of Transfer Function
Transfer function is a very strong tool for analyzing a control system and offers the following
advantages.
1. We get mathematical models all system components hence, of the overall system. It allows us to
analyze the individual components of the system.
2. Transfer function is the property and unique equation of the system and its value depends on
the value of parameters of the system and is independent of the input.

Disadvantages of Transfer Function

However, transfer function suffers from the following disadvantages.
1. It can be applied only to linear and time invariant systems.
2. We get no information from transfer function regarding the physical structure of the system.

Block diagram representation of Control System

A block diagram of a control system is a simplified pictorial representation of various system

components alternatively called system elements. The block diagram is drawn to establish a
mathematical relationship between the input, error and output. A general block diagram consists
of the individual blocks that represent the transfer function of the individual elements.
Let the input output behaviour of a linear system or an element be given by its transfer function
C (s)
G(s) =
R( s)
Where, R(s) is the input variable.
C(s) is the output variable.
G(s) is the transfer function
This can be represented as a block diagram as shown:

R(s) G(s) C(s)

Input Output
From the above block diagram, it can be observed that, C(s) = R(s)G(s).
For a closed loop control system:

For positive feedback

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For negative feedback

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is also
having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the flow of signals.
A typical block diagram consists of one or more summing junctions, forward and feedback
paths, take off points. In a block diagram representation three ingredients are commonly present.
They are:
1. Functional Block: This is a symbol that represents the transfer function between the input R(s)
to an element and the output C(s) of the element. The block contains a transfer function.

2. Summing Point: This has a symbol, the output of summing point is the algebraic sum of the
signals entering to it. Next to each input signal is a plus or minus symbol indicating the sign
associated with the variable. The output of the given summing point is E(s) = R(s) – C(s).

3. Take off Point: A take off point on a branch is a physical point in the system where the
desired signal is tapped off to utilize elsewhere.

Signal Flow Graph (SFG)

A signal flow graph is a graphical representation of a control system, in which the system
variables are represented as nodes, and the relationship between the variables are indicated by
directed branches joining the corresponding nodes. Each branch is labeled with appropriate transfer
function. This is an alternative approach to that of block diagram reduction.

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• A signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by directed branches.
• This diagram represents the flow of signal from one point of a system to another and gives the
relationship among the signals.

Node: Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal.

There are three types of nodes:
• Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
• Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.
• Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.

Branch: Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designated by a branch.

Branch is a line joining two nodes.
Branches are always unidirectional.
The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.

Transmittance: It is the gain between the two nodes. It is generally written on the branch near the
arrow.

Steps to draw signal flow graph from block diagram are

1. Replace the input signal and output signal by nodes.
2. Replace all the summing points by nodes.
3. Replace the entire take off points by nodes.
4. If the branch connecting a summing point and take off point has unity gain, then the summing point
and take off point can be combined and represented by a signal node.

G2
G2 ≡
+
-1
H1 -- H1

5. If there are more take off points from the same signal then all take off points can be combined and
represented by a signal node.

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 2 G2 2
G2 ≡

H2 H2 H3

H3

3 G2 3
G2 ≡

H2 H2 H3

H3

6. If the gain of the link connecting two summing points is one, then the two summing points can be
combined and can be replaced by a signal node.

G1 4 G1
R 4 ≡ R
+ + -H1

-- -- H1
-1
7. If a summing point subtracts a signal instead of adding then multiply the transmittance by
-1 while representing in signal flow graph.

Example:
For a simple equation y = a x
The signal flow graph of the above relation can be represented by

Block Diagram (BD) to Signal Flow Graph (SFG)

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 Time domain analysis and frequency domain analysis

Time domain analysis

Response of the control system can be analyzed in both the time domain and frequency domain.
Time domain:
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called the time
response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.
• Transient response
• Steady state response
The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.

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Here, both the transient and the steady states are indicated in the figure. The responses
corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state responses.
Mathematically, we can write the time response C(t) as
C(t)=Ctr(t)+Css(t)
Where,
Ctr(t) is the transient response
Css(t) is the steady state response
Transient Response
Transient response is the part of response which goes to zero as time increases.
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady state. So, the
output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response of the control
system during the transient state is known as transient response.
Mathematically, we can write it as
lim Ctr (t) = 0
t →
The transient response may be exponential or oscillatory in nature.

Steady state Response

The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero value for large
values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the transient response will be zero
even during the steady state.
Example
Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control system

C(t) = 10 + 5𝑒 −𝑡

Here, the second term 5𝑒 −𝑡 will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the transient term. And the
first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is the steady state term.

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 For time response analysis of control systems, we need to subject the system to various test inputs.
Test input signals are used for testing how well a system responds to known inputs.

1. Impulse input:
It is sudden change input. An impulse is infinite as t = 0 and everywhere else.

Used to characterize the response of a system to brief intense inputs.

2. Step input:
It states a constant position such as position.

Used to characterize a system’s transient response to a sudden change.

3. Ramp input:
It represents a linearly increasing input command.

Used to characterize a system’s ability to follow a time varying input.

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Frequency domain analysis
The frequency domain analysis is generally done by using a sinusoidal input signal. When a
sinusoidal input signal is given to a linear time-invariant system, the output response consists of
transient and steady-state parts, whereas when the transient part dies down as → ∞, only the steady-
state part remains. The frequency response is the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal
input signal.

The frequency response is the output of the system in steady state when the input of the system is
sinusoidal.
The advantage of these methods of analysis of systems by the frequency response is that they allow
us to find both the absolute and relative stability of linear systems in closed loop only with the
knowledge of frequency response in open loop.

Stability of linear second order control system

First order control system

From this block diagram we can find overall transfer function which is linear in nature. The transfer
function of the first order system is 1/((sT+1)).

A second-order linear system is a common description of many dynamic processes. The second-
order system is the lowest-order system capable of an oscillatory response to a step input.

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In the above transfer function, the power of 's' is two in the denominator. That is why the above
transfer function is of a second order, and the system is said to be the second order system.

From this block diagram we can find overall transfer function which is nonlinear in nature. The
transfer function of the second order system is (ω2) / {s (s + 2ζω )}.

Sensitivity
The term sensitivity is a measure of the effectiveness of feedback on reducing the influence of any of
the above described parameters. For an example, it is used to describe the relative variations in the
overall Transfer function of a system T(s) due to variation in G(s).

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