Michael Marcus

and Bruno Pattan

T
he millimeter wave spectrum at 30–300 GHz is of
increasing interest to service providers and systems
designers because of the wide bandwidths available for
carrying communications at this frequency range. Such
wide bandwidths are valuable in supporting applica-
tions such as high speed data transmission and video distribution.
Planning for millimeter wave spectrum use must take into account the
propagation characteristics of radio signals at this frequency range. While sig-
nals at lower frequency bands can propagate for many miles and penetrate more
easily through buildings, millimeter wave signals can travel only a few miles or
less and do not penetrate solid materials very well. However, these characteris-
tics of millimeter wave propagation are not necessarily disadvantageous.
Millimeter waves can permit more densely packed communications links, thus
providing very efficient spectrum utilization, and they can increase security of
communication transmissions. This article reviews characteristics of millimeter
wave propagation, including free space propagation and the effects of various
physical factors on propagation.

Free-Space, Benign-Propagation Conditions

The frequency and distance dependence of the loss between two isotropic
antennas is expressed in absolute numbers by the following equation:

LFSL = (4π R/λ)2 ,

© DIGITAL STOCK

This is a reprint of the Federal Communications Commission

Office of Engineering and Technology New Technology Development
Division Bulletin Number 70

54 U.S. Government work not protected by U.S. copyright June 2005

where FSL is the free-space loss, R is
the distance between transmit and
fGHz:
receive antennas, and λ is the operating 100
wavelength. 180 80
60
40
After converting to units of frequen-
170 30

Free Space Loss, dB

cy and putting them in decibel form, 18
the equation becomes:
160

LFSL dB = 92.4 + 20 log f + 20 log R , 150

where f is the frequency in gigahertz,
R is the line-of-sight (LOS) range 130
between antennas in kilometers.
Figure 1 shows the free-space loss, or 120
2 5
attenuation, incurred for several values
of frequency. For every octave change in
range, the differential attenuation Figure 1. Free-space loss between isotropic antennas.
changes by 6 dB. For example, in going
from a 2- to a 4-km range, the increase in
loss is 6 dB. Note that, even for short distances, the free-
space loss can be quite high. This suggests that, for appli-
cations in the millimeter-wave spectrum, only short-dis-
tance communications links will be supported.
Millimeter-Wave Propagation Loss Factors
In microwave systems, transmission loss is accounted
for principally by the free-space loss. However, in the
millimeter-wave bands additional loss factors come
into play, such as gaseous losses and rain in the trans-
mission medium. Factors that affect millimeter wave
propagation are given in Figure 2.
Atmospheric Gaseous Losses
Transmission losses occur when millimeter waves trav-
eling through the atmosphere are absorbed by mole-
cules of oxygen, water vapor, and other gaseous atmos-
pheric constituents. These losses are greater at certain
frequencies, coinciding with the mechanical resonant
frequencies of the gas molecules. Figure 3 gives quali-
tative data on gaseous losses. It shows several peaks
that occur due to absorption of the radio signal by
water vapor (H2 O) and oxygen (O2 ). At these frequen-
cies, absorption results in high attenuation of the radio
signal and, therefore, short propagation distance. For
current technology, the important absorption peaks
occur at 24 and 60 GHz. The spectral regions between
the absorption peaks provide windows where propaga-
tion can more readily occur. The transmission windows
are at about 35, 94, 140, and 220 GHz.
The H2 O and O2 resonances have been studied
extensively for purposes of predicting millimeter prop-
agation characteristics. Figure 4 [3] shows an expanded
plot of the atmospheric absorption versus frequency at
altitudes of 4 km and sea level, for water content of
1 gm/m3 and 7.5 gm/m3 , respectively (the former
140
L =92.4+20log f+20log D
FSL 10 10
f=GHz R=km
10 20 50 100 200 300
Distance, Kilometers
value represents relatively dry air while the latter value
represents 75% humidity for a temperature of 10 ◦ C).
An additional set of curves for total one-way attenu-
ation through the atmosphere, including attenuation
due to water vapor and oxygen, is given in Figure 5.
This is shown for several angles from the vertical, or
zenith. Clearly, the greater this angle , the more
atmosphere the signal goes through and, consequently,
the more the signal is attenuated.
Figure 6 [1] shows the one-way attenuation through
the atmosphere for oxygen only. The attenuation
increases as the off-zenith angle , increases, due to the
longer distance atmospheric penetration. As one would
expect, the loss is highest around the 60-GHz oxygen
absorption peak for all elevation angles.
Figure 7 shows the gaseous attenuation for oxygen
absorption and for water vapor absorption as a func-
tion of range, over and above the free-space loss given
in Figure 1. The resonances for frequencies below
100 GHz occur at 24 GHz for water vapor and 60 GHz
for oxygen.
Figure 8 depicts total attenuation, including free-
space loss and gaseous attenuation, for three typical
frequencies. There is no significant increase in
attenuation due to gaseous absorption above the
free-space loss given in Figure 1, except for the
60-GHz band. Above a distance of about 9
km, the composite loss (free-space loss
plus absorption) increases significantly
from free-space loss alone.
Figure 9 indicates the frequency
reuse possibilities, based on
atmospheric gaseous losses,
for typical digital fixed ser-
vice systems operating
in the vicinity of

June 2005 55
 60 GHz. Note that at the 60-GHz
Atmospheric Gases Attenuation oxygen absorption peak, the
– Water Vapor Absorption working range for a typical fixed-
– Oxygen Absorption service communications link is
Precipitation Attentuation very short, on the order of 2 km,
– Rain and that another link could be
Foliage Blockage employed on the same frequency
if it were separated from the first
Scattering Effects*
– Diffused Reflections link by about 4 km.
– Specular By contrast, at 55 GHz, the
working range for a typical fixed
Diffraction (Bending)
service link is about 5 km, but a
second link would have to be
* As frequencies increase, the wavelengths become
located about 18-km away to
shorter and the reflective surface appears rougher.
This results in more diffused reflection as opposed to avoid interference. Other factors
specular refelection. must be considered in determin-
ing actual frequency reuse such as
Figure 2. Propagation effects influencing millimeter-wave propagations. antenna directivity and interven-
ing obstacle path loss.

102 Rain Losses

Millimeter-wave propagation is
5 H 2O also affected by rain. Raindrops
H 2O are roughly the same size as the
radio wavelengths and, therefore,
2 O2 cause scattering of the radio
signal. Figure 10 [1], [2] shows the
10 attenuation per kilometer as a
function of rain rate. The rain rate
5 in any location in the continental
United States can be determined
O2
Specific Attenuation (dB/km)

2 by referring to a map of rain rate

climate regions and a chart of
1
associated rainfall statistics,
which are shown in Figure 11(a)
and (b), respectively. For example,
5
from Figure 11(b), for 0.1% of the
year (99.9% availability) the rain
2 H2O rate is about 14.5 mm/hr for the
sub-region D2 (Washington
10−1 region) shown in Figure 11(a).
An increase in the rain factor
5 reduces the communications sig-
nal availability. A measure of this
O2 availability and the correspond-
2 ing communications outage is
O2
shown in Figure 12. For exam-
10−2 ple,for an availability of 99.99%,
O2
the outage is 8.8 hr/year or 1.44
5 min on a 24-hr basis.
1 2 5 10 2 3 102 2 2.5
Frequency, f (GHz) Foliage Losses
Oxygen and Water Vapor
Foliage losses at millimeter-wave
Pressure: 1013 mb
Temperature: 15 °C frequencies are significant. In fact,
Water Vapour: 7.5 µm2 foliage loss may be a limiting
propagation impairment in some
Figure 3. Specific attenuation due to atmospheric gases. cases. An empirical relationship

56 June 2005
 40
20
10

4
2
Attenuation dB/km

.4
.2
H2 O
0.1 H 2O

.04 A
O2
.02
O2
.01 B A: Sea Level B: 4 km
H2O T = 20°C T = 0°C
.004 p
P = 760 mm H2O = 1 gr/m3
p
.002 H2O = 7.5 gr/m3
.001
10 15 20 25 30 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 150 200 250 300 400
Frequency GHz

Figure 4. Average atmospheric absorption of millimeter waves.

Wavelength (cm)
3 2.5 2 1.5 1.0 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .25 .2 .15 .1 .08
100 100
40
(φ 90°)
20
A(φ 89.5°) ~ 45°)
(φ ~
10 Humid 10
4
A(φ 89.5°) (φ 80°) T,C Medium
2
Attenuation (dB)

A(φ 80°) W Dry

1 D (φ 60°) 1
D
.4
(φ 0°) A -Aarons '58
A(φ 80°) D H
R
.2 D -Dicke et al '46
0.1 H W -Whitehurst '57 0.1
φ T -Texas '60
.04 C -Coates '58
.02 H -Handok Geoph '60
.01 R -Ring (Hogg '60) .01
Hogg '59, '60
.004 Theissing and
.002 Kaplan '56
.001 .00
15 20 25 40 50 60 70 8090 150 200 250 300
10 30 100 400
Frequency GHz

Figure 5. Total attenuation for one-way transmission through the atmospere.

has been developed (CCIR Rpt 236-2), which can pre- alent to a large tree or two in tandem) is about 19 dB.
dict the loss. For the case where the foliage depth is less This is clearly not a negligible value.
than 400 m, the loss is given by
Scattering/ Diffraction
L = 0.2 f 0.3 R0.6 dB, If there is no LOS path between the transmitter and the
receiver, the signal may still reach the receiver via reflec-
where f is the frequency in megahertz, and R is the tions from objects in proximity to the receiver or via dif-
depth of foliage transversed in meters and applies for fraction or bending. The short wavelengths of millime-
R < 400 m. ter-wave signals result in low diffraction. Like light
This relationship is applicable for frequencies in the waves, the signals are subject more to shadowing and
range 200–95,000 MHz. For example, the foliage loss at reflection. (Shadowing makes it easier to shield against
40 GHz for a penetration of 10 m (which is about equiv- unwanted signals in communications systems.)

June 2005 57
 : O2 Absorption
60 GHz
: H2O Absorption
10 Resonances at:
24 GHz (H2O)
60 GHz (O2)
φ = 80°
φ = 90°

Total Gaseous Attenuation, dB

100 GHz

100
1 φ = 60° 80
50
Attenuation (dB)

24
φ = 0°
φ = 80° 40
30
18

0.1 φ = 60°
10
φ = 0°
φ

01
0.5 1 10 100
Frequency (GHz) 1
1 10 100
Distance, km

Figure 6. One-way attenuation through the atmosphere Figure 7. Gaseous attenuation over and above the free-space loss.
for oxygen only.

500
)
Hz
G
0
(6
..
S
AB
L+
FS

200

150 (100 GHz) 150

(60 GHz) (18 GHz)

100
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Absorption insignificant for Distance, km FSL (60 GHz)
these bands, therefore (Absorption prevails
adds very little to free above d ~
~ 9 km.)
space loss.

Figure 8. Combination free-space loss plus absorption.

Normally, for non-LOS paths, the greatest contribution

Frequency-Band Designations
at the receiver is reflected power.
Q 33–50 GHz
Reflections and the associated amount of signal dif-
U 40–60 GHz
fusion are strongly dependent on the reflectivity of the
V 50–75 GHz
reflecting material. Shorter wavelengths (higher fre-
E 60–90 GHz
quencies) cause the reflecting material to appear rela-
W 75–110 GHz
tively “rougher,” which results in greater diffusion of
F 90–170 GHz
the signal and less specular (i.e., direct) reflection.
D 110–170 GHz
Diffusion provides less power at the receiver than
G 140–220 GHz
specular reflected power.

58 June 2005
Sky Noise (Brightness Temperature)
in Millimeter Bands 70
Anything that absorbs electromagnetic energy is
also a radiator. Constituents of the atmosphere
60
that cause attenuation, such as water vapor, oxy-
gen, and rain, radiate signals that are noiselike.
When these signals impinge on a receiver anten- 50 Frequency
na, they degrade system performance. Digital Links Reuse Range

Distance (km)
8 Mbit/s
An earth-station antenna aimed at a satellite 40
at a high-elevation angle will pick up sky noise
emanating from atmospheric constituents (and
30
other sources). This is referred to as the sky-
noise temperature or brightness temperature.
For low-elevation angles, the dominant noise 20
will be mostly from terrain and will be picked
up by the antenna sidelobes. 10
Figures 13 and 14 [5] show the sky-noise Working Range
temperature as a function of frequency. The
0
sky noise peaks at the millimeter-wave, 30 40 50 60 70
Frequency (GHz)
gaseous-molecule resonance bands, and this
phenomenon also affects the suitability of the Note: The potential working range is the average maximum distance
millimeter-wave spectrum region for commu- over which a typical fixed link can operate. The range is influenced
nications applications. by the attenuation of the radio waves in the intervening space, being
shorter in cases of high attenuation. Where two links employ the
The noise entering a receiver from the anten- same frequency (i.e., frequency reuse), if they are separated by a
na is commonly referred to as the antenna noise distance greater than the frequency reuse range, it will be certain
temperature and includes components of sky that mutual interference will be below an acceptable level. The
frequency reuse range is, thus, always larger than the working range.
If the two links are separated by less than the reuse distance, detailed
calculatios are necessary to determine whether other factors, e.g.,
the directionality of the antennas, will provide sufficient protection from
Glossary of Terms mutual interference.
Diffraction: Change in direction (bending)
of propagating energy around an object
Figure 9. The potential working and frequency reusage range of milli-
cause by interference between the radiat-
metric fixed links.
ed energy and induced current in the
object. There is no line of sight between
the transmitter and receiver.
100
150 mm/h
Free-Space Loss: The amount of attenua- 50 100 mm/h
tion of RF energy on an unobstructed path 50 mm/h
20
between isotropic antennas. Basically, dilu- 25 mm/h
tion of energy as the RF propagates away 10
Specific Attenuation, γR (dB/km)

from a source.
5 mm/h
5
Isotropic Antenna: An antenna that radi- 2 1.25 mm/h
ates in all directions (about a point) with a
gain of unity (not a realizable antenna, but 1
0.25 mm/h
a useful concept in antenna theory). 0.5

Refraction: Change in direction of propa- 0.2

gating radio energy caused by a change
0.1
in the refractive index or density of a
medium. 0.05

0.02
Resonant Energy: Frequencies in the band
where attenuation peaks. In contrast to 0.01
windows, where the attenuation bottoms 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000
Frequency (GHz)
out and is lower.
Figure 10. Specific attenuation due to rain.

June 2005 59
 noise. The antenna-noise temperature adds to the (To be strictly correct, the system-noise temperature
receiver noise temperature to form the system noise stems from several sources, which are depicted in
temperature: Figure 15.)

Ts = TANT + TRCVR . Millimeter-Wave Application

Communication systems operating at millimeter wave

B
B1
B1 D
B2
B2

B1
B2
D1
D2

D1
D2
C D2
F D3 D
E

F D DE

(a)

Rain Climate Region Minutes Hours

Percent
per per
of Year
A B1 B B2 C D1 D=D2 D3 E F G H Year Year

0.001 28.5 45 57.5 70 78 90 108 126 165 66 185 253 5.26 0.09

0.002 21 34 44 54 62 72 89 106 144 51 157 220.5 10.5 0.18

0.005 13.5 22 28.5 35 41 50 64.5 80.5 118 34 120.5 178 26.3 0.44

0.01 10.0 15.5 19.5 23.5 28 35.5 49 63 98 23 94 147 52.6 0.88

0.02 7.0 11.0 13.5 16 18 24 35 48 78 15 72 119 105 1.75

0.05 4.0 6.4 8.0 9.5 11 14.5 22 32 52 8.3 47 86.5 263 4.38

0.1 2.5 4.2 5.2 6.1 7.2 9.8 14.5 22 35 5.2 32 64 526 8.77

0.2 1.5 2.8 3.4 4.0 4.8 6.4 9.5 14.5 21 3.1 21.8 43.5 1052 17.5

0.5 0.7 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.6 5.2 7.8 10.6 1.4 12.2 22.5 2630 43.8

1.0 0.4 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.2 3.0 4.7 6.0 0.7 8.0 12.0 5260 87.7

2.0 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.9 0.2 5.0 5.2 10520 175

5.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 1.8 1.2 26298 438

(b)

Figure 11. Rain rates in the United States and Canada.

60 June 2005
frequencies can take advantage of the propagation effects secure communications can be performed.
described in the preceding sections. For example [7]: On the other hand, propagation effects impose
• Propagation ideally suits short range (<20 km) restrictions:
communications. • high attenuation in a rain environment
• Limited range permits a high degree of frequency reuse. • limited communications range, typically <20 km
• In the absorption resonance bands, relatively • poor foliage penetration.

Time per
Availability % Outage/Year Month (Avg) Day (Avg)

50 4380 hr 360 hr 12 hr
70 2628 hr 216 hr 7.2 hr
80 1752 hr 144 hr 4.8 hr
90 876 hr 72 hr 2.4 hr
95 438 hr 36 hr 1.2 hr
98 175 hr 14 hr 29 min
99 88 hr 7 hr 14.4 min
99.5 43.8 hr 3.6 min 7.2 min
99.9 8.8 hr 43 hr 1.44 min
99.99* 53 min 4.3 min 8.5 s
99.999 5.3 min 26 s 0.86 s
99.9999 32 s 2.6 s 0.086 s

*e.g., one year has 8,760 hr, or 8,760 × 60 min.

For link availability of 99.99%:

unavailability is 1–0.9999 = 0.0001 (outage), outage(%) = 1–availability

or 0.0001 × 8,760 × 60 = 52.56 min.

# does not necessarily imply that there is a complete loss of signal, but signal may be present at reduced quality.

Figure 12. Relationship between system availability and outage time.#

300
0° θ =0° 0°–10°
30°
280 5° 10° 60°
0° 20° 90°
260
5° 10° 30°
240
220
60° θ = Elevation Angle;
Brightness Temperature – K

200 for θ=0° the Path Is

10° 20°
180 90° Essentially Terrestrial.
5°
160
30°
140
120 20°
60°
10°
100
30° 90°
80 θ
20° 60°
60
90° Water Vapor
40
30° ρw = 7.5 g/m3
20 60° Hw = 2 km
90°
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Frequency – GHz

Figure 13. Brightness temperature (clear air) for a water vapor concentration of 7.5 g/m3 , for frequency ranges 1–350 GHz.

June 2005 61
 for systems requiring all weather/night operation,
such as vehicular radar systems, or for short-range,
point-to-point systems such as local-area networks. The
absorption bands (e.g., 60 GHz) would be applicable
for high data-rate systems where secure communica-
100 tions with low probability of intercept is desirable, for
φ =90°
services with a potentially high density of transmitters
Sky Temperature (°k)

Galactic Radiation operating in proximity, or for applications where unli-

φ =80°
10
φ =60°
φ =0°
Tropospheric
(O2 and H2O Vapor) Radiation
1
0.4 1 10
Frequency (GHz)
Sky Temperature (O2 and H2O)
Figure 14. Sky temperature versus frequency for various
antenna beam pointing the angles zenith.
System designers can take advantage of the propa-
gation properties manifested at millimeter-wave fre-
quencies to develop radio-service applications. The
windows in the spectrum are particularly applicable
censed operations are desirable.
Universal
Background
Radiation
References
[1]W.L. Flock, “Propagation effects on satellite systems at frequen-
cies below 10 GHz,” NASA Doc.1108(02), Dec. 1987, ch. 3, 4, and 9
passim.
φ [2]L.J. Ippolito, “Propagation effects handbook for satellite systems
design,” NASA Doc. 1082(4), Feb. 1989, ch. 3 and 6 passim.
[3]”Attenuation by atmospheric gases,” CCIR Doc. Rep. 719-3, ITU
100 1990.
[4] “Attenuation by hydrometers, in particular precipitation and other
atmospheric particles,” CCIR Doc. Rept 721-3, ITU 1990.
[5]E.K. Smith, “Centimeter and millimeter wave attenuation and
brightness temperature due to atmospheric oxygen and water
vapor,” Radio Sci., vol. 17, pp. 1455–1464, Nov.–Dec. 1982.
[6]W.J. Vogel and E.K. Smith, “Propagation considerations in land
mobile satellite transmissions,” Microwave J., pp. 111–122, Oct.
1985.
[7]B.S. Perlman, “Millimeter-wave technology,” A tutorial given at
the FCC, Sept. 6, 1995.
[8]L.J. Ippolito, “Radiowave propagation in satellite comm-
unications,” New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1986, ch. 4 and 7,
passim.

TLines

TAmpls TRCVR

TOther
Comps.

TS
TSky bkgrd +
(gal. and Extra gal.)
TIonsphere

TEarth, Sea

TANT
TRadio “Star”
+

TSun, Moon

TAtmosphere
TD Deterministic (Man-Made)

TRadome (if used)

Random, Uncorrelated

Figure 15. A model depicting contributors to the system-noise temperature.

62 June 2005