Threats of Invasive Alien Plant Species: January 2014

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THREATS OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES
Article · January 2014
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IRJMST Volume 4 Issue 2 Online ISSN 2250 - 1959
THREATS OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES
AMIT KUMAR & SANTOSH PRASAD

Institute of Forest Productivity,
(Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education)
Ranchi 835303, Jharkhand, India.
Abstract
Invasive alien plant species have threatened the integrity of ecosystems throughout the world.
They affect not only the species diversity of native ecosystems but also threaten their biological
integrity. In India, a number of invasive alien plant species have been reported and among them
tropical American species like Parthenium hysterophorus L., Lantana camara L., Eupatorium
odoratum L., Hyptis suaveolens (L) Poit. and Ageratum conyzoides L., are reported very
troublesome and have caused adverse ecological, economic and social impact. These weeds can
be seen growing in different landscapes but are luxuriantly localized in unattended forests and
cultivated areas and is also documented from Jharkhand state. Besides rapidly colonizing areas,
replacing the native vegetation, it is also known to cause a number of human health problems,
environmental degradation including threat to tourism activities. Likewise, it causes fodder
scarcity in addition to being unpalatable and toxic to livestock. These species are encroaching
large areas of land, especially the forests where they are virtually replacing the forest floor
vegetation and reducing native tree regeneration. Also, because of their bushy and spreading type
of growth they obstruct forest operations. These plants have similar growth strategies such as fast
growth rates, short life-cycles, higher reproductive potential, high competitive abilities and
allelopathy that make them successful invaders of native habitats. This review paper presents
various aspects of biology, ecology, hazards of invasive alien plant species.
Keywords- Allelopathy, Environmental degradation, Reproductive potential, forest operations
International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

http:www.irjmst.com Page 605
Introduction
Invasive alien plant species has gained the global interest of ecologists, biological
conservationist, forestry planners, natural resource managers and social development planners
due to their devastating impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. The resulting impact
can be termed ―catastrophic‖ as they are ultimately threatening the environmental integrity and
most concerning the food security of mankind. An ‗Alien‘ species is an exotic or non indigenous
species which are evolved elsewhere and have been intentionally or accidentally introduced
outside their natural adaptive ranges and dispersal potential. Not all plants introduced from other
ecosystem are harmful, but only a small percentage of them having a vigorous reproductive and
proliferative potential become invasive. Due to their rapid growth they over pass the native biota
in terms of habitat occupation and exploitation of water and nutritional resources. Plant invasions
have been recognized as one of the most serious global processes impacting the structure,
composition and function of natural and semi-natural ecosystems (Mooney and Hobbs, 2000;
Vitousek et al., 1997). The problem continues to grow at great socioeconomic, health and
ecological cost around the world. Invasive alien plant species exacerbate poverty and threaten
development through their impact on agriculture, forestry, fisheries and natural systems, which
are an important basis of peoples' livelihoods in developing countries. This damage is aggravated
by climate change, pollution, habitat loss and human-induced disturbance. Invasive alien plant
species pose a threat to native/indigenous plant communities globally, especially where these
communities are disturbed (D‘Antonio et al., 2001). However, relatively few alien plant species
seem to have the capacity to invade undisturbed native plant communities (Rejmanek, 1989).
Studies of past introductions demonstrate that the effects of invasive plant species are complex
and can permanently alter the structure of communities (Holway et al., 2002; Carlton, 2003).
However the ultimate impact of invasion is immense, subtle and usually irreversible.
Data sources
A number of literature available on the invasive plants covering diverse aspects including
ecology, distribution, phytosociology and impact of individual invasive alien plant species have
been consulted. The articles on the individual invasive plant species were screened and the
relevant data of the impact of different species were compiled in this review. Similarly, the
review on any particular aspect of impact of invasive alien plant was also compiled. During the

review of literature, it is felt that since plant species invasion has become a serious concern for
the proper functioning of our ecosystem and socio economic balance, more dedicated effort to
increase awareness in this direction is needed. In present context a review on the threats of
invasive plant species desperately felt, to add more to the subject knowledge, because of the
research carried out by second author on the aspect of invasion of alien plants in forest areas of
Jharkhand (Prasad et al., 2012; Divakara et al., 2013; Das et al., 2013) - the key source of data
for this review.
Mechanism of invasion
The invasive process can be divided into four phases: Introduction, Establishment, Lag period
and Expansion phase. While species can introduce themselves in new habitat by natural
migration through birds, animals, water and wind (Herbold and Moyle, 1986), nowadays
increasing human mobility and expansion of global tread has led the alien species to migrate in
new ecosystem at large magnitude and scale (Moore, 2004). The ability of an introduced species
to become established depends on multiple factor including overcoming environmental
conditions. (Holzmuelller and Jose., 2009). It is followed by a lag phase with little or no increase
in species expansion. The lag phase may be few to several years. Majority of the New Zealand
weed species has a lag phase, averaged around 20-30 years, with 4% of species having a lag
phase more than 40 years (Aikio et al., 2010). The lag phase is followed by expansion phase in
which species occurrence rises rapidly and is the phase where most control efforts are made.
(Holzmuelller and Jose, 2009).
Why the invasive species get advantage over native biota?
Alien plants that become invasive posses certain characteristics that favours them to get
advantage over the native biota. For example, they survive in a wide range of ecological
requirements often covering large geographical range (Sax and Brown, 2000; Rejmanek, 1996).
They have their origin in large continents with diverse biota and already have associations with
disturbed or anthropogenic habitats (Elton, 1958). However, it is very hard to decide the most
favourable biological character supporting invasiveness; the invasive species often share some of
the following features that seem to make them more likely to become invaders:

 Rapid growth and short life cycle
 Resource uptake and use efficiency
 Prolific flowering and high seed production
 Able to grow in a wide range of habitats
 High genetic variability and evolutionary genetics
 Long seed dormancy and staggered germination
 Efficient method of seed dispersal
 Capacity of modifying invaded environment
 Able to reproduce sexually/asexually
 Ability to use local pollinators
 Different phenology from native species allowing them to out compete
 Provide shade, which can be a great detriment for native plants
 Resistant to grazing, pests and diseases
Does ecosystem helps biological invasion?
The conditions of the ecosystem also play role in encouraging alien plants to become invasive.
Some of such conditions are as follows:
 Habitats disturbed by natural disturbance such as fire, flood or by human activities such
as clearing land for construction of human habitat and overgrazing, etc.
 Habitat with newly established vegetation.
 Habitat with geographical or historical isolation and low diversity of native species
 Ecosystems recovering slowly from a previous disturbance.
 Added fertilizers providing favourable growth conditions for invasive plants and added
pesticides resulting in low competition with the native flora.
 Environments that are moderately moist seem to be more susceptible to invasion than
those that are either very dry or very wet.
 Habitat with relatively rich soils with high nutrient content (such as riparian areas).

 Lack of natural enemies such as competitors, predators, herbivores, parasites and

diseases.
Biological invasion: An emerging global threat
The impact of invasion is devastating resulting into the reduction of carrying capacity of
ecosystem (Banerji, 1958). Invasion always affects the sustainability of native communities by
altering their structure, composition and functions (Webster et al., 2006). The invasion of alien
species has been evaluated as second most important threat to native species existence behind
habitat destruction (Jenkins et al. 1999). Invasive plant species in a forest landscape displaces the
native species by out competing the seeds of native species to germinate and by suppressing the
growth of native saplings. Higher resource uptake capacity of invasive plant seedling and dense
growth of the invasive plants thus providing shade to native species sapling are some strategies
for this. In agricultural landscapes, the invasive plant species out compete crops for soil and
water resources thus reducing crop yield and forage quality. Aquatic invasive plant species clogs
water bodies thus causing danger to the existence of native aquatic flora and fauna and adversely
affecting the public water supply and irrigation system. Invasion by alien plant species affects
the dynamics and composition of soil. In fact, Alien invasive species are a greater threat to native
biodiversity than pollution, harvest and disease combined (Drake et al. 1989).
Threat to biodiversity
There is a significant threat by invasive alien plants to biodiversity and is comparable to habitat
destruction. They cause loss of biodiversity even leading to species extinctions. They also
contributed to the decline of 42% of the U.S. endangered and threatened species (Wilcove et al.,
1998).The impact of invasive alien species on biodiversity in various ecosystems is varying over
the past years. At some regions the impact is low with little influence on biodiversity and in other
regions the impact is high with significant alteration in native biodiversity. UNEP (2005) reports,
that the Millenium Assessment has identified the invasive alien species to be one of the main
drivers of biodiversity loss over the last 50 to 100 years. The report also states that the trend will
continue at the global level in all biomes. A study by Dogra et al., (2009) showed that invasive
species like Ageratum conyzoides L. (Goat weed), Parthenium hysterophorus L. (White top),

Lantana camara L. (Lantana) and Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. (Crofton weed) are major
invaders in the North Western part of India causing huge loss to indigenous species diversity.
Other highly invasive Neotropical plants established in India for example Mikania micrantha
Kunth. (Mikania) and P. hysterophorus. Mimosa invisa syn. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright
(Giant sensitive plant) has rapidly expanded its range in the Western Ghats (Ramkrishnan et al.,
1996). Direct competition with the native flora can result in monocultures of an alien species,
such as by Psidium cattleianum Sabine (strawberry guajava) in Mauritius and P. hysterophorus
(White top) in Australia and India (Evans, 1997). In Vindhyan dry deciduous forests,
Raghubanshi and Tripathi, (2009) observed that sites with high Lantana camara cover contain
little or no understorey vegetation whereas sites with low Lantana cover had some understorey
species below their canopies. Dense cover created by horizontal stratification of Lantana reduces
the intensity and duration of light, preventing the establishment of tree species seedlings (Sharma
and Raghubanshi, 2006).
Native species can be threatened with extinction through the genetic pollution, a process of
uncontrolled hybridization and introgression which leads to homogenization or replacement of
local genotypes. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinction of
native species. In United States, 3 of the 24 species listed as endangered have subsequently went
extinct due to hybridization with the alien species (Mc Milan and Wilcove, 1994). In majority of
cases the invasive species have a numerical advantage over the native species. Also in many
cases hybridization causes a loss in fitness of the native species (Rhymer and Simberloff, 1996).
Genetic pollution can also cause extinction through habitat modification, bringing previously
isolated species into contact. These phenomena can be especially detrimental for rare species
coming into contact with more abundant ones where the abundant ones can interbreed with them,
creating hybrids and swamping the entire rarer gene pool, thus driving the native species to
extinction. (Kumar et al., 2009). Levin et al., (1996) given a number of examples that alien
species threatened the existence of rare species including the rare Arbutus canariensis Duhamell
and Senecio teneriffae Sch. Bip. on the Canary Islands, Gossypium tomentosum Seem. on the
Hawaiian Islands and Pinguicula vulgaris L. and Linaria vulgaris Mill. in the British islands.
Threat to food security, agriculture and livestock production

The introduction of economically beneficial flora and fauna outside of their centre of origin in
the remote past has helped the human society to get benefitted with such crops and livestock. It
has been found that the introduced crop were more promising in the new ecosystem in terms of
agricultural yield than compared to their native ecosystem. The negative aspect of this
introduction was the parallel introduction of invasive species and their invasion to agricultural
and grazing lands. Alien invasive plants in agricultural landscape compete for water and nutrient
with the crop plants thus pose a serious threat to production of food and fiber for humans. A
number of alien plants viz. Ageratum conyzoides L., (Goat weed), Argemone mexicana L.,
(Mexican poppy), Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC., (Sessile Joyweed), Bidens pilosa L., (Spanish
tassle), Celosia argentea L., (Silver cocks comb), Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC., (Tassel flower),
Oxalis corniculata L., (Yellow wood sorrel), Parthenium hysterophorus L., (White top weed),
Portulaca oleracea L., (Purslane), Scoparia dulcis L., (Sweet broom), Sida acuta Burm. f.,
(Common wireweed), Sonchus asper (L.) Hill., (Sow thistle) are common weeds of agricultural
landscapes(Divakara et al.,2013). Their weeding demands manpower and monetary investment.
Hand weeding of crops ranks as the number one work task of the world's human population.
Weeds reduce the yield of rice, which provides 30% of all the food energy for human
consumption, by an average of 30-35% in Southeast Asia (Holm et al., 1977). Moreover they
have allelopathic effects on soil and change its nutrient cycle resulting in reduction of crop yield.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reported that in the 1970s, insects,
diseases, and weed infestations destroyed more than 33% of the potential annual world food
harvest, an estimated $75 billion loss. In 1975, weeds reduced global crop production by an
estimated 11.5% (Parker and Fryer, 1975). In US agriculture, weeds cause a reduction of 12% in
potential crop yields. In economic terms, this reduction represents about a US$ 33 billion loss in
crop production annually (USBC, 1998). It is estimated that about 73% of the weeds are non-
indigenous (Pimentel, 1993), it is likely that about US$ 27.9 billion of these crop losses are due
to introduced weeds.
Invasive species may alter hydrology, nutrient accumulation and cycling and carbon
sequestration on grasslands (Polley et al., 1997). Species like Lantana camara, Parthenium
hysterophorus, Argemone mexicana, Eupatorium odoratum transforms grassland and inhibits the
growth of grasses and other native fodder species present in their understorey thus reducing the

forage production for livestock. The seed and leaves of Lanatana camara poisions cattle.
Eupatorium odoratum forms dense thickets in open pasture land and in the vicinity of
agricultural landscapes. It inhibits the germination and growth of native species. It becomes
highly combustible when dry and promotes forest fires. The overall impact of invasive alien
species on land resources, agriculture and livestock ultimately threats food security. Particularly
the introduction of pests and disease of agriculture as contaminants in crops and animals have
resulted in great economic loss, because invasive alien species thrive in new ecosystems where
their hosts are abundant and their natural enemies are absent. A severe case is reported from
Ghana where Eupatorium odoratum (Triffid weed) occupies 59% of all arable lands in Ubombo,
South Africa resulting in the reduction of the carrying capacity of grazing animals by 150%.
Added to this in west and central Africa, the triffid weed, serves as an alternative host for a pest
grasshopper. The economic cost of undertaking control of triffid weed in natural areas is
estimated at US $ 151 to 164 per ha. In South Africa, a cost of US $ 180 million has been
estimated to clear the invasion from 8000 ha area out of total 13000 ha area of a cattle farm. This
includes controls undertaken over a period of 30 years (GISP, 2007). The fast growing nature of
invasive plant species enables them to rapidly colonize the agricultural and grazing lands.
Parthenium hysterophorus (white top weed) shows rapid growth in the disturbed land, including
overgrazed and recently cleared or ploughed land where it rapidly spread through seed dispersal.
The most favouring character for its invasion is the long viability potential of its seeds which can
remain viable for up to two years and buried seeds can stay dormant for upto 20 years. The
unpalatable White top weed when occupies the grazing pastures results into shortage of fodder
ultimately negatively affecting the livestock production. In Ethiopia, the White top weed,
introduced along with the contaminated food imports, resulted into the invasion of agricultural
fields. The consequence was a surprising decrease in crop production. (GISP, 2004).
Threat to forest ecosystem
The Tropical forests that are undisturbed are very resistant to invasion (Cronk and Fuller, 1995).
But the recent trend in decrease of forest cover throughout the globe has facilitated plant
invasion to forest ecosystem, a phenomena that is less studied and demands immediate attention.
Cronk and Fuller (1995) reported that plant invasion in tropical forest are more severe than
compared to temperate forest. Species like Lantana camara, Senna spectabilis (DC.) Irwin and
Barneby (Spectacular cassia), Psidium cattleianum Sabine (Cattley guava), Chrysobalanus icaco
L. (Coco plum), Clidemia hirta (L.) D Don. (Soap bush) exerts great competitive pressure with
the forest flora thus influencing their regeneration. Alien trees have long been introduced for
their role in commercial forestry, agroforestry and erosion control. Over time and with increasing
dissemination, the invasive potential of woody tree species is becoming apparent. The case of
Tamarix spp in western North America is a well illustrated example of tree invasion (Shaforth et
al., 2005). Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb., T. chinensis (Lour.) and their hybrids (collectively
known as salt cedar) are shrub and small trees native to Eurasia, were introduced in Western
north America in the mid 1800s, have now come to occupy approximately 40,0000 to 65,0000
ha.of land (Robinson 1965; Zavaleta, 2000; Gaskin and Schaal, 2002). The consequence of the
Tamarix invasion is detrimental such as reduction in water table through high evapotranspiration
rates, degradation of wildlife habitat, increase in fire hazard and displacement of native riparian
vegetation. A huge investment has been done to control Tamarix invasion in western United
States by the national, state and local government. (Shafroth and Briggs, 2008). Tamarix
invasion is also reported from Australia (Griffin et al 1989) and Argentina (Shafroth and Briggs,
2008). The impact of invasive alien tree species on water sources in South Africa indicate a
reduction in stream flows of between 4.7 and 13.0 percent (Dye, 1996; Le Maitre et al., 1996;
Prinsloo and Scott, 1999; Le Maitre et al., 2000).
Threat to ecosystem functioning
Biological species invasions alter ecosystems in a multiple ways. Invasive species can change the
functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the fire regime, nutrient cycling
and hydrology in native ecosystems. The vulnerable and isolated ecosystems are more
commonly affected by the invasion process (SCBD 2001). Impacts of invasive species on
ecosystem services are diverse. They affect the delivery of food, freshwater as well as water
purification, pollination, natural pest control, disease regulation, soil fertility, and nutrient and
water cycling (Eiswerth et al. 2005). Invasive plants also affect the catchment hydrology as it
was found that watershed areas with dense stands of invasive species have a major impact on
catchment hydrology. 30-70% lower water runoff is reported from watershed areas affected with
dense patches of invasion (Goldenhuys 1986). Le Maitre et al., (2000), have ranked the alien
invasive plant species in decreasing order of water use. They are Acacia mearnsii De Wild.,
(Black wattle), A. Cyclops A. Cunn., (Coastal wattle), A. dealbata (Link) F. Muell., (Silver
wattle), Pinus spp., Eucalyptus spp., Prosopis spp., A. saligna (Labill.) H. Wendel., (Orange
wattle), Melia azedarach L., (Cape lilac) Solanum mauritianum Scop., (Wooly nightshade),
Lantana camara, Eupatorium odoratum, Hakea spp., Populus spp., Jacaranda mimosifolia D.
Don., (Jacaranda), Sesbania punicea (Cav.) Benth., (Rattle box), Rubus spp., A. longifolia
(Andr.) Willd., (Long leaf wattle), Psidium guajava L., (Guava), Caesalpinea decapetala
(Roth.) Alston. (Mauritius thorn), Salix spp., A. melanoxylon R.Br., (Black wattle), A. decurrens
(Wendl. f.) Willd., (Green wattle), and Quercus robur L., (English oak). Whatsoever be the
species, one concerning fact is that such species have little value for most native biota and are
having severe impacts on hydrological systems. A negative impact of invasives on water
regulation can be understand by the Salt cedar (Tamarix spp.) of southwestern United States
where this species has invaded large areas along riparian corridors resulting into sediment
capture and channel narrowing. The ultimate consequence is decrease in the water holding
capacity of waterways leading to more frequent and extensive flooding and associated flood
control costs (Zavaleta 2000). The distribution and composition of biodiversity and local forest
resources are affected directly by the invasive species due to change in host pathogen
relationship and species competition. The ecological impact of the loss of biodiversity due to
Invasive Alien species depends to a large extent on the link between native species and their
contributions to ecosystem functions, such as pollination, seed dispersal, hydrological cycles
which are badly unbalanced by the invasion of alien species. Invasion of alien plants effects
native biodiversity and community structure by exploitation competition (indirect interactions
such as resource use), and interference competition (direct interactions such as allelopathy
(Callaway and Ridenour 2004). The impacts of invasion on species interactions such as
predation, herbivory, parasitism, and mutualisms, can change the abundance of species (Chapin
et al., 2000).
Threat to soil dynamics
Plant invaders have been found to change soil microbial communities and biogeochemical
cycling in ways that can feedback to benefit themselves. Nutrient cycling can be altered by
invasive plants that fix nitrogen, leach chemicals that inhibit nitrogen fixation by other species,
release compounds that alter nutrient availability, including nitrogen and phosphorus, and alter
topsoil erosion (Dukes and Mooney, 2004). Some invasive plants can alter the indigenous soil
environment by changing soil nutrient pools, for example increasing soil nitrogen (N)
availability to plants through N fixation (Levine et al., 2003. Vitousek et al., 1987). Other
invasive species may deplete nutrient pools through the rapid uptake of soil N (Asner et al.,
2005). Invasive plants may decrease the suitability of soil for other species by secreting salts e.g.,
Tamarix, (Zavaleta, 2000), the iceplant, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L., (Vivrette and
Muller 1977), by acidifying the soil, or by releasing novel chemical compounds, (Callaway and
Ridenour, 2004). Kourtev et al., (1999), reported a relative increase of soil pH due to the
invasion of Berberis thunbergii DC, (Japanese Barberry) and Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A.
Camus, (Japanese Stilt Grass) in hardwood forests of New Jersey, Europe, than compared to the
soil under the native shrub species Vaccinium. These two species also added to the increase in
available nitrate and net potential nitrification in the soils invaded by them. Higher soil
phosphorus often is correlated with invasion. Herr et al., (2007) reported that Solidago gigantea
Aiton., (Giant golden rod), an invasive to Europe had lower soil pH and increased labile
phosphorus fractions in invaded area than compared to the non invaded areas. Thorpe et al.,
(2006) found that phosphorus concentration in the invasive forb Centaurea maculosa Lam.,
(Spotted kanpweed), was more than the native species of that locality. C. maculosa also
exhibited higher uptake of phosphorus (six times more) in phosphorus deficient soil than
compared to the native forb, Lupinus argenteus Pursh., (Silvery lupine). Invasive alien plants
have also been reported contributing to soil degradation. Sharma and Dakshini (1998) found that
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (Mesquite), is causing more soil degradation than compared to the
native species P. Cineraria (L.)Druce in the north and north-western part of India, a possible
cause for more aggressive spread of P. juliflora in the area.
Socio-economic threat
Invasive alien species accelerates the losses of species and genetic biodiversity (Li and Xie,
2002; Wan et al., 2002), destroys the structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang and Ye,
2002), the ultimate consequence is huge economic loss. Invasive alien species have caused losses
worth US $ 138 billion to the USA (Pimentel et al., 2000). The economical, environmental and
social cost of alien invasive species is very high. They influence the functioning of ecosystem in
such a magnitude so as to affect the long term development planning of a country, some times
forcing it to redirect. IUCN has estimated a global economic cost of US $ 400000 million
annually (UNEP, 2003). IUCN also evaluated the loss by invasive alien species on World Bank
project to be US $ 13000 million (UNEP 2004). The major impacts were on agriculture and
livestock production. Fresh water ecosystem plays a key role in local livelihoods by providing
food and water, water for irrigation, tourism, recreation and hydro electrical projects. The
introduction of aquatic invasive alien plant species like Eichornia cressipes (C. martius) Solms-
Loub. (Water hyacinth), Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb (Alligator weed) and Pistia
stratiotes L. (Water lettuce) has imposed serious threats to these opportunities. In the US, a total
of US$ 100 million is invested annually in the control of alien aquatic weed species (OTA,
1993). More than US$ 25 million per year is spent on control of water hyacinth, plus US$ 15
million per year from damages from water lettuce (Huntley, 1996).The major impact of alien
species invasion follows reduction in forest product availability, which directly affects the rural
livelihood because the subsistence of rural livelihood entirely relies on such products.
Threat to human health
Humans and animals can be seriously impacted by invasive plants when they come into contact
with the plants or eat the plants. Echium plantagineum L. (Paterson‘s curse), contains
pyrolizidine alkaloids which is poisionous to grazing animals. The plant also causes skin
irritation and hay fever to Humans. The sap of Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier and Levier
(Giant hogweed), sensitizes the skin to ultraviolet radiation even leading to formation of blisters
and scars. The smoke of giant hogweed when inhaled causes burns in the respiratory tract
(Portland Plant List, 2010). Species like Lanatana camara and Eichornia cressipes, provide
habitat for mosquitoes. There are increasing instances of mosquito borne diseases where these
species have invaded. The death and decay of Eichornia cressipes, pollutes water bodies and
increases the instances of bacterial infection leading to spread of water borne infectious diseases.
The pollengrains of Parthenium hysterophorus are allergic to skin and respiratory system.
Ageratum conyzoides, Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. (Apple of Sodom) are allergic to humans
and livestock. Added to this, invasive alien plant species can serve as host reservoirs for plant
pathogens and other organisms that can infect Plant, animal and human beings.
Threat to tourism

Invasive plant species causes huge losses to recreation and tourism, particularly ecotourism and
educational tourism. Species like Lantana camara creates nuisance to tourist in protected tourist
wild life sanctuaries. Their prickly nature and dense growth habit blocks the passage to the
forest. They hide the natural beauty of a forest site. Galapagos Islands are famous as educational
tourism spot for their importance of evolutionary studies. Mauchamp et al. (1998) reported
disappearance of many endemic plants in the Galapagos Islands due to the invasion of Lantana
camara. Fresh water aquatic species like Eichornia cressipes, Alternanthera philoxeroides
disrupts navigation of tourist boating, water skiing and swimming activities. Species like
Melaleuca quinquenervia, (Cav.) S.F. Blaka (Broad leaf paper bark), Mimosa pigra L. (Giant
sensitive weed), Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr. (Japanese knotweed) and Opuntia
stricta (Haw.) Haw. (cactus) (cf. Global Invasive Species Database) make natural tourist spots
less accessible.
Conclusion
The threat by invasive alien plant species has been increasing with rapid growth of globalization.
These species are contributing in reduction of agriculture, livestock and forest productivity,
altering soil quality and promoting land degradation and affecting essential ecosystem functions
by altering species composition, fire regimes, food web, nutrient cycling and hydrology. They
are posing enormous threat to the native species diversity leading to even extinction of rare and
endangered species. The overall impact is huge economic and ecological loss. The invasion of
plants species has forced the natural resource managers throughout the globe to invest huge
funds to control them. The invasive species need more comprehensive awareness programmes,
management strategies, coordinated control efforts and effective laws so as to ensure a safe
future to provide adequate agriculture productivity and balanced ecosystem functioning for our
coming generations. (Miller and Schellas, 2008). Despite the concerning reports around the
globe on various aspects of biological invasion and their harmful effects, a gap is still there
between awareness and decision making programmes. There is a need for such updated data over
the coming years and establishment of multidisciplinary approach at administrative and scientific
level for control and eradication of invasive species.
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THREATS OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES

Article · January 2014

Amit Kumar Santosh Prasad

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THREATS OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES

AMIT KUMAR & SANTOSH PRASAD

(Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education)

Ranchi 835303, Jharkhand, India.

Keywords- Allelopathy, Environmental degradation, Reproductive potential, forest operations

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

Why the invasive species get advantage over native biota?

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

 Rapid growth and short life cycle

 Resource uptake and use efficiency

 Prolific flowering and high seed production

 Able to grow in a wide range of habitats

 High genetic variability and evolutionary genetics

 Long seed dormancy and staggered germination

 Efficient method of seed dispersal

 Capacity of modifying invaded environment

 Able to reproduce sexually/asexually

 Ability to use local pollinators

 Different phenology from native species allowing them to out compete

 Provide shade, which can be a great detriment for native plants

 Resistant to grazing, pests and diseases

Does ecosystem helps biological invasion?

 Habitat with newly established vegetation.

 Ecosystems recovering slowly from a previous disturbance.

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

 Lack of natural enemies such as competitors, predators, herbivores, parasites and

Biological invasion: An emerging global threat

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

Threat to forest ecosystem

Threat to ecosystem functioning

Threat to soil dynamics

Threat to human health

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

12. Drake,J.A., Mooney, H.A., Dicastri, F., Grooves, R., Kruger,F.,Rejmanek,M.,

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

46. Prasad,S., Divakara,B.N., Kumar,P. Kumar,A.2012.Medicinal attributes of invasive

50. Rejmanek, M.1989. Invasibility of plant communities. Biological Invasions: A Global

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology

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