OUTLINE OF FLUID MOTION WITH FRICTION.

A perfect (Ideal) fluid;

 frictionless and incompressible,

 No shear stresses develop,
 Viscosity is completely neglected because their motion has very small shear stresses
(Inviscid).

A real fluid;

 Shear stresses develop,

 Friction is present,
 Viscosity is present as a result of the frictional force.

VISCOSITY.

The upper plate is in motion while the lower plate is stationary; the fluid sticks to both walls i.e.
the velocity of the upper plate is equal to the velocity of the upper plate while that of the lower
plate if likewise equal to the of the lower plate which is zero.

Experimentally we deduced that;

A∗U
F∝
Y
 μAU
F=
Y

Recall that;

F
τ=
A

Therefore;

U
τ =μ
Y

∂u
τ =μ
∂y

Where µ is viscosity

kg
μ=
m . sec .

Numerical Values of viscosity.

In liquids, the viscosity is independent of pressure and decreases with an increase in temperature.
For gases the viscosity is independent of pressure but increases with temperature.

COMPRESSIBILITY.

Compressibility is a measure of the change in volume of a fluid under the action of an external
force.

1 −1 ΔV
β= =
E V ΔP

Where β is the compressibility,

E is the modulus of elasticity; which describes the fluid tendency to deform elastically(Non-
permanently,

V is the volume of the fluid,

ΔV
And is the volume due to pressure change.
ΔP
Since the compressibility of a fluid is dependent on whether the process is Isothermal or
adiabatic.

Therefore;

1 −1 ΔV
Βn = =
E V ΔP

Where n could either be T for isothermal process of S for adiabatic process.

The Hagen Poiseuille equations of flow through a pipe.

The Hagen-poiseuille equation is a physical law that gives the pressure drop flowing through a
long cylindrical pipe; this law can be best described by assuming that the fluid flowing through
the circular tube are a bunch of circular layers (lamina) of liquid, each having a velocity
determined only by their radial distance from the center of the tube.

The liquid in the center is moving fastest while the liquid touching the walls of the tube is
stationary(due to friction).

The forces acting on the fluid are as follows;

 The pressure gradient that pushes the liquid through the tube,
 The pull from the faster lamina immediately closer to the center of the tube and the drag
from the slower lamina immediately closer to the walls of the tube i.e. The individual
layers act on each other with a shear stress due to friction between the fluid layers.
  Inertia forces (Forces that accelerates a fluid) are absent because velocity is constant
along every streamline

Recall;

F
τ=
A

Where A=2πyl

F=P∗A

Where P=P1-P2

A=πy2

( P 1−P2 )∗π y 2
τ=
2 πyl

( P 1−P2 )∗y
τ=
2l

From the laws of friction;

∂u
τ =−μ
∂y

∂u −( P1 −P 2 )∗y
=
∂y 2l μ

Integrate;

− ( P1−P2 ) 2
∗y
lμ
u ( y )= +C
4

@ the walls of the cylinder where u=0 and y=R;

 R2
C=
4

−( P1−P2 ) 2
u ( y )= ∗( R ¿ ¿ 2− y ) ¿
4lμ

THE PRINCIPLE OF SIMILARITY: THE REYNOLDS AND MACH NUMBERS.

For two fluids flowing about geometrically similar bodies, at different velocities and linear
dimensions to be similar, the forces acting at the fluids at all geometrical points must bear a fixed
ratio at every instant in time.

For this to be possible we assume that;

 Only friction and inertia forces are present,

 The fluid is incompressible,
 Force of gravity is balanced by buoyancy(an upward acting force exerted by a fluid, that
opposes an object's weight), i.e. gravitational forces is neglected ,
 At all corresponding points the ratio of inertia and frictional forces are the same.

Mathematically;

ρV 2
Inertia force=
d

μV
Frictional Force=
d2

Inertia Force ρVd Vd

= = =Reynolds number
Frictional Force μ ν

Therefore two fluids can be said to be similar when the Reynolds number for the fluids are the
same

Relation between the Reynolds number, Drag coefficient and Lift coefficient

Lift coefficient C L is a dimensionless quantity that relates the lift generated by an aerodynamic
fluid, the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around it and a reference area associated with the
fluid, While the drag coefficient is likewise a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the
drag or resistance of a fluid in a fluid environment.
 L
C L=
1
ρV 2 A
2

D
CD=
1
ρV2 A
2

Therefore,

C D &C Lare functions of Reynolds number.

Inversely,

 If the fluid is compressible and,

 The force of gravity is not balanced by buoyancy, i.e. gravitational forces is present,

We use the Froude number; which is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of a fluids
inertia to the gravitational forces.

Mathematically;

V V
Fr= = =M a
√ gl c

Where,

V is the velocity of the fluid,

G is the acceleration due to gravity,

L is the characteristics length,

C is the speed of sound and,

M a is the Mach number.

Likewise,

C D &C Lcan be said to be functions of the Mach number.

OUTLINE OF BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY.

When a fluid flows over a stationary surface, e.g. the bed of a river or the wall of a pipe, the fluid
touching the surface is brought to rest by the shear stress at the wall. The velocity increases from
the wall to a maximum. Looking at this concept 2-dimensionally we get the velocity profile
below from the wall to the center of the flow;

This region where there is a velocity profile in the flow due to the shear stress at the wall is
called the Boundary layer.

Estimating the boundary layer thickness

The thickness of the boundary layer δ is the distance from the wall to the point where the
velocity is 99% of the free stream velocity, i.e. the velocity in the middle of the pipe. The value
of δ will increase with the distance from the point where the fluid first starts to pass over the
boundary, the thickness of the boundary layer can also increases with increase in
viscosity(decrease in Reynolds number)

Mathematically,

From the condition of similarity of the ratio of the inertia force and frictional force we recall
that;

ρV 2
Inertia force=
l
 μV
Frictional Force=
δ2

Therefore;

ρV 2 μV
= 2
l δ

μl vl
The Boundary layer thickness δ =
√ √
ρV
=
V

δ 1
The dimensionless bou ndary layer thicness δ ¿ = =
l √ℜ

Recall that the shear stress;

∂u
τ =μ
∂y

∂u V
at thewall where y=0 , =
∂y δ

Therefore,

V
τ =μ
δ

Substitute δ into the equation;

V ρV
τ =μ
μl
=μV
√ μl
√ ρV

μρ V 3
τ=
√ l

Separation and vortex formation.

When there is a pressure increase in the direction of flow and the fluid outside the boundary
layer has enough momentum to overcome this pressure that pushes it backwards, if the fluid
within the boundary layer has a small momentum that it will quickly be brought to rest and
possibly reversed in direction. When the reversal occurs it lifts the boundary layer away from the
surface as shown below;

Simply, separation of boundary layer is a phenomenon that occurs in which the boundary layer
peels away from the solid surface as a result of adverse pressure gradient opposing the flow
along it

At the edge of the separated boundary layer, where the velocities change direction, a line of
vortices occur. This happens because fluid on either sides is moving in opposite direction. This
boundary layer separation and increase in the turbulence because of the vortices results in very
large energy losses in the flow.

∂u
Mathematically boundary layer separation occurs at the point where =0
∂y

The boundary layer separation occurs in both laminar and turbulent flows, but in great extent in
turbulent flows because;

 Turbulent flows are more commonly encountered than laminar flow,

 Inertial effects

A vortex occurs from separation.