RECORD NOTE

Name :

Register No. :

Year and Semester : 3rd Year, 5th Semester

Branch and Section : Mechanical, B section

Course Code and Title : 18MD11&HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Academic Year : 2020-2021

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Roll No. -------------------------------------

Certified that this is the Bonafide Record of work done by

Mr./Ms. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ of

---------------semester B.E/B.Tech. -------------------------------- (Branch) during the

academic year ----------- in the -------------------------------------------------------(Course

Code/Title) Laboratory.

Date: Faculty in-charge

Roll No. -----------------------------

Submitted for the End Semester Practical Examination held on 10-12-2020 at

Karpagam College of Engineering, Coimbatore.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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 VISION

To enable the students excel in a high-value career, higher education and research, in the field of
Mechanical Engineering through innovative teaching and learning methodologies, to meet the
needs of the industry and to be a part of the advancing technological revolution.
MISSION

The Mission of the Department

 To impart quality education to the students to meet the global challenges in the field of
Mechanical Engineering.
 Enriching their Knowledge by providing Research and Developmental opportunities.
 Inculcating self-confidence for being a successful Entrepreneur.

Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs)

 PEO1: Graduates will be able to synthesize mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, laboratory and work-based experiences to formulate and solve the problems
in the domain of Mechanical Engineering and will gain proficiency in Computer-based
engineering and in the use of computational tools.

 PEO2: Graduates will be prepared to communicate and work effectively on the

multidisciplinary engineering projects with a good awareness of ethics of their profession.

 PEO3: Graduates will recognize the importance of independent learning and engage in it to
become experts either as an entrepreneur or an employee so as to widen their knowledge in
the field.

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

1. fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
3
 mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
3.
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
4. research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
5. modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
6. assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
7. engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
8.
and norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
9.
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
10.
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
11.
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
12. engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
Programme Outcomes

Programme Specific Outcomes:

Identify analyse and impart complex engineering problems in Thermal Engineering,

PSO-1
Design Engineering and Manufacturing Engineering domains.
PSO-2 Enabling the student to take-up career in core industries so as to develop products using
4
 CAD/CAM tools.

INDEX
Page Signature of
Sl. No Date Name of Experiment Marks
No. the faculty
1 18-9-2020 Heat Transfer by Conduction 7
Determination of thermal
conductivity of a material by the
two slabs guarded hot plate
method

2 25-9-2020 Heat Transfer by Natural 13

Convection
3 1-10-2020 Heat Transfer by Radiation 18

4 8-10-2020 Black Body Radiation: 21

Determination of Stefan's Constant

5
 Heat Transfer by Conduction Determination of thermal conductivity of a material by the
two slabs guarded hot plate method

AIM:-

1. To find the thermal conductivity of a material by the two slabs guarded hot plate method.
 
2. To find the thermal resistance of the sample.

Apparatus: 

A circular main heater plate (MH) is surrounded by an annular guard heater plate (GH) with a narrow air
gap in between. Each heater is made up of electrical resistance wire sandwiched between two copper
plates. Thermocouples are fixed to the plates to measure their surface temperatures.
Two identical circular slabs of the material to be tested are placed on either side of and in good thermal
contact with the heater plates. On the outer sides of the two slabs, in good thermal contact, are two
circular water-cooled slabs whose surface temperatures can also be monitored with thermocouples (Fig
1).
The purpose of the guard heater is to prevent heat loss from the edge of the main heater by maintaining
the temperature outside the main heater at the same temperature as the main heater. This ensures that all
heat lost from the main heater flows through the test slabs.

6
Theory:

The theory of heat transfer seeks to predict the energy transfer that may take place between material
bodies as a result of temperature difference. This energy transfer is defined as heat. The three modes by
which heat can be transferred from one place to another are conduction, convection and radiation.
In conduction, heat is carried by means of collisions between rapidly moving molecules closer to the hot
end of a body of matter and the slower molecules closer to the cold end. Some of the kinetic energy of the
fast molecules passes to the slow molecules, and as a result of successive collisions, heat flows through
the body of matter from the hot end to the cold end. Solids, liquids, and gases all conduct heat.
Conduction is poorest in gases because their molecules are relatively far apart and so interact less
frequently than in solids and liquids. Metals are the best conductors of heat because some of their
electrons are able to move about relatively freely and can interact frequently by collisions.
Without the guard heater, cooler air surrounding the edge of the main heater would be heated by
conduction and convection. Thus some of the heat supplied to the main heater would be carried away by
the surrounding air.

With the guard heater in place and adjusted to the same temperature as the main heater, the air in the gap
between is maintained at the temperature of the main heater, so no heat is lost at the edge of the main
heater. All heat lost from the main heater must flow into the test slabs.
 
Consider one -dimensional heat conduction (Fig 2). The rate at which heat is conducted through a slab of
a particular material is proportional to the area A of the slab and to the temperature
difference ΔT between its sides and inversely proportional to the slab's thickness d.
 
The amount of heat Q that flows through the slab in the time t is given by

Rate of conduction                                                          

And thus             

Where ΔT = T1 – T2, and k is the thermal conductivity of the material, is

a measure of its ability to conduct heat. The SI unit of k is Wm-1K-1.
 
 
Thermal conductivity: Note that a heat flow rate is involved, and the numerical value of the thermal
conductivity indicates how fast heat will flow. In general, thermal conductivity is strongly temperature
dependent. It has the units of watts per meter per Kelvin. Heat transfer by conduction in a solid can be
realized through the support of phonons, electrons and photons. The individual contributions of these
carriers widely depend on material and its temperature. Thermal conductivity is thus a second order
tensor, but in a material with cubic isotropy it reduces to a scalar. It is an intensive property (changing the
amount of material does not change its thermal conductivity) and is a function of both pressure and
temperature.

The thermal resistance R of a layer of a material of thickness d and of thermal conductivity k is given by

7
                                                                          .

The greater the value of R, The greater the resistance to the flow of heat.
 

Applications:
 
Heat transfer has wide applications for the proper functioning of thermal devices and systems. This
principle is used to solve many problems in thermal mechanics.

1. Heat exchange

2. Building construction work

3. Thermal energy storage devices

4. Heat transfer in human body

5. Thermopile and infrared thermometer

6. Thermal resistance in electronics like thermal diode or thermal rectifier

7. Used in laser cooling, radioactive cooling, magnetic cooling, etc.

Perfoming simulasion:-
 
Simulator Controls

1. The Choose Material combo box is used to select the material for the test slab.
2. The Diameter of the material slider is used set the diameter of the portion of the test slab in contact
with the main heater, in cm
3. The Thickness of material slider is used to set the thickness of the test slab, in cm.
4. The Coldwater temperature slider is used to set the temperature ( in degrees Celsius) of the water
flowing inside the outer plates.
5. The White knobs in simulator can be rotated by clicking side arrows to adjust the voltage and
corresponding current, which can be used tocalculateinputpower.
6. The MH-GH Switch is used to set either main heater (MH) or guard heater (GH) voltage and current
as shown on the meters. Note: For the simulator to be powered on, the voltage for both heaters must be
the same.
7. The Power on button switches on the power after the initial adjustments are done.

8. The Temperature indicator is used to read the temperature at the positions of the various
thermocouples. After a steady state is reached (when the timer shows 20 minutes), click the arrows on
either side of the knob to read temperatures T1 to T8 in degrees Celsius.

8
Procedure for simulation

1. Choose the material from combo box.

2. using the sliders, fix a particular diameter for the portion of the test slab in contact with the main
heater, and a thickness for the entire slab.

3. Adjust the cold water temperature using the slider.

4. Using the white knobs, fix the value of same voltage and current for both main heater (MH) and guard
heater (GH). With the MH-GH switch set to MH, use white MH knob to set the voltage and current for
the main heater. Then click the MH-GH switch to GH and use the white GH knob to set the voltage and
current for the guard heater to the same values you set for the main heater.

5. Click the Power On switch to power the unit on.

6. after a steady state is reached (20 minutes in the timer), use the temperature indicator to read and note
down T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7 and T8.

7. using the work sheet and the equations from the theory page, calculate the thermal conductivity of the
test slab. Note: since the main heater is in contact with a test slab on both sides, the area A in equation
Where d is the diameter of the MH, not, as might first be assumed.

Observation and calculation

Material: card board

Diameter [cm]: 20 Area [m2] = = 0.031400 m2

Thickness [cm]: 0.7

9
 Voltmeter Ammeter Main heater temperature(oC) Cold
Reading Reading temoetature
(oC)
[V] [A] T1(oC) T2(oC T3(oC T4(oC T5(oC T6(oC
) ) ) ) )

140 0.48 50.67 50.67 50.67 50.67 15 15

Mean temperature at the surface of the specimen on the heater side,

=            (50.67+50.67+50.67+50.67)/4 = 50.67 °C

Mean temperature at the surface of the specimen on cold plate side,

 =                (15+15)/ 2 = 15°C           

Area of heat transfer,

 =            0.03140           m2

In above equation, d is the diameter of the specimen

Heat transferred,    

   VI/2=140*0.42/2 =k*0.0314*(35.67)/0.7*10(-2)
33.6 = k*161
K= 0.20
 

Δx is the thickness of the specimen

 
Thermal conductivity                                                                                k =        0.20   Wm-1K-1
10
Result

Thermal conductivity of the given specimen by conduction =            0.20    Wm-1K-1

11
 Heat Transfer by Natural Convection

Aim:

 
Heat Transfer by Natural Convection
 
1. To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient at the surface of a given vertical metal cylinder by the
natural convection method.

2. To determine the value of Nussle number.

 
 
APPARATUS:-
 
Natural Convection
Apparatus - a metal
cylinder fitted vertically
in a wooden rectangular
duct which is open at the
top and the bottom (Fig
1). An electric heater is
provided in the vertical
cylinder, which heats the
surface of the cylinder.
Heat is lost from the
cylinder to the
surrounding air by natural
convection, because the
air in contact with the
cylinder gets heated and
becomes less dense,
causing it to rise. This in
turn creates a continuous
flow of air upward in the
duct. The temperature at the various locations on the surface of the vertical cylinder and in the incoming
and outgoing air is monitored with thermocouples. The duct is made of wood because it is a poor
conductor, so not much heat will transfer from the air to the duct. Thus the duct will enhance air flow
without introducing another convective surface.
 
Theory:
 
 
Heat transfer theory seeks to predict the energy transfer that takes place between material bodies as a
result of temperature difference. This energy transfer is defined as heat. The three modes by which heat
can be transferred from one place to another are conduction, convection and radiation.
It is well known that a hot plate of metal will cool faster when placed in front of a fan than when placed in
still air. With the fan, we say that the heat is convected away, and we call the process convection heat
12
transfer. Convection involves the transfer of heat by motion and mixing of a fluid.
Forced convection happens when the fluid is kept in motion by an external means, such as a turbine or a
fan. Some examples of forced convection are stirring a mixture of ice and water, blowing on the surface
of coffee in a cup, orienting a car radiator to face airflow, etc.
Convection is called natural convection when motion and mixing of fluid is caused by density variation
resulting from temperature differences

Within the fluid. The density of fluid near the hot surface is less than that of the colder fluid away from
the heated surface, and gravity creates a buoyant force which lifts the heated fluid upward.

In the case of conduction through a solid of area A and thickness L, heat flow is given by

   (1)                                          

Where ∆T is the temperature difference across the thickness L, and k is the thermal conductivity of the
object.

In the case of convection, the heat flow is proportional only to the surface area A of the object,

(2)
                                                                                      
Where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (units Wm -2 K-1) which depends on the shape and
orientation of the object. ∆T is the temperature difference between the surface of the object and the
surrounding fluid.

Convection is an enhanced form of conduction, since the movement of the fluid helps carry heat
transferred by conduction, so one would expect some relation between h and k. If the temperature of the
cylinder is not much above that of the surrounding air, the moving fluid can be approximated as a
stationary layer having some characteristic thickness L. Comparing equations (1) and (2), one
immediately has the relation h = k/L. In fact, as the temperature of the cylinder increases, fluid motion
increases and becomes turbulent, whereupon the fluid becomes more efficient at carrying heat, and h can
turn out to be 102 – 104 times k/L.The proportionality between h and k/L is called the Nusselt number N,

  (4) 
Where k is thermal conductivity of air and L is the characteristic length. Note that N is a dimensionless
quantity.

In our case, which does involve turbulent flow, we are interested in temperature variation along the length
of a metal cylinder, so we will take the characteristic length L to be the length of the cylinder.

13
Applications:

Natural convection heat transfer is extensively used in the following areas of engineering:

1. Cooling of commercial high voltage electrical power transformers.

2. Heating of houses by electrical baseboard heaters.

3. Heat loss from steam pipe lines in power plants and heat gain in refrigerant pipe lines in air
conditioning applications.

4. Cooling of reactor cores in nuclear power plants, though often the coolant is driven by pumps, resulting
in more efficient heat transfer by forced convection.

5. Cooling of electronic devices (chips, transistors) by finned heat sinks, though a fan is often present to
augment the natural convection with forced convection.
 

 Procedure for Simulation

 
1. Choose a particular material to carry out the experiment.

2. Choose the height and side of the wooden box with the box sliders.

3. Adjust the diameter, length and thickness of the cylinder using the cylinder sliders.

4. Apply a particular voltage and corresponding current using white knob in the simulator.

5. Using temperature indicator, note the values of T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6 and, using the table and
worksheet below, calculate the heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number.

6. Click show result to check your calculations. You can also enter your data in the worksheet on the
Simulator to check some of the intermediate quantities in the main calculations.

14
 

Calculations and Observations:

Metal Vold meter Ammeter Temperature of tube Temperature of Air

used reading reading (oC) (oC)

(V) (I) T2 T3 T4 T5 T1 T6
Silver 150 0.7 118.3 132.3 134.3 30 120.3 36
3
Power input to the heater,
                                                             = 105 W
                                

Area of heat transfer,        

                                                               = 0.07065 m2

                                                             ∆T = Average temperature of the tube – Average temperature of the

air

                                                             = = 93.32 °C
We have  , and by definition

                                = 9.305 Wm-2K-1

 and

                                                             = 213.239
 
 
Where k = 0.024 Wm-1K-1 is the thermal conductivity of air, and L is the length of the cylinder, set by the
slider (be sure to convert cm to meters).

15
Result

Heat transfer coefficient  h  = 9.305 Wm-2 K-1

Nusselt number  N                = 213.239

16
 Heat Transfer by Radiation

Aim:

1. To compare heat transfer between different material surface and the black body surface by radiation.
2. To find the emissivity of different material surface.

Apparatus:

Emissivity measurement apparatus: The experimental set up consists of two circular aluminium plates
identical in size provide with heater coils at the bottom
It is kept in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection surroundings. The heat input to
the heaters is varied by two regulators and is measured by an ammeter and voltmeter. Each plate is having
three thermocouples; hence an average temperature is taken. One thermocouple is kept in the enclosure to
read the chamber temperature. One plate is blackened by a layer of enamel black paint to form the
idealized black surface whereas the other plate is the test plate. The temperatures of the plates are
measured by using thermocouples.

Theory:

In radiation, energy is carried by the electromagnetic waves emitted by every object. In general, radiation
is a volumetric phenomenon. This is because the electrons, atoms and molecules of all solids, liquids and
gases above absolute zero temperature are in constant motion and hence energy is constantly emitted,
absorbed and transmitted throughout the entire volume of the matter.
The radiation from a surface is emitted in all possible directions. A body at a temperature above absolute
zero emits radiation in all directions over a wide range of wavelength. The amount of radiation from the
surface of a body at a given temperature and at a given wavelength depends on the material of the body
and nature of its surface. A concept of an idealized surface has been made which are perfect emitter and
absorber of radiation. This ideal surface is known as a black body.
A black body or ideal radiator is a body that emits and absorbs at any temperature the maximum possible
radiation at any given wavelength.
A black body has the following features

1. At a specified temperature and wavelength, a black body emits more radiation energy than the real one.

2. It absorbs all incident radiation regardless of wavelength and direction

3. It emits radiation energy uniformly in all direction. That is black body is a diffuse emitter the term
‘diffuse’ means independent of direction.

4. Depending on type of surface, the reflected radiation is specular or diffuse. A smooth and polished
surface is more specular while the rough surface is more diffuse.

17
 5. The fraction of incident energy absorbed by the surface is called the absorptivity. For a black body it is
equal to one.

6. Actually, black body do not exist in nature through its characteristics are approximated by a hole in a
box filled with highly absorptive material. The emission spectrum of such a black body was first fully
described by Max Planck.

7. Emissivity of a surface is defined as ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface to the radiation
emitted by the black body at the same temperature.

8. If a sample is replaced by a black body of temperature of same area at same temperature, under thermal
equilibrium, the emissivity of the body is equal to the absorptivity.

Procedure:

Using emissivity apparatus, the power is given to carry out the experiment using voltmeter and ammeter.
After steady state is reached, (2 hours), Using stop watch, every half an hour, the temperature in the
temperature indicator is noted. Using trial and error method, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, and T7 are noted.
Calculate the value of emissivity for a given test plate using equations.

Observations and Calculations:

Material: Iron
Diameter (cm):8
Thickness (cm):2

Voltmeter Ammeter Black body Average Test plate Average Chamber

Reading Reading Temperature Temperature Temperature Test plate Temperature
(A) (oC) (Tb)K (oC) Temperature (T4) K
(Tp) K

T2 T3 T5 T6 T7
0.3 227.29 227.29 227.29 500.289 288.84 288.84 288.84 561.839 263

Heat emitted by the black body,

Qb =εb σ(Tb4-Tc4) W
Heat emitted by the test plate,
Qp =εp σ (Tp4-Tc4) W
εb Emissivity of the black plate and it is equal to 1
εp Emissivity of the test plate
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67×10-8 W m-2K-4
Tb = (T1+T2+T3)/3= (500.29+500.29+500.29)/3=500.289K
Tp= (T5+T6+T7)/3= (561.84+561.84+561.84)/3=561.839K
Qb = Qp since input power to the two plates is same and conduction heat loss are also same.
Emissivity of the specimen plate,
Ɛp = Ɛb* (Tb4-Tc4) /(Tp4-Tc4)
= (500.2894-2634) / (561.8394-2634)
Ɛp= 0.609

Heat emitted by the black body,

18
Qb = εb σ(Tb4-Tc4)
=1*5.67*10-8 *(500.2894-2634) W
Qb =3280.677 W
Heat emitted by the test plate,
Qp = εp σ (Tp4-Tc4)
= 0.609*5.67*10-8*(561.8394-2634)
= 3440.698 W

Result
Emissivity of test plate surface Ɛp = 0.609

19
 Black Body Radiation: Determination of Stefan's Constant

Aim:
Determination of Stefan- Boltzmann constant σ.

Apparatus:
Heater, temperature-indicators, box containing metallic hemisphere with provision for water-flow through
its annulus, a suitable black body which can be connected at the bottom of this metallic hemisphere.

Principle:
A black body is an ideal body which absorbs or emits all types of electromagnetic radiation. The term
‘black body’ was first coined by the German physicist Kirchhoff during 1860’s. Black body radiation is
the type of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body at constant temperature. The spectrum of
this radiation is specific and its intensity depends only on the temperature of the black body. It was the
study of this phenomenon which led to a new branch of physics called Quantum mechanics. According to
Stefan’s Boltzmann law (formulated by the Austrian physicists, Stefan and Boltzmann), energy radiated
per unit area per unit time by a body is given by,

Where R = energy radiated per area per time, Є = emissivity of the material of the body, σ = Stefan’s
constant = 5.67x10-8 Wm-2K-4, and T is the temperature in Kelvin scale.
For an ideal black body, emissivity Є=1, and equation (1) becomes,

The block diagram of experimental set up to study the blackbody radiation is given below.

20
This setup uses a copper disc as an approximation to the black body disc which absorbs radiation from the
metallic hemisphere as shown in fig (1). Let Td and Th is the steady state temperatures of copper disc and
metallic hemisphere respectively. Now according to the equation (2), the net heat transfer to the copper
disc per second is,

Where A is the area of the copper disc and ΔQ= (Qh-Qd).

Now, we have another equation from thermodynamics for heat transfer as,

Where ‘m’ mass of the disc, ‘Cp’’ specific heat of the copper, dT/dt is the change in temperature per unit
time.
Equating equations (3) and (4),

Hence,

Procedure:
21
1. Choose desirable values of water temperature, surrounding temperature, mass and radius of the disc
using the sliders.

2. Click the "Power ON" button and wait till T1, T2, T3 reach steady state. Note down its values.

3. Putting T4 button, click "Fit the disc'' option.

4. Note down T4 at different intervals of time till it reaches steady state.

5. Plot Temperature-Time graph and determine its slope dT/dt.

6. Determine Stefan's constant ' σ ' using the given formula.

Observations:
Trail Temperature Average Temperature Time Steady state
number of the Temperature of the disc in T temperature of
hemisphere Th = Kelvin in sec the disc in
(T1+T2+T3)/3 T4 kelvin
(k) (k) Td
(k)
T1 T2 T3
(oC) (oC) (oC)
1. 45 45 45 318 303 360 315.378
2. 45 45 45 318 308 900 315.378
3. 45 45 45 318 313 1620 315.378

Calculations:

Mass of the copper disc = 0.007 kg

Specific heat of copper = 385 Jkg-1k-1
Radius of the disc = 0.035 m
Area of the disc = 1.924*10-3 m2 Slope of the graph = 1.22*10-2 Ks-1
22
Substituting the values in the given expression,
σ = mCp(dT/dt)/A(Th4-Td4)
= (0.007*385*1.22*10-3) / 1.924*10-3*(3184-315.3784)
=0.032879 / 640920.441
σ = 5.129*10-8 Wm-2K-4

Results:
Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant σ = 5.129*10-8 Wm-2K-4

23