15‐06‐2021

LASER
Physics
(01GS0101)

Outline of Session

Properties of LASER, Spontaneous and stimulated

emission
LASER with basic idea about Population Inversion,
Pumping mechanism, Optical Resonators
Nd:YAG LASER, principle, construction and working

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LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation

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What is a LASER?
LASER
• Laser is a device
that amplifies or
increases the L=Light
intensity of light and
OR
A=Amplification by
produces highly
directional light. S=Stimulated
E=Emission of
R=Radiation

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Properties of LASER

• Coherence
• High Intensity
• High Directionality
• High Monochromaticity

Coherence:-
The wave trains
which are identical in
phase and direction
are called coherent
waves.
Since all the photons
of laser beam
possess the same
energy, momentum
and propagate in
same direction, the
laser beam is said to
be highly coherent.

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High Intensity

• Due to the coherent nature of laser, it has the ability to

focus over a small area of 10-6 cm2,i.e extremely high
concentration of its energy over a small area.

High Directionality

• An ordinary light source

emits light in all possible
directions. But, since laser
travels as a parallel beam it
can travel over long distance
without spreading.

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High
Monochromaticity
• The light from a normal
monochromatic source spreads
over a range of wavelength of the
order of 100nm.But, the spread is
of the order of 1nm for laser.
Hence, laser is highly
monochromatic, i.e.,it can emit
light of single wavelength.

LASER

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In LASER the intensity of light is amplified by a process called stimulated emission.

When atom absorbs the energy it transits to higher energy level which
is called Excited state.

Atom can not remain in excited state for a longer time. To stabilize it
has to loose energy and it will transit to lower state known as Ground
state.

Interaction of Radiation with Matter

In lasers, photons are interacted in three ways with the atoms:

Induced Absorption(Absorption)
Spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission

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Induced Absorption(Absorption)
• Let us consider two energy levels
(E1 and E2) of electrons. E1 is the
ground state(lower energy state ) and
E2 is the excited state(higher energy
state).
• When photons or light of energy
equal to the energy difference of the
two energy levels (E2 – E1) is
incident on the atom, the ground state
electrons gains sufficient energy and
jumps from ground state (E1) to the
excited state (E2).

This process is called Induced Absorption.

Atom + Photon ------> Atom*

The rate of absorption is proportional to the population of the lower energy

level and to the density of radiation 𝛒.
Hence,
R12(ab) ∝ N1 𝛒
R12 (ab) = B12N1 𝛒____________________(1)

Where B12 is the proportionality constant known as the probability of

absorption of radiation per unit time.
R12 is rate of absorption
N1 is population of the lower energy level.
𝛒 is density of radiation .

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Spontaneous Emission
Spontaneous emission is the
process by which electrons in
the excited state return to the
ground state by emitting photons
without the aid of any external
agency(inducing photon).

Atom* ------> Atom + Photon

• The electrons in the excited state can stay only for a short period.
• Thus, after the short time of the excited electrons, they return to the
lower energy state or ground state by releasing energy in the form of
photons.
• In spontaneous emission, the electrons move naturally or spontaneously
from one state (higher energy state) to another state (lower energy state)
so the emission of photons also occurs naturally. Therefore, we have no
control over when an excited electron is going to lose energy in the
form of light.
• The photons emitted in spontaneous emission process constitute
ordinary incoherent light.

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The rate of spontaneous emission of radiation is proportional to the

population at the higher energy level E2
R21 (sp) ∝ N2
R21 (sp) = A21N2 _____________(2)
Where R21 (sp) = rate of spontaneous emission
N2 = population at the higher energy level E2
A21 = proportionality constant known as the probability of spontaneous
emission per unit time.

Stimulated Emission
It is a process in which there is
an emission of a photon
whenever an atom transits from
a higher energy state
to a lower energy under the
influence of an external agency ,
i.e. an inducing photon.

Atom*+ Photon ------> Atom + (Photon + Photon)

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• For this process also, the atom should be already in the excited state.
Let a photon having an energy h𝓿= E2-E1 interact with an atom in the
excited state. Under such interaction, the incident photon stimulates the
excited atom n the level E2 to transit to the lower energy level E1,
resulting in the emission of a photon.
• Both the inducing photon and emitted photon will have the same phase,
energy and direction of movement.
• This kind of emission is responsible for laser light.

The rate of stimulated emission of radiation is proportional to the

population at the higher energy level E2 and the density of the inducing
photon.
R21 (st) ∝ N2𝛒
R21 (st) = B21N2 𝛒___________________(3)
Where R21 (st) = rate of stimulated emission
N2 = population at the higher energy level E2
B21 = proportionality constant known as the probability of stimulated
emission per unit time.

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Difference between Stimulated emission and

Spontaneous emission
Sr.
Stimulated Emission Spontaneous Emission
No.
1 Emission of a light photon takes place Emission of a light photon takes place
through an inducement i.e., by an immediately without any inducement.
external photon.
2 It is not a random process. It is a random process.
3 The photons get multiplied through chain The photons do not get multiplied through
reaction. chain reaction.
4 It is controllable process. It is an uncontrollable process.
5 More intense Less intense.
6 Monochromatic radiation Polychromatic radiation.

Basic concepts in LASER 

Population Inversion:-
It is state of achieving more number of atoms in the excited state compared to
ground state.
i.e., N2>N1
If this condition is satisfied, then there is more chance for stimulated emission
to take place. Hence population inversion is an essential condition for producing
laser.
Population inversion can be achieved by a process called pumping.

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 Pumping

It is the mechanism of exciting atoms from the lower energy state to a

higher energy state by supplying energy from an external source.

 Optical pumping:-

Optical pumping is a process in which light energy is used to excite

electrons from a lower to higher energy level.
Some of the common optical pump sources include:
Laser diodes
Discharge lamps
This type of pumping is adopted in solid state lasers such as ruby laser
and Nd:YAG laser.

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 Electrical pumping (Direct Electron Excitation)

In this pumping electrons are accelerated to a high velocity by a strong electric
field. These moving electrons collide with the neutral gas atoms and ionize the
medium. Thus, due to ionization they get raised to a higher energy level.
It is represented by the equation
A + e* = A* + e
Where A =gas atom in the ground state
A* = same gas atom in the excited state
e* = Electrons with higher Kinetic energy
e = Same electron with lesser energy.
This method of pumping is used in gas lasers like argon and CO2 Laser.

 Direct Conversion
• In this method, due to electrical energy applied in direct band gap
semiconductor like Ga As, recombination of electrons and holes takes
place. During the recombination process, the electrical energy is
directly is converted into light energy.

Electrical Light
Energy Energy

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 Life Time

• The limited time for which a particle or an atom remains in the

excited state is known as life time. It is about a nano second.

 Metastable state:-

• Metastable states are the energy levels in an atomic system

where the life time of atom is very large(of the order of 10-3 to
10-2 second).This property helps in achieving the population
inversion.

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 Active Medium

• A medium in which population inversion is achieved for laser

action is called active medium. The medium can be soild ,
liquid ,gas and plasma.

Optical resonator
• An optical resonator consists of a pair
of reflecting surfaces in which one is
fully reflecting (R1) and the other is
partially reflecting (R2). The active
material is placed in between these two
reflecting surfaces.
• The photons generated due to
transitions between the energy states of
active material are bounced back and
forth between two reflecting surfaces.
• This will induce more and more stimulated transition leading
to laser action.

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PUMPING MECHANISM
• Pumping is the mechanism of exciting atoms from the lower energy
state to a higher energy state by supplying energy from an external
source.
The commonly used mechanisms are:
• Optical pumping
• Direct electron excitation ( Electrical pumping)

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OPTICAL RESONATOR

• It’s a pair of reflecting surfaces of which one is a perfect reflector

and the other is a partial reflector which is used for amplification of
photons.

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Nd:YAG LASER
• Nd:YAG = neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet
• It’s an optically pumped solid state laser and is used to produce very
high power transmission.

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Laser System components

1) The Active medium

2) The pumping source
3) The optical resonator

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Laser System components

1) The Active medium:

 This is four level solid state laser system. Yttrium Aluminium

Garnet (Y2Al5O12) commonly called YAG doped with neodymium
ions Nd3+ is the active medium.

 The active medium is taken form of a crystal and is drawn into a

rod.

Laser System components

Resonator cavity:

 The end faces of the Nd:YAG rod are ground polished and silvered
to act as the optical resonator mirror or the optical cavity can be
formed by using two external reflection mirrors.

Optical Pumping
 A xenon flash lamp or krypton flash lamp is used as a pumping
source.

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Working:-

The flash lamp is switched on. All the

light emitted by the flash tube will get
focused on Nd:YAG rod. Due to optical
pumping the Nd3+ ions gets excited from
the ground energy state E0 to the higher
energy level E3 and E4 by absorbing
radiations (light) of wavelength 0.80 μm
and 0.73 μm respectively.

The transition of Nd3+ from the energy

level E4 to E2 is a non-radiative
transition.

Working:-

The state E2 is the metastable state. By

continuous pumping population
3+
inversion of Nd ions is achieved at the
metastable state E2. If photons from
external source are incident on the
material then transition of Nd3+ from E2
to E1 state generates stimulated photons.
These photons after multiple reflections
from the mirrors produces an intense and
coherent laser beam of wavelength 1.064
μm.

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Applications of LASER
In Industry
• For cutting ,welding , melting and drilling holes.
• To test the quality of material
In medicine
• Treatment of retina
• Performing bloodless surgery
• Treatment of cancers.

In military
• Can be used to destroy big size objects like airplanes
,missiles etc. by pointing the laser beam on them. For
these reason it can be even called death ray.
• Can be used to determine precisely the distance, velocity
and direction as well as the size of distant object.

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Science and Engineering application

• Used in fiber optic communication.
• Used in Holography.
• Used in underwater communication between submarines, as
they are not easily absorbed by water.
• Used to accelerate some chemical reaction.
• Used to create new chemical compound by destroying atomic
bonds between molecules.
• Used to drill minute holes in cell walls without damaging the cell
itself.

HOLOGRAPHY
1) Recording or Construction of a hologram
2) Reconstruction of hologram

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Thank You.

15‐06‐202144

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Non‐Destructive Testing
Physics
(01GS0101)

Introduction 

Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been defined

as comprising those test methods used to
examine an object, material or system without
impairing its future usefulness. The term is
generally applied to nonmedical investigations of
material integrity .

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Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

INTRODUCTION

Non-destructive testing (NDT),

Non-destructive examination (NDE),
Non-destructive inspection (NDI):
Family of specialized technical
inspection methods which provide
information about the condition of
materials and components without
destroying them

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Characteristics of NDT

 Applied directly to the product  Can be performed on parts

 Tested parts are not damaged that are in service
 Various tests can be  Low time consumption
performed on the same  Low labour cost
product
 Specimen preparation not
required

NDT Methods
1. Visual Inspection
2. Liquid penetrant method
3. Ultrasonic Inspection
4. Radiography methods
 X-ray radiography & fluoroscopy
 γ- ray radiography
5. Eddy current testing
6. Magnetic particle testing
7. Thermography

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NDT techniques include:

 Liquid Penetrant Testing

 Magnetic Particle Testing
 Ultrasonic Testing
 Eddy Current Testing
 Radiographic Testing

Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include fiberscopes,

borescopes, magnifying glasses
and mirrors.

Portable video inspection unit with

zoom allows inspection of large
tanks and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.

Robotic crawlers permit observation

in hazardous or tight areas, such as
air ducts, reactors, pipelines.

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Objectives of NDT

(1) to ensure product integrity, and in turn, reliability;

(2) to avoid failures, prevent accidents and save human life;
(3) to make a profit for the user;
(4) to ensure customer satisfaction and maintain the manufacturer's
reputation;
(5) to aid in better product design;
(6) to control manufacturing processes;
(7) to lower manufacturing costs;
(8) to maintain uniform quality level;
(9) to ensure operational readiness.

Aspects / Factors in NDT Method

 Energy source or medium used to probe the test object (such as X-rays,
ultrasonic waves or thermal radiation);
 Nature of the signals, image or signature resulting from interaction with the
test object (attenuation of X-rays or reflection of ultrasound, for example);
 Means of detecting or sensing resulting signals (piezoelectric crystal or
inductance coil);
 Method of indicating or recording signals (meter deflection, oscilloscope trace
or radiograph); and
 Basis for interpreting the results (direct or indirect indication, qualitative or
quantitative, and pertinent dependencies).

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LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD or

Dye Penetrant Method
Principle
A liquid penetrant is applied at the surface of the specimen. The
penetrant is drawn by the surface flaws due to capillary action
and this is subsequently revealed by a developer, in addition
with visual inspection.
Procedure
i. Cleaning the surface
ii. Application of the penetrant
iii. Removal of excess penetrant
iv. Developing
v. Inspection

LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD or

Dye Penetrant Method
1. Cleaning the surface
One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant testing
the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil,
grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also
require etching

2. Application of the penetrant

Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried,
the penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing.

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LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD or

Dye Penetrant Method
3. Removal of excess penetrant
This is the most delicate step of the inspection procedure
because the excess penetrant must be removed from the
surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as
possible from defects.
4. Developing
A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw
penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be
visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may be
applied by dusting(dry powders), dipping, or spraying(wet
developers).

LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD or

Dye Penetrant Method
5. Inspection
Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to
detect indications from any flaws which may be present.

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LIQUID PENETRANT
METHOD

LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD

A solid material is covered with a liquid
that has strong adhesive forces toward
the material.
The liquid is pulled onto surface
breaking defects by capillary action.
The liquid is cleaned from the surface.
A developer is applied to pull any
trapped liquid back to the surface where
it spreads out and forms an indication
that is much easier to see than the
defect.

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Advantages & Limitations of Liquid Penetrant Method

ADVANTAGES
 Simple & inexpensive
 Portable
 Applicable to ferrous, non-ferrous,
non-magnetic & complex shaped
materials which are non-porous &
of any dimension
 Detects cracks, seams, lack of
bonding, etc.
LIMITATIONS
 Detect surface flaws
 Non-porous surface for material
 Surface cleaning before & after
inspection
 Deformed surfaces & surface
coatings prevent detection

Eddy Current Testing

Electromagnetism – the production of a magnetic fields resulting from the
motion of an electric charge. When that current is passed through a conductor,
a magnetic field forms in and around the conductor
Alternatively, if a conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field, electric
current flow is produced in the conductor.

Electromagnetic induction
allows generator to produce
electricity and electromagnetism
allow motors to make use of the
electricity to do the work.

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 Alternating electrical current is passed

through a coil of wire producing a
magnetic field through and around the
coil
 When the coil is placed near a
conductive material, the magnetic field
induces a current flow in the material

 These currents travel in closed loops and are called eddy currents
 Eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields that can be measures
and used to find flaws, and characterise conductivity, permeability and
dimensional features.

Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material

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Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but can also
be used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a
small surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.

Eddy Current Testing

 Used to detect surface and near-surface flaws in conductive

materials, such as aluminium skins of aircraft

 Sorts materials based on conductivity and magnetic

permeability

 Measures thickness of thin sheets of metal and non-

conductive coatings such as paint on conductive materials.

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Thank You.

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