EXPERIMENT

NO
: 02

Transmission Lines and Measurement of their

TITLE : Characteristics-II

DATE OF
:
EXPERIMENT

INSTRUCTOR : Hamail Sultan

GROUP # : ______________________________________

: ___________________
GROUP MEMBERS
1. OBJECTIVES

a) To enable students to visualize propagation of a disturbance, such as a pulse, and of a

wave, in an ideal non-reflecting line.

b) To demonstrate the principal effects of losses in the line, attenuation and dispersion,
associated with distortion of amplitude-frequency characteristics.

c) To demonstrate that there is particular impedance, the characteristic impedance, which

absorbs the signal coming along the line.

d) To demonstrate that reflection occurs if the line is not correctly terminated. To prepare
the student for the theory of reflection at discontinuities.

e) To enable the student to observe partial reflections at a mismatched termination.

f) To enable the student to observe standing waves on a line with mismatched termination.

408713L (Transmission Lines and Measurement of their Characteristics-I) Page 2

2. INTRODUCTION

There are many situations in which it is desired to connect a generator (or source of electrical
power) to a distant load (or power-absorbing device). The generator may be of high power, as in
a power station, or low power, as with a microphone; it may be of low frequency, again as in the
power station, or high, as in a radio transmitter. But in each case a pair (at least) of conductors is
required to convey the power from generator to Load. Such a pair of conductors is called a
'transmission line', or abbreviated to simply 'line' when convenient.
When a signal is applied to a transmission line at one end, the other end is not immediately
affected. Instead the signal travels along the line with a finite velocity, and reaches the load
somewhat later. The potential difference between the conductors is associated with an electric
field, and the current in the conductors is associated with a magnetic field. These fields are
sketched for two forms of line in fig 1.1. These fields interact with each other and with the line to
form a guided electromagnetic wave travelling along the line. The maximum speed such a wave
can have is the speed of light, 3 x 108 m/s; in lines having solid materials around the conductors
the speed of propagation can be much less.

Fig 1.1 Fields associated with two–wire and coaxial

lines

408713L (Transmission Lines and Measurement of their Characteristics-I) Page 3

If a sinusoidal signal is applied to a line, different phases of the sine-wave will be distributed in
distance along the line owing to its travel, as shown in fig 1.2, for three successive instants. A
complete cycle of the wave occupies a distance along the line which is called the wavelength.
The wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency f of the wave: they are related to the
propagation velocity v by the formula v=fλ

Fig 1.2

If the length of a pair of conductors is much shorter than wavelength for all frequencies of
interest, then usually the conductors need not be considered as a transmission line. The critical
distance is perhaps a few centimeters of television antenna feeder, a few hundred meters of
telephone line, and a few hundred kilometers for power supply frequencies.
The flow of current in the conductors' resistance gives rise to energy losses. Further losses arise
due to imperfections in the insulation between conductors, such as surface leaking across
insulators, or dielectric losses. In consequence if the power of a signal is W (watts) at the sending
end of the line, it may be reduced to 1/2W (watt) at some distance along the line.

If a transmission line is 'correctly terminated', i.e terminated in its characteristic impedance, all
the power sent down the line is absorbed at the termination and no signal returns. If the line is
open-circuit or short-circuit at the termination, complete reflection of the signal occurs. In this
assignment we shall investigate some typical cases where a finite impedance, not equal to the
characteristic impedance, is used to terminate the line.
A wave, travelling in a line of characteristic impedance Zo and incident on a termination of
impedance Zb gives rise to a reflected wave whose amplitude is that of the original wave
reaching the termination multiplied by a reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient for the
voltage wave is
K = (Zl - Zo) / (Zl + Zo)

There is a large variety of terminations for RF lines. Each type of termination has a characteristic
effect on the standing waves on the line. From the nature of the standing waves, you can
determine the type of termination that produces the waves

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 a) TERMINATION IN Z0

Termination in Z0 (characteristic impedance) will cause a constant reading on an ac meter when

it is moved along the length of the line. As illustrated in figure, view A, the curve, provided
there are no losses in the line, will be a straight line. If there are losses in the line, the amplitude
of the voltage and current will diminish as they move down the line (view B). The losses are due
to dc resistance in the line itself.

View ‘A’

View ‘B’

b) TERMINATION IN AN OPEN CIRCUIT

In an open-circuited rf line (view C), the voltage is maximum at the end, but the current is
minimum. The distance between two adjacent zero current points is ½ wavelength and the
distance between alternate zero current points is 1 wavelength. The voltage is zero at a distance
of ¼ wavelength from end of line. This is true at any frequency. A voltage peak occurs at the end
of the line and at 1/2 wavelength from the end .

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 View ‘C’

c) TERMINATION IN A SHORT CIRCUIT

On the line terminated in a short circuit, shown in figure view D, the voltage is zero at the end
and maximum at ¼ wavelength from the end. The current is maximum at the end,zero at ¼
wavelength from the end.

View ‘D’
d) TERMINATION IN A RESISTANCE NOT EQUAL TO CHARACTERISTIC
IMPEDANCE (Z0)

Whenever the termination is not equal to Z0, reflections occur on the line. For example, if the
terminating element contains resistance, it absorbs some energy, but if the resistive element does
not equal the Z0 of the line, some of the energy is reflected. The amount of voltage reflected may
be found by using the equation

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 TASKS

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
a) Transmission Line Demonstrator TLD511
b) Function Generator, Sine
c) 600R terminator
d) Links
e) 200R terminator
f) 1k8R terminator

1. PROPAGATION IN A TRANSMISSION LINE

Set the TLD511 controls as follows:

hold/run set to'run'

line length set to '8L'

distributed attenuation set to 'min'

The generator's output voltage should initially be set to zero and its frequency to 1 Hz, preferably
on a range setting usable also at up to 2Hz. Connect up the system as shown in fig 1.3

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 fig 1.3
i) Pulse Propagation

Operate the switch for 'step input to A' briefly: the switch should be released after light has
appeared in the second column. A pulse, two columns wide, will then travels to the 'B' end of the
line and disappear (fig 1.4).

fig 1.4
Repeated operations of 'step input to A' can send patterns of pulses (e.g Morse code) along the
line.

Reverse propagation of pulse: Operating 'step input to B' will likewise send signals from 'B' to
'A'. The generator provides the line termination.

ii) Sine wave Propagation

Change line length to 2L. Raise the output voltage of the generator to give full height indication
a wavelength.
Operate 'hold'. Rather less than a half-wavelength is shown. Release 'hold' for a second, and
operate again at a different part of the input cycle: different parts of the sine wave are displayed,
but always the same fraction of a wavelength.

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Release the 'hold'. Raise the frequency gradually to 2Hz. Point out the reduced wavelength.
Operate 'hold' as before. One wavelength is now displayed.

2 ) ATTENUATION

Set the TLD511 controls as follows:

hold/run set to'run'

line length set to '2L'

distributed attenuation set to 'min'

Connect up the system as shown in fig 1.3

Choose a frequency (about 1.7Hz) such that with maximum attenuation and an amplitude of four
units at the second column, the amplitude at termination 'B' is one unit.

Raise the generator's output voltage to give a travelling sine wave display of full-column
amplitude. Point out that amplitude is the same at all points in the line. Gradually raise the
distributed attenuation control to 'max'. Point out the reduction of signal along the line. The
exponential character of attenuation is indicated by the reduction from four units to two units of
amplitude, and from two units to one unit, in the same distance along the line.

Reduce the frequency of the generator. Observe that the attenuation is reduced.

3) TERMINATIONS, SIMPLE CASES

Set the TLD511 controls as follows:

hold/run set to'run'

line length set to '8L'

distributed attenuation set to 'min'

Set the Function Generator as follows:

Frequency 1.5 HZ
Amplitude Zero
Connect up the equipment as shown in fig 1.3.

408713L (Transmission Lines and Measurement of their Characteristics-I) Page 9

 i) Reflection of a Signal at a Gross Mismatch

Operate the 'step input to A' switch until the second column of the display lights, sending a short
pulse along the line. Note that the pulse is absorbed in the correct termination.
Remove the terminator from 'B' end of the line, and again send a pulse from 'A'. This time it is
reflected from 'B' back to 'A'. Place a short-circuit link across the line at 'B' (where the 600R
terminator was). Note that the pulse is inverted on reflection at 'B'.

ii) Superposition of Forward and Backward Waves

Restore the 600R terminator to 'B'. Operate the 'step input to A' switch to send a pulse from 'A',
then immediately operate it in the reverse direction to send a pulse from 'B'. Note that when the
pulses meet, their voltages are superimposed.

iii) Superposition of Incident and Reflected Waves

Operate the 'step input to A' switch, keeping it operated for a while after the signal has reached
'B'. Release the 'step input' switch, and when the line is at rest remove the terminator.
Operate the 'step input to A' switch, keeping it operated until the reflected signal has returned to
'A', giving a double-amplitude signal, as has been explained.

5. Observations and data manipulation

a) What are the effects of attenuation in a transmission line, relate it with what have you
observed practically
b) What is the value of reflection coefficient (K) for Z=200 Ω, 50 Ω and IKΩ
c) What are the causes of attenuation in a transmission line?
d) How does reflection affect the propagation of energy?
e) Explain the behavior of reflected waves in both open and short circuit case
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