Certificate

This is to certify that “ Utkarsh Sharma”

of Class XII-A has satisfactorily
completed the project on “FOAMING
CAPACITY OF SOAP” under the guidance
of Arun Kumar Pandeyduring the
session 2021-2022

Student's Sign Teacher's Sign

Utkarsh Sharma
 Acknowledgement
I'd like to express my greatest gratitude to the people
who have helped & supported me throughout my project.
I’ m grateful to Arun Kumar Pandey for her continuous
support for the project, from initial advice &
encouragement to this day.
Special thanks of mine goes to my colleague who helped
me in completing the project by giving interesting ideas,
thoughts & made this project easy and accurate.
I wish to thanks my parents for their undivided support &
interest who inspired me & encouraged me to go my own
way, without which I would be unable to complete my
project. At last but not the least I want to thanks my
friends who appreciated me for my work & motivated me
and finally to God who made all the things possible...
CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

FOAMING CAPACITY OF
SOAP

Under The Guidance Of Submitted By

Arun Kumar Pandey. Utkarsh Sharma
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgement...............................i
Certificate.............................................ii
Aim of the project................................iii
Introduction.........................................iv
Theory...................................................v
Procedure.............................................vi
Observations.......................................vii
Calculations........................................viii
Conclusions..........................................ix
Bibliography........................................x
Introduction
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids
like stearic, palmitic and oleic acids can be either
saturated or unsaturated. They contain a long
hydrocarbon chain of about 10-20 carbon with one
carboxylic acid group as the functional group. A soap
molecule a tadpole shaped structure, whose ends have
different polarities. At one end is the long hydrocarbon
chain that is non-polar and hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble in
water but oil soluble. At the other end is the short polar
carboxylate ion which is hydrophilic i.e., water soluble but
insoluble in oil and grease.

When soap is shaken with water it becomes a soap

solution that is colloidal in nature. Agitating it tends to
concentrate the solution on the surface and causes
foaming. This helps the soap molecules make a
unimolecular film on the surface of water and to penetrate
the fabric. The long non-polar end of a soap molecule that
are hydrophobic, gravitate towards and surround the dirt
(fat or oil with dust absorbed in it). The short polar end
containing the carboxylate ion, face the water away from
the dirt. A number of soap molecules surround or encircle
dirt and grease in a clustered structure called 'micelles',
which encircles such particles and emulsify them.

Cleansing action of soaps decreases in hard water. Hard

water contains Calcium and magnesium ions which react
with sodium carbonate to produce insoluble carbonates of
higher fatty acids.

2C17H35COONa + Ca2+ → (C17H35COO) 2 Ca↓ + 2Na+

(Water soluble) (ppt.)

2C17H35COONa + Mg2+ → (C17H35COO)2 Mg ↓ + 2Na+

This hardness can be removed by addition
of Sodium Carbonate.
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 ↓ + 2Na+
Mg2+ + Na2CO3 → MgCO3 ↓ + 2Na+
 Commercial Production of soap
e most popular soap making process today is the cold process
Th

method, where fats such as olive oil react with strong alkaline
solution, while some soapers use the historical hot process.
Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an
excess of fat is sometimes used to consume the alkali (super
fatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed, leaving a
naturally moisturizing soap and not pure detergent. Often,
emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added ‘at trace’
(the point at which the saponification process is sufficiently
advanced that the soap has begun to thicken), after most of the
oils have saponified, so that they remain unreacted in the
finished soap.
 Fat in soap
Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats.
Sodium Tallowate, a common ingredient in much soap, is
derived from rendered beef fat. Soap can also be made of
vegetable oils, such as palm oil, and the product is
typically softer. An array of saponifiable oils and fats are
used in the process such as olive, coconut, palm, cocoa
butter to provide different qualities. For example, olive oil
provides mildness in soap; coconut oil provides lots of
lather; while coconut and palm oils provide hardness.
Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an ebullient.
Smaller amounts of unsaponifable oils and fats that do not
yield soap are sometimes added for further benefits
 Prepration of Soap

In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be

required for saponification. Cold-process soap making takes place
at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat
being used. Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can
be used right away because the alkali and fat saponify more
quickly at the higher temperatures used in hot-process soap
making. Hot-process soap making was used when the purity of
alkali was unreliable. Cold-process soap making requires exact
measurements of alkali and fat amounts and computing their
ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that the finished
product is mild and skin-friendly
Hot Process
In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are boiled together at
80–100 °C until saponification occurs, which the soap maker can
determine by taste or by eye. After saponification has occurred,
the soap is sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding
salt, and the excess liquid drained off. The hot, soft soap is then
spooned into a mold
Cold Process
A cold-process soap maker first looks up the
saponification value of the fats being used
on a saponification chart, which is then used
to calculate the appropriate amount of
alkali. Excess unreacted alkali in the soap will
result in a very high pH and can burn or
irritate skin. Not enough alkali and the soap
are greasy. The alkali is dissolved in water.
Then oils are heated, or melted if they are
solid at room temperature. Once both
substances have cooled to approximately
100-110°F (37-43°C), and are no more than
10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined.
This alkali-fat mixture is stirred until “trace”.
There are varying levels of trace. After much
stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency
of a thin pudding.
Introduction to the Experiment
Soap samples of various brands are taken
and their foaming capacity is noticed.
Various soap samples are taken separately
and their foaming capacity is observed. The
soap with the maximum foaming capacity is
thus, said to be having the best cleaning
capacity. The test requires to be done with
distilled water as well as with tap water. The
test of soap on distilled water gives the
actual strength of the soaps cleaning
capacity. The second test with tap water
tests the effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on
their foaming capacities. Objective: To
compare the foaming capacity of various
soaps.
Theory
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the nature of the
soap and its concentration. This may be compared by shaking
equal volumes of solutions of different samples having the same
concentration with same force for the same amount of time. The
solutions are then allowed to stand when the foam produced
during shaking disappears gradually. The time taken for the foam
to disappear in each sample is determined. The longer the time
taken for the disappearance of the foam for the given sample of
soap, greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing action.
Requirment
Five 100ml conical flasks, five test tubes, 100ml measuring
cylinder, test tube stand, weighing machine, stop watch. Chemical
Requirements: Five different soap samples, distilled water, tap
Procedure
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1, 2,3,4,5.
Put 16ml of water in each flask and add 8 Gms of soap. 2. Warm
the contents to get a solution. 3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of
soap solution to 3ml of water. Repeat the process for each soap
solution in different test tubes. 4. Close the mouth of the test tube
and shake vigorously for a minute. Do the same for all test tubes
and with equal force. 5. Start the timer immediately and notice
the rate of disappearance of 2mm of froth.
 Observation
The following outcomes were noticed at the end of the experiment

 Vol. of soap solution

 Vol. of water added
 Time taken for disappearance of 2mm
 1. Dove 8ml 16ml 11’42”
 2. Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28”
 3. Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5’10”
 4. Santoor 8ml 16ml 15’32”
 5. Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40
 Results
The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in the order: Santoor >
Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux
From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor has the highest
foaming capacity, in other words, highest cleaning capacity. Lux,
on the other hand is found to have taken the least amount of time
for the disappearance of foam produced and thus is said to be
having the least foaming capacity and cleansing capacity.
Test for hardness in water Test for Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts in the
water supplied Test for Ca2+ in water H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH +
(NH4)2CO3 No precipitate Test for Mg2+ in water H2O +NH4Cl +
NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4 No precipitate
The tests show negative results for the presence of the salts
causing hardness in water. The water used does not contain salts
of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap water provided is soft and thus, the
experimental results and values hold good for distilled water and
tap water.
Note
Foaming capacity of soap in maximum in distilled water.
The foaming capacity of soap increases on the addition of Sodium
Carbonate.
 Bibliography
Books: Together With Lab Manual Chemistry-XII
Comprehensive Chemistry – 12
Internet sources: www.wikipedia.org
www.google.com
www.yahoo.com
Structure of soap molecule and micelle formation