Chapter 1 - System Fundamentals

1.1 Systems in Organizations

System Life Cycle
Ø The stages through which the development of a new system passes through
Ø System life cycle for software: General system life cycle:

Ø Most systems begin with the analysis stage, and

continue with the design, implementation,
operation and maintenance, sometimes they may
backtrack and return to an earlier stage
Ø The design cycle helps solve problems step-by-
step and is repetitive

1) Inquiring and Analyzing

a. Identify need for solution
b. Prioritize research questions
i. Filter out irrelevant questions
c. Analyze existing products
i. Key elements – make summary of observations
d. Develop design brief
i. What, why, for whom, how?
2) Developing ideas
a. Develop design specifications – features of solution
b. Develop design ideas – sketches (3-4)
c. Choose best design – cost-benefit analysis
d. Construct a planning diagram – site map
 3) Creating the solution
a. Construct a logical plan (timeline – tabular/graphic)
b. Develop the solution
c. Followed the plan? If changes, justify why
4) Evaluation
a. Impact on society/community/client
b. Evaluate solution against design specification
c. Test solution
d. Reflect on strengths/weaknesses/areas of improvement

1.1.1 Identify the context for which a new system in planned

Ø A new system can be created to replace a system that in inefficient, no longer suitable for
its original purpose, redundant or outdated
Ø It could also be to increase productivity or quality of output or minimize costs
Ø The new system should reduce the errors/flaws of the existing one
Ø A computer system includes hardware, software, people working with it or using it and
the immediate environment
Ø Updating a computer system can involve actions like training employees to use the new
system, changing the physical location of the server, or firing employees
Ø Planning a new system is the process of thinking about various details and organizing the
activities required to achieve the desired goal
Ø Planning should anticipate potential organizational issues such as:
o Lack of guiding organizational and business strategies
o Lack of stakeholder and end-user participation
o Lack of end-user ‘ownership’ of the system
o Lack of attention to required training
o Lack of attention to various organizational issues
o Lack of attention to the design of tasks and jobs, allocation of information system
tasks, and overall usability of the system
Ø At this stage, a feasibility report/study should be conducted
o This evaluates and analyzes a product and its potential, based on various
technical, economical, legal, operational and scheduling criteria
o It is used to decide whether the proposed project should be pursued
§ T – Technical Feasibility – is the existing technology sufficient to
implement the proposed system?
§ E – Economic Feasibility – is the proposed system cost effective?
§ L – Legal Feasibility – are there any conflicts between the proposed
system and any regulations/laws?
§ O – Operational Feasibility – are the existing organizational practices and
procedures sufficient to support the maintenance and operation of the new
system?
§ S- Schedule Feasibility – how long will we wait?
1.1.2 Describe the need for change management
Ø Change management involves various parameters and is a process of shifting
individuals, teams, departments and organizations from the present state to a desired
state
Ø Successful change management guarantees that all stakeholders accept and embrace
changes in their working environments
Ø The goal is to maximize benefits and minimize the negative impacts of change on
individuals
Ø Factors affecting change: regular training required, TELOS, risk factor, time bound,
increase work load*

1.1.3 Outline compatibility issues resulting from situations including legacy systems or
business mergers
Ø Legacy system = old technology, hardware, computer system or application program
Ø Such a system may still be in use because its data can’t be upgraded to newer formats,
or its applications can’t be upgraded, but this involves many maintenance challenges
Ø Business merger = the combining of 2+ business entities
Ø The main reason businesses merge is to reduce costs
Ø During this process, all departments of both companies need to ensure that all
subsystems are compatible
Ø 4 strategies of integration:
o Keep both information systems, and develop them to have the same
functionality (high maintenance cost)
o Replace both information systems with a new one (increased initial cost)
o Select the best information system from each company and combine them
(difficult for employees to work with information systems from another
company)
o Select 1 company’s information systems and drop the other companies’
(policy problems)
Ø Language differences increase communication problems, even if individuals have
some knowledge of the others language
Ø Software incompatibility is a situation when different software entities can’t operate
satisfactorily, cooperatively or independently, on the same computer, or on different
computers linked by a LAN/WAN

1.1.4Compare the implementation of systems using a client’s hardware and hosting systems
remotely
Ø Business software can operate installed on a client’s infrastructure and premises or hosted on
dedicated servers that belong to a company that provides such services
Ø A locally hosted system is the most appropriate solution for larger and complex systems
Ø A remote hosted system is the most appropriate solution where there is no necessary
hardware equipment in place or in cases where the administration wants to outsource
responsibilities for maintenance, support, backups, security etc.
 Ø SaaS (Software-as-a-Service) is a contemporary delivery method that allows software and
data to be hosted and managed centrally on a remote datacenter
Ø Users pay to access the services provided on a subscription basis
Ø SaaS solutions are on the cloud and need a web browser and a broadband internet connection
to be accessed
Ø SaaS is less expensive as it has a low initial cost and requires few investments in installation,
maintenance and upgrading
Ø Companies only have to pay for the SaaS subscription (cheaper in medium to long-term)
Ø Provides a scalable solution, since a company has only to adjust its monthly SaaS
subscription as required
Ø SaaS requires few IT personnel and all software updates take place far away from company’s
premises
Ø Considered a safe solution – apps and data are on the cloud service of the providers
datacenter
Ø If the provider goes out of business, there might be data loss
Ø Low performance – compared to software running locally or over LAN
Ø SaaS integration with other SaaS solutions/software’s installed locally is difficult
Ø The remote host may be in a different time zone and this can have significant effects on end-
users
Ø PAAS – Platform as a Service – where the SaaS is stored

1.1.5 Evaluate alternative installation processes

Ø When moving from an old system to a new one, need to choose an implementation
method
Ø Changeover is the process of putting a new system online and retiring the old one
Ø Reason for choosing implementation method = trade-off between costs and risks
Ø There may be resistance by employees or customers to change and planning should
try to minimize the negative effects
Ø Types of changeovers:
o Parallel
§ both systems work in parallel for a short period of time
§ Limited risk
§ Outputs of both systems can be compared to check if new one is
functioning properly
§ If the new system fails, company can revert back to old one
§ When company is satisfied with output of new system, old system can
be terminated
§ Extra costs and workload (maintaining 2 systems)
§ Not efficient if old and new systems have completely different
processing tasks, functions, inputs or outputs
o Big Bang/Direct
§ Company plugs in new system and unplugs old one at the same time
§ Very risky
 § Once the admin has decided to use this method and prepared all
necessary procedures, the changeover begins
§ Preferred when system isn’t critical
§ If system doesn’t function as expected, dangers are associated
§ All users need to be trained before switch happens, to use the new one
efficiently
o Pilot
§ Mostly used in large organizations that have multiple sites
§ New system is introduced on 1 site and extended to other sites over
time
§ Low risk, pilot site serves as model for other sites
§ After the system is successful at pilot site, it’s implemented into the
rest of the company using another method (usually direct)
o Phased
§ Company converts 1 module of the system at a time (different parts of
the system are converted at different times
§ Training period is extended
§ Adoption of new system takes longer (each phase is implemented
separately)
§ Installation of new system is done per module, per department etc.

1.1.6 Discuss problems that may arise as a part of data migration

Ø Data migration is the transfer of data between different formats, storage types and computer
systems
Ø Usually happens automatically (increase efficiency of human resources)
Ø Happens when an organization changes, upgrades or merges its systems due to business
mergers, failures in existing system
Ø Many problems may arise during this process
o Incapability of moving the information due to parameters e.g. incompatibility with
the new system or non-recognizable data structures
o Data may be lost or not transferred due to an incomplete data transfer or errors during
process
o Data may be misinterpreted due to incompatibilities, caused by different conventions
of each country concerning date, time and measurement units

1.1.7 Suggest various types of testing

Ø Functional testing tests individual commands, text input, menu functions etc. and
confirms that they perform/function correctly according to the design specifications
Ø Data testing is when normal, abnormal and extreme data is put into the system
o Normal data e.g. 76 to see if ‘pass’ of ‘fail’ messages are provided correctly
o Data at the Limits should be used e.g. 0,100
o Extreme data is outside the normal limits e.g. -10, 104, 1223 (should be
rejected during validation testing)
 o Abnormal data (illegal data) type of data that isn’t expected e.g. two instead
of 2
Ø Testing is very important in developing a computerized system, as it tries to ensure
that the system works as expected
Ø Alpha testing – done before software is available to the public, carried out by the
company that develops the software in a lab-type environment, engineers who
developed the system test it with data similar to real data
Ø Beta testing – comments and suggestions of the users, users outside company are
involved, their feedback can be used to fix defects and errors that were missed,
prepares support teams to deal with unexpected issues, results in last minute software
changes, sometime available to general public, provide real-world info and feedback,
real users test with real data
Ø Dry-run testing – done using pen and paper by the programmer, who mentally runs
the algorithm, examines code and decides what output should be
Ø Integration testing – entire system is tested at the same time to check if all
components work together
Ø User-acceptance testing – see if system satisfies customer needs, done in user
premises before accepting transfer of ownership, last stage of software testing process
Ø Debugging – finding and correcting the number of bugs (errors) in a computer
program, using an automatic program (debugger)
Ø White box testing – tracing data on paper as it proceeds through algorithm (dry-run)
Ø Black box testing – putting in data and comparing it with expected outcome
Ø Validation – process of evaluating whether data input follows appropriate
specifications and is within reasonable limits. Are we developing the correct system?
Does the product meet the customer needs?
Ø Verification – process of ensuring that the data input is the same as the original
source data e.g. through double entry. Are we developing the system correctly? Does
the product comply with a specific regulation or condition?

1.1.8 Describe the importance of user documentation

Ø Programs and systems may become increasingly complex as their aim gets more
convoluted
Ø The users way of thinking may differ from the developers so how the product
functions may not be clear to the user
Ø These problems can lead to problems in the implementation stage of the system
development cycle
Ø The user may not know how to use the program entirely, or specialized technicians
may not be able to set up the new system properly – external documentation is
provided to overcome this
Ø For smooth functioning of a system, improves efficiency, productivity, areas of
improvement and new features to be added identified,
Ø It is important to distinguish between internal and external documentation
 Ø Internal documentation – code comprehension features and details provided as part
of the source code itself. It includes:
o Appropriate module header
o Appropriate comments
o Useful and meaningful variable names
o Useful module, classes, methods and function headers
o Appropriate code indentation
o Appropriate code structuring
o Appropriate use of enumerated types
o Appropriate use of constant identifiers
o Appropriate use of data types defined by the user
Ø External documentation – separate document from program itself, provided through
many types of user supporting documents such as users’ guide, software requirements
specification doc, detailed description of design and implementation features of the
program and the test document
Ø The quality of user documentation can affect the rate of implementation of the new
system

1.1.9 Evaluate different methods of providing user documentation

Ø User documentation can be written or online
Ø It should include all the instructions that are mandatory for the system to operate and
contain FAQ’s, which are necessary for users
Ø It should be well-structured and divided into appropriate categories
Ø Manuals
o Could be online or offline
o Can use multimedia features
o Produced online as pdf which can be downloaded and printed
o Printed manual can be read without PC or internet connection
Ø Email Support
o Online support is an asynchronous type of support, can be provided via an
email address
o Users contact the support team of company to solve any problems with help of
specialized technicians
Ø Embedded Assistance or integrated user assistance
o E.g. when a user hovers a mouse over an icon, a small text box appears with
help info
o Excellent way to increase the usability of a software application
o It is context-specific, task-specific, doesn’t require novice users to ask the
right question to find the suitable answer
Ø Frequently Asked Questions
o Listed questions and answers, to give users answers to a common set of
problems and pertaining to a particular topic
o Format is commonly used on online forums
 o List of questions contains questions that tend of recur
Ø Live Chat sessions
o Online support = real-time support, useful for emergency situations
o A live chat technician will ask for a description of the problem and try to
present a list of possible solutions
o Provides feeling to being supported by a real person
Ø Online portals/web portals
o Can provide updated manuals, support pages or FAQ pages
Ø Remote desktop connections
o Enables a specialized person to connect to the user’s PC across the internet
from virtually any computer
o Allows a specialized technician to take control of the users’ PC as though they
were sitting right in front of it
o Ideal if user isn’t experienced
o Technician is allowed to have full access over the user’s PC = security
disadvantage

1.1.10 Evaluate different methods of delivering user training

Ø User training can be delivered in many ways depending on the number of students,
availability of instructors, size of business and training budget
Ø Self-instruction/Self-study
o Allows user to learn in their own time until they achieve mastery of the
subject
o Printed manuals, books, etc., can be provided and used whenever user wants
to improve their skill
o No tuition fee
o Lack of guidance/teacher support
o Final result depends on motivation of user and their ability to learn on their
own
Ø Formal Classes
o Offers an interactive setting that promotes open and free discussion between
students and the teacher
o Allows students to exchange ideas with each other
o Direct interaction with the expert = easy exchange of ideas without any
technical communication barriers
o May disadvantage shy members
o May obstruct one’s ability to learn by allowing other, more self-assured
students to dominate the discussion environment
Ø Remote/distance learning/online training
o Allows participants to take part in high quality courses from anywhere in the
world as long as they have a PC and internet connection
o Accessible 24/7/365
o Time efficiency and time management is good
 o Contributes to self-direction and promotes critical thinking – highly supported
by literature of adult education and training
o Lack of infrastructure may exclude students from the course
o Students must have a minimum level of IT skills to function effectively
o Gives students more responsibility, gives them more control over their
learning experience – inappropriate for dependent and immature learners

1.1.11 Identify a range of causes of data loss

Ø Data loss is an error condition where data is lost or destroyed due to system failure,
storage negligence or even transmission or processing errors
Causes Comments/Solutions
Accidental deletion • Very common cause of data loss
• Use of file recovery software
Administrative errors • Need for care
Poor data storage optimization • Data can’t be found
systems (misplacement) • Restructure data organization
Building fires • Rare
• Store data in 2 locations
Closing the program without • Very common cause of data loss
saving the file • Need for care
• Use of auto save features
Computer viruses • Very common cause of data loss
• Need for antivirus software
• Regular backups
Continued use after signs of • Need for self-monitoring, analysis and reporting technology
failure (SMART)
• Need for PC backup
• Regular backups
Data corruption • Errors in computer data
• Regular backups
Firmware corruption • Hard disk failure
• Regular backups
Natural disasters (floods, • Rare
earthquakes) • Store data in 2 locations
• Regular backups
Outsiders wanting to delete, • Regular backups
alter or steal the information • Need for a firewall
• Need for authentication methods
Physical damage of the • Regular backups
storage device • Need for care
Power failure • Need for UPS (uninterruptible power supply)
• Regular backups
1.1.12 Outline the consequences of data loss in a specified situation
Ø Data loss could have serious consequences: e.g. if the medical records of a patient in
a hospital are lost, the patient’s life can be in danger if the data can’t be retrieved, and
some painful examinations may have to be repeated
Ø Data retrieval could be time-consuming and sometimes impossible = problem: e.g. a
client books a hotel room over the phone, but when they arrive at the hotel the
receptionist informs them that there is no record of their booking and no rooms are
available. The client is shocked and has to search for another hotel and may inform
friends on social media of his discomfort and disappointment

1.1.13 Describe a range of methods that can be used to prevent data loss
Ø Regular backup of files using hard disks or magnetic tapes
Ø Firewall installation
Ø Data storage in 2+ locations (offsite storage)
Ø Removed hard copies (printed versions of data)
Ø Installation of an antivirus program for antivirus protection
Ø Human error reduction techniques and/or failsafe (accidently deleted files)
Ø Online auto save backup (iCloud, Dropbox)
Ø Redundancy – duplication of storage devices and stored data of a computer system
to secure the stored data, is a failsafe method
Ø Removable media – e.g. diskettes, Blu-ray discs, CDs, DVDs, USB etc., used for
fast data backup and data storage, can store data permanently, are non-volatile
Ø A failover system - company system which is on standby capable of switching to a
spare computer system upon hardware failure, network failure, or any other type of
error e.g. software malfunction
Ø Difference between failover and switchover is the degree of needed human
intervention.
Ø A failover is automatic and handles abnormal situations without human interference
Ø In a failover, when the primary server fails, the standby server is made primary
Ø In a switchover system, the primary and secondary system interchange the primary
role
Ø Critical systems allow for failover to take place on system failure to provide
reliability and continuous availability

1.1.14 Describe strategies for managing releases and updates

Ø Patches – used by software companies to update apps by fixing known bugs and
vulnerabilities, but they may introduce new bugs as side effects
Ø Upgrades – contain novel functionalities/characteristics, and some big fixes, they
mostly need to be bought
Ø Updates – improve a product in a minor way by adding new functionalities or fixing
known bugs, are mostly free
Ø Releases – final, working versions of software apps, that have already gone through
alpha and beta software testing, relate to new/upgraded apps
1.2 System Design Basics
1.2.1 Define the terms: hardware, software, peripheral, network and human resources
Ø Hardware: the physical elements of a computer e.g. screen, CPU etc.
Ø Software: a series of instructions that can be understood by a CPU. These
instructions guide the CPU to perform specific operations. It is comprised of both
programs and data
Ø Peripheral: any auxiliary device that can communicate and work with a computer
e.g. printer. It extends the capability of the computer system. It is not an essential part
of the computer
Ø Network: a set of computer systems that are interconnected and share resources and
data e.g. LAN/WAN
Ø Human resources: people who are or could be used in an organization, business or
economy

1.2.2 Describe the roles that a computer can take in a networked world
Ø A computer can function as a client, server, e-mail server, domain name server (DNS
server), router or firewall
Ø A dumb terminal
o Usually consists of a keyboard, monitor and a network cards that is connected
to a server/powerful computer
o Depends entirely on the computer that it’s connected to for computations, data
processing and data management
Ø A thin client
o Relatively low performance terminal
o Heavily, but not entirely, depends on the server that it’s connected to
Ø A client
o Receives data via the network
o A server may be a program or a computer that has saved data on it and
provides services requested by clients connected over a network, but a client
is an average computer/terminal used to access a computer system
Ø An email-server
o Manages the flow of email in and out of the network
o Check that and email address is valid, allows users to access their email etc.
Ø A router
o Networking device that accepts incoming data packets (information), reads
their destination address and distributes them across networks, according to a
routing table/policy
o It identifies the destination of the messages and sends them via an appropriate
route
o Used to forward data packets between networks
Ø A domain-name system server (DNS server)
o Attributes names of networks addresses and resolves names by assigning them
to the appropriate network entity
 o Allows you to type names into the address bar of the web browser and the
web browser then finds that address on the Internet
o It is a protocol within TCP/IP
o Used for managing public names of websites
o To bypass a DNS lookup, you can enter the IP address directly into a browser
Ø Firewall
o Hardware or software network infrastructure that controls data flow access
among network entities
o Used to offer protection and limit access to a network
o Consist of hardware and software components
Ø Client-server
o Software network architecture system where clients request information and
servers perform tasks in order to provide information
o At least 1 server machine is required
o Servers share their resources, whereas clients don’t – main difference

1.2.3 Discuss the social and ethical issues associated with a networked world
Ø Reliability – how well the system functions – could case data loss, times loss, money
loss, injury and maybe death
Ø Integrity – protecting the completeness and accuracy of data – data lacks integrity is
its incomplete, out-of-date or has been altered
Ø Inconsistency – if information is duplicated or only 1 copy is updated
Ø Security – protection of hardware, software, peripherals and networks from
unauthorized access. Common security systems: biometrics, passwords, firewalls,
locks. Authenticity – a person has to prove their identity to gain access to the system.
1+ factors are required to increase the difficulty to provide false credentials
Ø Privacy – ability of control how and to what extent data is used and disseminated to
others. Issues: how long data is stores, who has access to data, how it is used.
Ø Anonymity – e.g. when someone uses and IT system to conceal their true identity to
cyber-bully someone, commit illegal crimes, hack computers etc.
Ø Intellectual property – ideas, discoveries, photos, films, essays, artworks –
copyright laws are designed to protect these from unauthorized/illegal reproduction.
Copy-and-paste and file-sharing make it easy to break these laws
Ø Digital divide and equality of access – use of IT systems has not developed at the
same rate in all parts of the world. Lack of access to IT infrastructures, online
services, finance, education, basic resources the main reasons for this divide
Ø Surveillance – using IT to monitor people with/without their knowledge/permission –
gov’t’s, law enforcements, employers etc. may do this
Ø Globalization and cultural diversity – IT helps diminish the importance of
geographical, political, economic and cultural boundaries while speeding up the
global spread of news. Traditional cultures and values may diminish eventually
Ø IT Policies – promote the appropriate use of computers, networks, information
systems and technology. Gov’t’s, public authorities etc. develop these policies
 Ø Standards and protocols – predefined technical rules that hardware/software
developers should follow – they allow for compatibility, proper communication and
interoperability
Ø People and machines – internet addiction, the use of AI in military/law enforcement
Ø Digital citizenship – appropriate behavior in a digital world – using IT ethically, in a
way that respects society, the law and doesn’t put humans in danger or violate human
rights
Cause Positive effects
Constant exposure to communication technology • Citizens better informed about the world
Internet • Email, WWW
• Easier communication in emergencies
Use of smartphone
• Use of useful apps e.g. GPS
Gaming • Better hand-eye coordination
• Easier communication with family
Mobile Phones
• Easier communication in emergences
Cause Negative effects
• Psychological impacts e.g. stress, poor concentration,
Constant exposure to communication technology short attention span
• Obstacle to personal one-to-one relationships
• Neglected life
Internet
• Social media obsession
• Anxiety
Use of smartphone
• Increasing expense of hardware
• Lower levels of concentration due to lack of sleep
Gaming • Social desensitization
• Neglected education and personal development
• Possible health consequences
Mobile Phones
• Possible car accidents

1.2.4 Identify the relevant stakeholders when planning a new system

Ø Stakeholders and individuals, teams, groups or organizations that have an interest in
the realization of a project or might be affected by the outcome of a project
Ø The end-user is the person who is going to use the product
Ø A frequent user of the system - a stakeholder – could identify flaws or
inconveniencies of the current system and propose improvements

1.2.5 Describe methods of obtaining requirements from stakeholders

Ø Interviewing stakeholders
o Direct face-to-face procedure on obtaining reliable and valid data in the form
of verbal responses from a person/group
o Structured interview – standardized and prescribed, prepared questions are
asked in the same manner and order to everybody
 o Unstructured interview – flexible, people are encouraged to express their
thoughts and beliefs freely
o Time consuming process, allows interviewer to clarify questions and observe
behavior of the interview
o May yield data too difficult to summarize, evaluate or perform statistical
analysis on
Ø Questionnaires
o Effective when the questions are carefully constructed to lead to definite
responses
o Survey methodology – domain of applied statistics that focuses on taking
samples from a population and improving data collection techniques like this
o Closed/restricted questionnaires – involve ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, short
response questions, box checking, allows for statistical analysis, tabular
presentation of data, summarizing
o Open/unrestricted questionnaires – involve free response questions, allow for
greater depth of responses, difficult to interpret/summarize, makes statistical
analysis impossible
o Guarantee uniformity of questions, yield easily comparable data, time-saving,
cost-efficient
o Respondents motivation is difficult to assess, some may not respond at all,
may misinterpret questions
Ø Direct observation of current procedures
o Spending time in different departments
o Time-and-motion study – show where procedures/processes could be make
more efficient
o Makes possible the collection of different types of data
o Familiarizes analyst with the study and facilitates involvement in all
activates/processes
o Independent of user-bias, but it is time-consuming
o People may change their behavior when they know they are being observed

1.2.6 Describe appropriate techniques for gathering the information needed to arrive at a
workable solution
Ø Examining current systems – detailed examination of the current system, analysis of
its functions/procedures, study the business and system documents e.g. current order
documents, logistics documents etc.
Ø Literature search – identification, retrieval and management of various sources in
order to find information on a topic, areas that may be interesting of various sources
to find info on a topic, derive conclusions and develop guidelines for practices
Ø Examining competing products – analysis of competitive factors, benefits,
vulnerabilities, successful characteristics, break-through’s, design features,
stakeholders’ acceptance
 Ø During the design and analysis phases, all critical organizational capabilities (e.g.
sense-making, decision making, asset availability etc.) that are essential to support
the effective planning and developing of the new IT system should be identified
Ø A successful IT system should result in a competitive advantage
Ø A modern information system should be planned to:
o Increase client trust
o Preserve brand strength
o Preserve organization reputation
o Maintain corporate resiliency
o Enhance organization piece

1.2.7 Construct suitable representations to illustrate system requirements

Ø System requirements are specified through a document called a requirements
specification document – defines the specific customer requirements of a computer
system. It’s included within the system analysis and may be used to test the system
after implementation, to evaluate it
Ø Types of processing:
o Online processing (interactive) – performed by a single processor through
the use of equipment that it controls e.g. airline reservation
o Real-time processing – performed on-the-fly in which the generated data
influences the actual process taking place e.g. aircraft control
o Batch processing – performed on data that have been composed and
processed as a single unit e.g. payroll
Ø System Flow Charts
o The description of a data processing system, including the flow of data
through any individual programs involved, but excluding the details of such
programs
o Used to represent various computer
programs, files, databases, associated
manual processes etc.
o They can show batch, real-time and
online processing
o Only way to refer to hardware
 o Examples:

Ø Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)

o Used to describe a problem to be solved (analysis)
o Shows how data
moves through a
system and the data
sores that the system
uses
o Doesn’t specify the
type of data storage
and type of data

Ø Structure Charts
o Describes functions and sub-functions of a system, and the relationships
between modules of a computer program
o The organization of it a structure chart is straight-forward – allows the analyst
to split a large problem into smaller ones
o Each module performs a specific function and each layer in a program
performs specific activities
o Makes modular design development much easier
 o Modular design is the process of designing system modules individually and
then combining the modules to form a solution to an overall problem
o Module is a complete and independent part of a program or an algorithm
o Modular programming is the
method of partitioning a computer
program into separate sub-
programs. Each sub-program can
be easily modified and maintained
without the necessity to alter other
sub-programs of the program
o Modular language is a language
that supports modular
programming

1.2.8 Describe the purpose of prototypes to demonstrate the proposed system to the client
Ø A prototype is a working or non-working preliminary version of the final product or a
simple version of the final system that is used as a part of the design phase to
demonstrate how the final product will work
o It attracts the attention of the client – encourages them to use it and ‘get a feel
for it’
o Provides just enough of the concept for the investors to decide if they want to
fund the full production or not
o Encourages active participation between users and developers
o Gives an idea of the final product
o Helps in the identification of problems with the efficiency or the design
o Increases system development speed

1.2.9 Discuss the importance of iteration during the design process

Ø Iteration is the repetition of a set of instructions for a specific number of times or until
the operations yield a desired result
Ø It’s impossible to design a system/interface/software that has no initial functional or
usability problems, so during the design process, the designers may have to repeat
certain steps and reconsider their choices
Ø Iteration development of software involves steady improvement of the design based
on various evaluation and testing methods (e.g. user testing)

1.2.10 Explain the possible consequences of failing to involve the end-user in the design
process
Ø For a system to be successful, the analysis and the design must involve all key
stakeholders including the client and the end-users
Ø Involvement, collaboration and active participation are essential because a project
with poorly-defined stakeholder goals is unlikely to be successful
 Ø The developed system may either solve a different problem, or deal with issued that
are outside of the project’s scope

1.2.11 Discuss the social and ethical issues associated with the introduction of new IT systems
Ø Machines are replacing humans in many tasks, forcing millions into unemployment
Ø Could be said that jobs don’t vanish, but change
Ø Could create social disturbance
Ø Social interaction is an essential element of social change that affects ideas, beliefs,
moral values etc.
Ø Continuous development of computerized systems may absorbs people and cause
them to drift apart from the physical world and become enclosed in virtual
environments
Ø This may completely disorient some users, or deprive them of socialization and
interaction opportunities
Ø In a business environment, the introduction of a new improved IT system places more
stress on the personnel because they have to study, learn and familiarize themselves
with the new system while doing their regular duties

1.2.12 Define the term usability

Ø Accessibility is the potential of a service/product/device/environment to serve and
meet the needs of as many people as possible
o High accessibility = meet the needs of many people
o Low accessibility = presents barriers to certain groups of people
Ø Usability is the potential of a product/application/website to accomplish user goals
Ø Ergonomics/ Human engineering is the design of safe and comfortable
products/systems/processes, specifically for people e.g. keyboards are shaped by
ergonomic consideration to improve users’ comfort

1.2.13 Identify a range of usability problems with commonly used digital devices
Ø 8 quality components on usability
o Complexity/simplicity
o Effectiveness
o Efficiency
o Error
o Learnability
o Memorability
o Readability/Comprehensibility
o Satisfaction
GPS/Navigation Systems Tablets
• Small screen • Accidental touches leads to undesired
• Low-quality speakers results
• Poor performance antenna • Difficult to learn different gesture features
• Inaccurate geographical data of various manufacturers
• Outdated street data • Bad/poor scaling and zoom control
• Inefficient routing software • Difficult-to-use control features
• Small side buttons
• Poorly written instructions
Game Consoles PC’s
• Relatively small screens • Excessive keyboard use = RSI
• Small buttons • Excessive use of screen = eyesight
• Difficult to use outdoors (insufficient problems
brightness) • Poor room lighting conditions = distracting
• Short battery life reflection on screen
• Mouse on PC is for right-handed people
(difficult to use for left-handed people
Digital Cameras MP3 devices
• Incorrect calibration of touch screen menus • Tiny buttons
• Need to hold camera vertically (no auto- • Insufficient memory
rotate) • Fragile
• All cameras don’t have flash – need to buy • Lack of screen in ‘micro’ devices
extra hardware • People need to familiarize themselves with
• Small buttons the device – others can’t use it
• Some cameras require specific software to • Use of sensors/gesture control to enhance
connect them with a computer and functionality e.g. shake device to change
store/transfer files song
Mobile phones
• Too small keyboard
• Some users don’t need all the special features
1.2.14 Identify methods that can be used to improve the accessibility of systems
Issue Input methods and devices Output methods and devices
Visual impairment, • Braille input devices • Speech output devices
from blindness to • Touch type with standard • Speech synthesizers to convert
color vision deficiency keyboards text to speech
• Braille display
• Adjust color of display
Hearing and speech • No problem with commonly used • Replace sound signals with visual
impairments devices effects
• Use subtitles to replace audio
speech track
Cognitive problems • Special software provides active participation, multi-sensory
and learning experiences, strong interaction, positive re-re-enforcement,
disabilities personalized interaction, and repetition – useful in skill building
• Basic word processor for a dyslexic person
Mobility impairments, • Specialized disk guides • No necessity for different output
limited hand mobility, • Pointing device instead of devices
Parkinson disease keyboard
• Left- and right-hand keyboards
for those who can’t use one hand
• Wearable computer interfaces
• Expanded keyboards
• Morse code using special knobs
• Voice-recognition
• Word-prediction software

1.2.15 Identify a range of usability problems that can occur in a system

Ø Ticketing systems:
Usability quality component Usability Considerations
Complexity/Simplicity Unclear instructions on how to obtain a ticket. Lack of built-in
help
Effectiveness Not abiding to international standards. Foreign people find it
difficult
Efficiency Complicated site = user completes unnecessary actions
Errors User books more tickets than they wish, need to restart the
process
Learnability The first time, the user gets confused and it takes them time to
understand the procedure
Easy to remember User gets confused and it takes time to remember the
procedure
Readability/Comprehensibility Font and background is inappropriate
Satisfaction Poor system = unsatisfied system

Ø Online payroll systems:

Usability quality component Usability Considerations
Complexity/Simplicity Unclear instructions on how to calculate taxes. Lack of built-
in help
Effectiveness System is designed for another country, other systems have
been localized
Efficiency System isn’t suitable for the users’ needs, they have to
perform many modifications every time they use it
Errors No verification or validation rules, prone to errors
Learnability Menu design is not straight –forward
Easy to remember Interface is not intuitive
Readability/Comprehensibility Hard-to-read interface
Satisfaction Difficult to use, unhappy users

Ø Scheduling systems:
Usability quality component Usability Considerations
Complexity/Simplicity Unclear instructions on how to use the system, lack of built-in
help
Effectiveness Other apps have better synchronization capabilities
Efficiency System may be difficult to understand
Errors Time to reschedule a wrong appointment (entry)
Learnability Complicated menus
Easy to remember Difficult to remember the optimal way to add a task
Readability/Comprehensibility Very small characters
Satisfaction Ideal for another country with different time/date/unit formats

Ø Voice recognition systems:

Usability quality component Usability Considerations
Complexity/Simplicity Lack of built-in help
Effectiveness Other competing solutions produce better results
Efficiency Poor word-recognition performance
Errors Prone to errors
Learnability Takes time for software to recognize the voice of a new user,
user has to be very patient during initial use of the system
Easy to remember Sometimes the software needs retraining
Readability/Comprehensibility N/A
Satisfaction User needs to speak loudly – could lead to problems and
embarrassment in public places

Ø Systems that provide feedback:

Usability quality component Usability Considerations
Complexity/Simplicity Lack of intuitive interface, no support of native language,
difficult to obtain feedback
Effectiveness Give incorrect or irrelevant feedback
Efficiency Give feedback when the user can’t use it, give feedback rarely
Errors Difficult to re-enter information after a wrong input
Learnability Difficult to learn
Easy to remember Difficult to remember
Readability/Comprehensibility Difficult to read the instructions
Satisfaction Inconvenient surface, menus etc.
1.2.16 Discuss the moral, ethical, social, economic and environmental implications of the
interaction between humans and machines
Ø IT has majorly increase the amount of printed paper
Ø Even when users are careful about printing, a lot of paper ends up in the recycling
bin every day
Ø The environmental consequences should be considered when printing documents
from the computer
Ø Also, electronic waste contains lead, cadmium, mercury and other dangerous
chemical that ends up in landfills causing pollution

Ø The digital divide exists between high and low income households and even
countries
Ø Technology e.g. laptops, tablets etc. are part of everyday life for the fortunate, but
just a dream for many more
Ø The consequences of the digital divide result in increasing inequality and reduced
opportunities for education, entertainment and income.
 Topic 2: Computer Organization

2.1 Computer Organization

2.1.1 Identify the context for which a new system in planned
Ø Computer systems consist of hardware and software components that follow the concept
of input, process, output and storage model
Ø A computer system taken in some data as input, processes it in a way that we have
requested and outputs the result
Ø During the processing phase, other data may be needed apart from the inputted – this data
exists in the storage of the computer system
Ø Any new information that may arise from the processing phase may also be saved in the
storage
Ø A computer system accepts data/instructions
from an input devices e.g. keyboard, sensors
Ø Data/instructions are then processed by the
computer system
Ø The other data needed, that is stored in the
storage, is loaded and used
Ø The computer system outputs the processed
data into information that we see and use e.g. monitors, speakers, etc.
Ø The output is also stored on the storage (memory)
Ø Data that is processed by a computer system in the process phase of the model is
processed by the central processing unit (CPU)
Ø The CPU is a hardware component of a computer system and can perform basic
arithmetic, logical or input/output operations, in order to process data from input devices
into useful info
Ø The CPU is the “brain” of the computer system and can process data very quickly but can
only process data by following instructions
Ø The CPU can be referred to as the processor or the chip
Ø A block diagram can be used to show the
elements that compromise it:
Ø It retrieves and saves data and information
from and to the storage, which is the primary
memory of the computer system
Ø Any data that is to be saves on or retrieved
from some storage medium, has to pass
through the primary memory to be accessed
by the CPU
Ø The CPU contains the
o Control unit (CU)
o Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
 o Memory address register (MAR)
o Memory data register (MDR)
Ø The CU is responsible for the operation of the CPU. It controls the retrieval of
instructions from the primary memory and the sequence of their execution
Ø The ALU performs all the basic arithmetic, logical or input/output operations. The CU
provides the ALU with the data that needs to be processed and the instructions of how it
should be processed
Ø The primary memory has random access memory (RAM) and read only memory
(ROM)
Ø The RAM stores the executing program instructions and any data that is needed, and
these are stored in unique memory locations, which have an address and content (where
the instructions and data are), but the memory location is used by CU to find, retrieve and
access the data to send it to the ALU for processing
Ø The ROM holds instructions and data in unique memory locations, which have an
address and content, like the RAM. It is used to store permanent instructions and data that
can’t be changes are used to boot and operate the computer
Ø The CU has many registers – a register is a small storage location that can hold data
(multiple of 8 bits) e.g. a 64 bit computer has 64 bit registers
Ø The size of the register in bytes = word e.g. a 64 bit computer has a word size of 8 bits
Ø The basic registers in the CU are the memory address register (MAR) and the memory
data register (MDR)
Ø The MAR holds the memory address of the data to be used by the ALU, so the ALU can
get the corresponding content from the memory and process it. It may also gold the
memory address of where the processed data needs to be stored.
Ø The connection from the MAR to the primary memory is done by the Memory Address
Bus
Ø The MDR holds the data that is to be used by the ALU and then saved to the RAM.
Whichever memory address location the MAR is holding, the corresponding data will be
loaded onto the MDR for processing by the ALU. After the processing, the ALU puts the
result onto the MDR and the data is copied onto the memory address location in RAM
specified by the MAR
Ø The connection between the RAM and MDR is done by the Data Bus

2.1.2 Describe primary memory

Ø The primary memory is the only storage that is directly accessible by the CPU
Ø At any time, it can hold data and instructions that are currently running on the computer
system
Ø These data and instructions are stored as binary machine code (0s and 1s)
Ø RAM
o It is a general-purpose storage area (data can be over-written)
o Data and instructions can be loaded for execution whenever necessary
o Volatile (whenever power is lost, contents of memory are wiped)
Ø ROM
 o Data can’t be over-written
o Instructions are embedded in ROM can’t be changed, even if power is lost (non-
volatile)
o Used to store programs and instructions that don’t need to be updated/changed e.g.
BIOS of system
o Much smaller than RAM

2.1.3 Explain the use of cache memory

Ø RAM has 2 main types: Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and Static RAM (SRAM)
Ø SRAM is faster, but more expensive than DRAM
Ø DRAM is preferred for the main RAM of the computer system
Ø A small amount of SRAM is placed between the main RAM and the process – called cache
Ø Cache is a smaller and faster RAM (SRAM) that temporarily stores instructions and data so
the processor doesn’t need to access the slower main memory (DRAM)
Ø Cache holds the information from the RAM that is most actively used and accessed more
frequently
Ø The computer system will run faster as the
slower main memory will be accessed less
frequently
Ø When the processor needs to read from the
main memory, it first checks if a copy of the
data is in the cache, if it is, it reads it from
the cache – speeds up process, if it isn’t
there, the data is copied to the cache and
then used
Ø When the processor needs to write to the
main memory, it does it through the cache
Ø Compared to RAM, Cache is nearer to the
CPU, faster, more expensive and is separated in L1and L2
Ø The two types of cache are L1 and L2
Ø L1 is on the microprocessor itself, but L2 is between the primary and the microprocessor

2.1.4 Explain the machine instruction cycle

Ø Computer programs are stored in the primary memory as a series of instructions in machine
code, these have to be moved to the CPU for the program to operate,
Ø An instruction cycle is a basic operation of a computer, taking place in a definite time period,
where 1 instruction if fetched from memory and executed. It consists of 4 stages: fetching,
decoding, executer, and store.
Ø The following functions are carried out by the CPU to run a computer program (machine
instruction cycle):
1) Fetch instruction from primary memory to control unit
 • Since the CPU is responsible for knowing which instruction it has to take
from the primary memory to operate correctly, it sends the appropriate address
through the memory address bus to the primary memory
• The instruction that is in that address is copied onto the data bus and sent to
the CU
2) Decode instruction in control unit
• The instruction received by the CU is decoded – allows CPU to be aware of
any additional data needed to execute the instruction
• Any required data is fetched from the primary memory
• The addresses of these data are placed into the memory address bus and the
data from these addresses is received by the CPU through the address bus
3) Execute instruction
• The CPU executes the instruction using the necessary data and calculates the
result
• Depending on the result, additional data may be needed, which is fetched from
the primary memory for further calculations, in the same way as before
4) Store result of execution and check for next instruction
• After executing the instruction and computing the result, the CPU stores the
result in the primary memory
• It specifies the address where the result will reside in the primary memory,
using the memory address bus and sends the data through the data bus
• The CPU then checks for the next instruction and repeats the steps described
above by fetching, decoding, executing and then storing the result.

2.1.5 Identify the need for persistent storage

Ø The primary memory is the only storage
that is directly accessible by the CPU, so
any data that is stored anywhere else has
to be coped to the RAM first, since the
ROM can’t be written to
Ø RAM is volatile, and has a restricted capacity to hold data so it will become full at some
point
Ø At this point, some instructions/data has to be moved to secondary memory
Ø Secondary memory is a relatively slow memory that can be written to, but it non-volatile
(contents aren’t wiped if power is lost) so it is persistent memory
Ø Secondary memory has a relatively high capacity to hold data compared to primary memory
Ø When the computer starts up, the RAM is empty, so instructions need to be copied onto it
from secondary memory
Ø Without secondary memory, the computer wont be able to store anything persistently, data
can only be stored in ROM, which can’t be over-written
Ø Secondary memory is required to hold info that may not be needed all the time, but is too
large to fit in the primary memory
Ø Secondary storage devices:
 oHard drives/disks o Zip disk
oCD-RW, DVD-RW o Floppy disk
oUSB Flash drive o Magnetic tape
oSecure Digital (SD) or Compact
Flash (CF) card
Ø Differences between primary and secondary memory:
o Most computers have smaller amount of primary memory and a larger amount of
secondary memory
o Primary memory is volatile (doesn’t retain data when power is turned off), Secondary
is non-volatile
o Primary memory is more expensive
o Primary memory is much faster
o Primary memory is directly accessible by the CPU, secondary isn’t

2.1.6 Describe the main functions of an operating system

Functions of an operating system
Ø An operating system (OS) is a set of software that controls the computer’s
hardware resources and provides services for computer programs
Ø It acts as an intermediary between software applications (i.e. programs) and
the computer hardware
Ø A user would interact with an application that has been designed to meet
the user’s needs
Ø The application would require an OS to function
Ø The OS would allow the application to interact with the hardware of the
computer system due to several services – which are listed below:
o Peripheral communication
§ Peripheral = hardware components that reside outside the
CPU e.g. keyboards, monitors, mice, printers, etc.
§ OS is responsible for communicating directly with the hardware and providing
an interface between hardware devices and applications
o Memory management
§ OS is responsible for all the memory that is available in a computer system
§ OS manages how memory is used by applications and ensures that 1
application doesn’t interfere with memory that is being used by some other
application
§ If an application interferes with another’s memory, it may stop functioning or
its data may be affected or overwritten
o Resource Monitoring and multitasking
§ Running applications take up resources, which include the amount of memory
it occupies, or how much processor time it needs to function properly
§ OS is responsible for the efficient allocation of resources so that an
application can run as effectively as possible
 § Multitasking – multiple applications running simultaneously and sharing CPU
time to accomplish their goals
o Networking
§ OS manages connections to and interactions with networks of other computer
systems so as to allow the sharing of resources (e.g. files, printers)
§ OS acts as an intermediary between applications and networks, allowing
applications to interact with networks in a straightforward manner
o Disk access and data management
§ OS is able to access data stored in memory and disks
§ OS is responsible for keeping track of files, and files which are being used by
applications so that an application doesn’t overwrite another one’s files
§ OS is also responsible for coordinating the transfer of data from the disk files
into the primary memory and vice versa
o Security
§ OS is responsible for the overall security of a computer system
§ E.g. to provide a from of identity to the user that will allow authentication
(username and password)
§ Apart from authentication methods, an additional security measure is the use
of log files that keep trace of the activity of any user in the computer ysstem

2.1.7 Outline the use of a range of application software

Software application
Ø A computer system has the ability to run at least 1 software application, which has been
installed by the manufacturer, to complete predefined tasks
Ø Users are able to install many software applications onto computer systems – allows for the
use of a range of software applications, instead of only 1 predefined task
Ø Main software applications are mentioned below

Word processors
Ø Software application used for the production of any sort of document
Ø Includes tools for the composition, editing, formatting and printing of documents
Ø Word processing is the action of creating documents using a word processor
Ø Most common software application
Ø E.g. Microsoft Word, Pages

Spreadsheets
Ø Software application that is used for the organization and analysis of data
Ø The data in a spreadsheet application is represented as cells, organized in rows and columns
Ø These cells may contain numbers, text, or results of formulas that calculate the display values
automatically on the basis of the contents of other cells
Ø Allows for the fundamental operations of arithmetic and mathematical functions, provides
common financial and statistical operations, can display graphical data
Ø Used in any context that requires arithmetic data to be entered, processed and presented
 Ø E.g. Microsoft Excel

Database management systems (DBMS)

Ø Software application that manages (creates, queries, updates stores, modifies, and extracts
information) databases and provides an interface between users and a database
Ø E.g. MS Access
Ø A database is an organized collection of data
Ø The data is organized into records (rows) and fields (columns)
Ø The database represents structured data items in a table
Ø A key feature of a database is a unique key – 1 or more specific fields that uniquely identify
each record

Web browsers
Ø Software application used to access, retrieve and present content on the WWW
Ø The content can be web pages, images, videos, or other files and is identified by a URI
(Uniform resource identifier)
Ø The web browser needs the URI to connect to the appropriate web servers and request the
wanted information
Ø The web servers send back the information which the web browser then displays to the user
Ø E.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Safari, Mozilla Firefox

Email
Ø Software application that allows for the exchange of digital messages from a single author to
1 or more recipient(s)
Ø The author and recipient(s) don’t need to be online simultaneously to exchange the email
Ø The author send the email to the email server of the recipient(s), and when the recipient(s)
connect to the server, they will receive the message
Ø An email consists of 3 elements: envelope, header, body
Ø For an email to be transferred from the author to the recipient(s), the simple mail transfer
protocol (SMTP) is used – it communicates delivery parameters using the message envelope
Ø The message header contains the addresses of the sender and recipient(s), subject field and
data/time stamp
Ø The message body contains the actual message which is to be sent
Ø Email software applications can be web-based or as a software to be installed
Ø Web-based email can be accessed by any computer that supports a web browser, but needs an
internet connection
Ø E.g. Microsoft Outlook, Google Gmail

Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Ø Software application that assists engineers to create, modify, analyze and optimize a design
Ø Purpose is to increase the productivity of the designer and the quality of the resulting design
Ø Allow engineers to inspect a design from any angle or position
 Ø Shape information, materials, dimensions and tolerances can be represented in a way that if
any one of them is changed, the other change automatically
Ø E.g. Autodesk Auto CAD, Dassault Systemes Solid Works

Graphic processing software

Ø Allows a user to manipulate visual images on a computer
Ø Users can edit an image with the use of tools in many ways e.g. moving, selecting, cropping,
scaling, erasing, etc.
Ø E.g. Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw

2.1.8 Identify common features of applications

Common features of applications
Ø Software applications typically include a graphical user interface (GUI) to allow the user to
interact with them in many ways, instead of just typing commands
Ø A GUI includes components like graphical icons, visual indicators, toolbars, menus, dialogue
boxes
Ø These allow the interaction between the user and the software application to be performed
more smoothly through direct manipulation of the graphical elements
Ø Earlier, commands had to be typed in on a command line interface (CLI)
Command Line Interfaces (CLI) Graphical User Interfaces (GUI)
Pros • Easier to implement by a programmer • Users don’t need to remember specific
• Requires less memory to run commands – easier for new users
• Can be run on computers without a • Users use icons to remember commands
graphical monitor • Commands are grouped in menus and
• Quicker to type than use a mouse – toolbars
useful for experienced users
Cons • Users need to remember specific • More complex to implement by a
commands – hard for new users programmer
• Requires more memory
• Requires a graphical monitor and
pointing device

Ø A toolbar is a GUI element on which buttons, icons, menus, or other input/output elements
are placed
Ø A menu is a GUI element that displays a list of commands that can be chosen by the user to
perform various functions, e.g. a menu can display operations related to creating, opening,
closing and saving a file
Ø A dialogue box is a GUI element that is used to communicate information to the user and
allows them to respond by choosing an option from a list of specific choices
Ø GUI’s are described using WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers)
Ø Some common GUI elements (WIMP) are provided by the OS
 Ø Some features are provided by the application software – saves time for programmer,
minimizes the possibility of confusion and provides a smoother learning curve for each new
software application

2.1.9 Define the terms: bit, byte, binary, denary/decimal, hexadecimal

Bits and Bytes
Ø Computer systems are binary systems that use sequences of bits to represent data
Ø A bit can have only 2 values: 1 or 0
Ø Bit = b
Ø Byte = B
Ø 1B = 8b
Term Size in binary system
Kilobyte (Kb) 1024 b
Megabyte (Mb) 1024 Kb
Giga (Gb) 1024 Mb
Tera (Tb) 1024 Gb

Decimal number system

Ø Uses 10 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) to represent numbers
Ø Has base 10

Binary Number System

Ø Uses 2 digits (0 and 1) to represent numbers
Ø Has base 2

Ø For negative numbers, use 2’s complement

Hexadecimal Number System

Ø Uses 16 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F) to represent any number
Ø A-F represents 10-15
Ø Has base 16

2.1.10 Outline the way in which data is represented in the computer

Data representation
 Ø Computer systems are binary systems – only 2 values that they can represent: 0 and 1
Ø These 2 values can be represented by a single binary digit (bit)
Ø Complex data = sequences of binary data
Ø Length of each binary digit sequence determines the number of different representations
that can be achieved
Ø Number of representations = 2" where
𝑛 is the no. of bits used
Ø Standard formats:
o Integers
o Characters
o Strings – sequences of characters
o Colors – using a 6 digit hexadecimal number

ASCII
Ø A – Z = 65 – 90
Ø a – z = 97 – 122
Ø Special symbols = 91 - 96

2.1.11 Define the Boolean operators: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR
Boolean operators

2.1.12 Construct truth tables using the above operators

2.1.13 Construct a logic diagram using AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR gates
Simplification of Boolean expressions

 Chapter 3 – Networks
3.1.1 identify different types of networks

➢ A computer network is a group of computer system and other computing devices that are connected
together and able to communicate and exchange data with each other.
➢ There are 2 key terms in computer networks
• Server – a server is a computer system or a software application that provides data to other
computer systems that are connected to the same network.
• Client- A client can either be a computer system or a software application that requests a
service from a server connected to the same network.
➢ In summary, a server computer system is a host running server software application and sharing its
resources with clients that make requests. A client, on the other hand, does not share any of its
resources but requests content from a server.
➢ The main 3 network components that play a crucial role are hub, switch and router.
• Hub – A hub is the connection point for devices on a single network. Network devices and
computer systems connected to a hub using Ethernet cables that attach to a port. When a
network device wishes to send data to some other device on the network, it sends the data
to the hub. The hub then copies the data and sends it to all devices connected to its ports.
The device waiting to receive the data accepts the data. All the other devices just ignore it.
• Switch – switch is similar to a hub the only difference is that it can identify which network
device is connected to which port. This allows the switch to transmit data to the exact port.
• Router -It is used to join multiple networks and serve as an intermediary between these
networks so that data can be exchanged effectively and efficiently between network devices
of those networks.
➢ As stated, a hub or a switch and a router are commonly integrated into a single box, allowing the
creation of a wired or wireless network, as well as the connection of that network to other networks,
such as the Internet.
➢ Types of networks
➢ LAN – (local area network) LAN covers a local area which includes a local office/building and homes.
Whether wired or wireless, nearly all modern LANs are based on Ethernet, a set of protocols for
exchanging data.
➢ WAN – (wide area network) like the name this network has a larger range. The distance can range
from a network connecting multiple building or college campus to satellite connecting office in
different countries.
➢ VLAN – A virtual local area network (VLAN) is a logical group of workstations, servers and network
devices that appear to be on the same LAN despite their geographical distribution. A VLAN allows a
network of computers and users to communicate in a simulated environment as if they exist in a
single LAN. VLANs are implemented to achieve scalability, security and ease of network management
and can quickly adapt to changes in network requirements and relocation of workstations and server
nodes.
➢ SAN- A storage area network (SAN) is a secure high-speed data transfer network that provides access
to consolidated block level storage. An SAN makes a network of storage devices accessible to
multiple servers. SAN devices appear to servers as attached drives, eliminating traditional network
bottlenecks.
➢ WLAN- A wireless local area network (WLAN) is a wireless distribution method for two or more
devices that use high frequency radio waves and often include an access point to the Internet. A
WLAN allows users to move around the coverage area, often a home or small office, while
maintaining a network connection. Also known as WIFI network, but can include other transmission
technologies.
 ➢ Internet- The internet is a globally connected network system that uses the TCP/IP protocols to
transmit data via various types of media. The internet is a network of global exchanges – including
private, public, business, academic and government networks – connected by wired, wireless and
fibre-optic technologies. he terms internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably, but
they are not exactly the same thing; the internet refers to the global communication system,
including hardware and infrastructure, while the web is one of the services communicated over the
internet
➢ Extranet- An extranet is a controlled private network allowing customers, partners, vendors,
suppliers and other businesses to gain information, typically about a specific company or educational
institution, and do so without granting access to the organization's entire network. It is restricted to
select users through user IDs, passwords and other authentication mechanisms on a login page.
➢ VPN- It uses the internet to allow people to log into a network remotely and access its resources, but
encrypts the connection to thwart eavesdroppers. This makes VPN a popular way to support remote
workers, especially in fields where privacy is paramount, such as health care.
➢ PAN- (personal area network) a network covering a very small area, usually a small room. The best-
known wireless PAN network technology is Bluetooth, and the most popular wired PAN is USB. You
might not think of your wireless headset, your printer or your smartphones as components in a
network, but they are definitely talking with each other. Wi-Fi also serves as a PAN technology, since
Wi-Fi is also used over a small area (especially in cars)
➢ P2P- Peer-to-peer is a network model in which computers or hardware devices exchange files.

3.1.2 Outline the importance of standards in the construction of networks

➢ Standards play an important role in networking.

➢ Without standards, manufacturers of networking products have no common ground on
which to build their systems.
➢ Interconnecting products from various vendors would be difficult, if not impossible.
➢ Without agreed standards, communication would be difficult

3.1.3 Describe how communication over networks is broken down into different layers

➢ In our world we have various different computer system manufactures and a wide variety of different
types of computer. Although hardware in this computer system differs, we may need these different
computer systems to communicate with each other. To achieve this, a specific standard has to be
followed by all manufactures.
➢ Software application developer have to abide by some standard in order to develop application
capable of communicating with other software over WAN (internet). Imagine a simple program that
ask for services from an online database. This process requires the program to:
1. Pass the request through different layers
2. Obtain an answer through different layers
➢ The layers serve different function and use different protocols for information exchange. This makes
the process less complex because any problem is broken down into distinct modules.
➢ There is a common format that is universally understandable by all software application.
➢ Large data is broken down into packets. Each packet contains small amount of data, as well as other
important information as the designation of the packet. The packets then travel through the network
and reach their final destination. Various procedures handle the routing of packets across a network
through
➢ Advantages of layers
• Easy to manage.
• Greater understanding of each layer.
• Common language for each layer.
• Makes protocol design easier.
• A manufacturer can focus on technologies of a particular layer.
 • Products of different manufacturers can work together.
• Technology advances of a layer are independent of technology advancements of other layers
(wireless technology advances are not dependent on advances of media NP‘WPP’N!‘ format
compression (GIF))

TCP : Transmission Control Protocol

3.1.4 Identify the technologies required to provide a VPN

➢ VPN = Virtual private network

➢ Encryption is the process of encoding data so that only a computer with the right decoder will be able
to read and use it. In a VPN, the computers at each end of the (secure)tunnel encrypt the data
entering the tunnel and decrypt it at the other end
➢ is the process of encoding data so that only a computer with the right decoder will be able to read
and use it.
➢ VPN server
➢ Is a collection of server all around the world giving vpn client secure access to the servers
➢ A VPN client : Virtual Private Network software that's installed on your device to establish a
connection between it and the VPN server, and offer access to VPN services.
 3.1.5 Evaluate the use of a VPN Data transmission

➢ VPN benefits
1. Communication is easier
2. Companies take advantage of the Internet to provide secure connections
3. Decreases operational costs versus traditional Wide Area Networks
4. Employees work as if they were directly connected to the company’s network
5. Extends connections across numerous geographic sites without the use of a leased line
6. Improves overall productivity 7. Improves productivity of remote employees
8. Improves security
9. Offers the flexibility to employees to take advantage of the company’s Intranet over an existing
Internet connection
10. Offers flexibility to remote offices
11. Offers global networking opportunities
12. Provides teleworker support
13. Reduces environmental footprint
14. Reduces travel times and traveling costs for remote users
15. Simplifies network topology for administrators and companies
16. Positive changes in working patterns

3.1.6 Define the terms: protocol, data packet (done in the intro)

3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary

➢ Without predefined rules, communication would be impossible. The rules of communication are
called protocols. Consider them as strict predefined rules.
➢ Some of the protocols required for communication to take place include":
1. The presence of an identified sender
2. The presence of an identified receiver
3. The presence of an agreed-upon method of communicating (email, IM, smartphone,
gestures, face—to-face, telephone, fax, letter, photograph, etc.)
4. The presence of a common language
5. The presence of a common grammar
6. The presence of an agreed-upon speed and timing of delivery (”Slow Down, You're Talking
Too Fastl")
7. The presence of confirmation or acknowledgment requirements (for example, “Does that
make sense?” ”No, please explain!”)
➢ Computer Network Protocols also provide:

1. Rules about the message format

2. Rules about the way intermediary devices should facilitate communication
3. Rules about initiation and termination of a communication session
4. Rules about the type of error checking to be used
5. Rules about the data compression methods and algorithms (if compression takes place)
6. Rules about an error detection and correction mechanism
7. Rules about recovery and resending of data NF‘PPWP’!‘
➢ Computer Network Protocols also guarantee:
• Data integrity. This means that the information has not been changed / corrupted
deliberately or accidentally during transmission, from source to destination. Checksum
mechanisms provide data integrity.
 • Source integrity: checking if the identity of the sender is valid. This is done using the digital
signatures to prove source integrity
• Flow control: Network infrastructures have limited memory and bandwidth. The transport
Layer is responsible for taking advantage of its protocols and facing situations where an
overload of resources occurs. These protocols can request from a sending application to slow
down data flow rate. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow
control.
• Congestion management: Congestion happens when the request on the network
resources exceeds the offered capacity.
• Deadlock prevention: Deadlock is a situation in which two or more network
competing actions are each waiting for the other to finish, and thus neither ever
does. The persistence timer is used to resolve the situation.
• Error checking. A process to determine the error.
• Error correction. The ability to repair the error.
3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data transmission across a network can vary

➢ We measure data transfer speed in bps (bits per second), kbps (kilobits per second) or Mbps (millions
of bits per second/megabits)
➢ Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network or internet connection. It
measures how much data can be sent over a specific connection in a given amount of time. For
example, a gigabit Ethernet connection has a bandwidth of 1,000 Mbps (125 megabytes per second
➢ There are various factors that affect the bandwidth (interferences, traffic, the number of connected
devices and errors).
➢ Factors that affect speed of data transmission

1. Bandwidth of the network

2. Data transfer rate of storage devices

3. interferences

4. Malicious software

5. Number of connected devices

6. Number of users’ and users demand at any particular time (traffic)

7. Packet loss and retransmission

8. Read speed of storage devices

9. Slowest segments

10. Speed, technology and capacity of the network server

11. Time required for user authentication and various security checks that take place

12. Type of files send

13. Type of transmission medium

14. User’s PC CPU speed

15. User’s PC RAM/disk caching

16. User’s PC various subsystem performance

17. type of wire

3.1.9 Explain why compression of data is often necessary when transmitting across a network

➢ all network has limited bandwidth. Data compression reduces the size of files transmitted over a
network making it easier to store and faster to send. Compressed data takes up less bandwidth thus
reducing the size of the file making the time required to send the file over a network a lot less. Data
compression is basically reducing the number of bits present in that file.
➢ There are 2 types of data compression
➢ Lossy data compression: with this type of compression method there is some loss of data information
that can’t be recovered. Lossy data compression is a method in which the system removes the
unnecessary/unused information from the system. Images that are in a website follow lossy format.
• Example) some audio files consist of data in the ultrasonic frequency range, but we humans can’t
hear that so we discard that file to reduce the size of the file. This is also used when we make a
phone call. You can reduce the size of an image by merging some similar coloured pixels, this will
drastically reduce the size of the image but the image will have a similar look to it.
➢ Loss less compression: this compression method uses algorithms to save the file with its original
quality. Loss less has a limit capability thus it won’t reduce the size drastically but it will still have the
same quality. images that are print uses loss less because the quality of the image has higher priority
than size.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OtDxDvCpPL4&feature=youtu.be

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Qo5prktYNQ

3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of different transmission media

➢ Wired communication
• Copper cable: cooper cable is the most common kind of cabling in computer network
• Coaxial cable: It consists of two copper conductors. It was used in computer networks, as well as
to carry TV signals. Low cost of installation.
• Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP): Very popular in LANs. Easy to install. Prone to electrical
interference. Low cost of installation. Good for short distances between repeaters. Used in
telephone networks. Very secure.
• Shielded Twisted Pair Cable: More difficult to install than UTP. Reduced interference.
• Fiber Optic Cable: Optical fiber carries a beam of light. expensive. Offers higher speeds. Needs
fewer repeaters. Extremely secure. It is used for data transmission and telephone lines.
➢ Wireless communication
• Microwave Radio: Used extensively for mobile telephone networks and LANs. Information is
carried through air. Microwave signals offer high bandwidth (but lower than cables). For
optimum results no buildings and other structures should be between the transmitter and
the receiver. Weather conditions affect the performance. Difficult to guarantee reliability.
Less secure than wired communication
• Satellites: Use microwave signals.
• Infrared: Used only for very short distances. Infrared transmission cannot pass through
objects and it is directional. A line of sight is required. Advanced security.
• RFID: Uses various radio technologies. Active RFID needs internal power. Passive
• RFID needs no internal power source.
• Bluetooth: Bluetooth devices use microwave radio to exchange data. They transmit at very
low power levels. Their frequencies change regularly.
• Free Space Optics: Use of lasers for wireless computer communication.

3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by packet switching Wireless networking

➢ Packet switching is a method of transmitting information over a computer network. The information
is broken down into smaller pieces, the packets that are then transmitted across the network.
 ➢ Every packet contains:

▪ The source of the packet

▪ The destination of the packet
▪ Length of the information part
▪ A running number of the packet
▪ Classification of the packet
➢ The packets are transported as individual and independent units through the network, so they can
travel on many different ways.

Advantages:

▪ Because the single packets are small, waiting times are low and because packets can travel
through multiple channels independently, the network will be utilized better.
▪ Resources will be given fairly to participants in the network.
▪ Because of small packet size transmitting errors can be detected fast.
▪ High resistance against fallouts. If part of the network falls out packets can route around the
broken down transmission lines.
Disadvantages:

▪ Because transport routes are not fixed, overloading can occur at transmitting stations.
▪ Packets don't arrive in order (because they can take separate ways).
▪ All participants have to use the same network protocols.
▪ No constant bandwidth can be guaranteed and big fluctuations in bandwidth can happen.
3.1.12 outline the advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks

Advantages:

▪ Easy to set up (no cablilng required)

▪ Can be installed almost anywhere (no need to drill holes etc.)
▪ Allows mobility (computers don't have to stay in same place)
▪ Easy to add new participants to network
Disadvantages:

▪ Traffic through network can be intercepted by unauthorized people

▪ Slow transmission speeds
▪ Interference from other wireless stations, cables etc. can happen, reducing speed
▪ Signal range depends on participating devices' antenna
▪ Many different standards may not compatible with each other (There are 5 different WLAN
standards). Making wireless access points compatible with each standard is complicated
(different antenna) and resource consuming, and can influence transmission speeds for individual
participants.

3.1.13 Describe the hardware and software components of a wireless network

Hardware components:

▪ Antenna
▪ Networking interface card
Software components:

▪ Drivers providing the abstraction required by the operating system and implementing functions
▪ Firmware of the network card implementing transport-oriented protocols

3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless networks

➢ WiFi:
 ▪ Also called Wireless LAN (WLAN)
▪ Used in laptops to connect wirelessly to home network
▪ Most preferred network type to implement a home network
▪ Allows relatively slow to fast data transmissions (depending on the version)
▪ Backwards compatible with most older WiFi standards
▪ Small transmitting radius makes it suited for homes
➢ WiMAX:

▪ Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

▪ Designed for large distance high speed internet access
▪ Relatively cheap method of providing internet over a large area - suited for poorer countries
▪ Rivalled by Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard
▪ Can be used as a form of wireless variant of DSL phone transmission lines
➢ 3G:

▪ The primary way mobile phones access the internet today

▪ Allows the tunnelling of phone lines (mobiles don't have to switch back to phone network when
receiving a call
▪ Relatively fast
▪ Network is heavily overloaded in Germany
▪
3.1.15 Describe the different methods of network security

➢ Data encryption: information is scrambled using a set of mathematical rules and passwords so that it
is only readable by the communicating parties. Examples are AES and RSA.
➢ userID: a userID and password are used to identify the user. Usually, traffic after identification is
handled using some type on encryption method.

3.1.16 Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each method of network security

➢ Encryption types:

Advantages:

▪ A strong encryption is very hard to break

▪ Computer are fast enough to encrypt data on-the-fly
Disadvantages:

▪ Often, users are lazy and take a password that is easy to guess
▪ The password needs to be transmitted over the network to receiver to allow them to read the
message
▪ Some encryptions are designed to have backdoors built in
➢ userID:

Advantages:

▪ Access rights to the network can be set for each user

▪ User groups can be created to manage user rights in batches
Disadvantages:

▪ A userID can be stolen

▪ system can be bypassed
▪ Does not protect against intercepting messages in the network
VPN client