New Testament

New Testament
Study Guide by Course Hero
The New Testament is a collection of 27 books originally

What's Inside written in Koine or "common" Greek, the functional, nonliterary
language of the day. These books were composed in the 1st
and 2nd centuries CE by a number of authors and in a variety
j Book Basics ................................................................................................. 1 of genres (kinds or types of literary compositions). The New
Testament is therefore a library of sources gathered together
d In Context .................................................................................................... 2
into what we call a canon, a set of texts considered
a Author Biography ..................................................................................... 2 authoritative by some religious group. A council of Christian
church leaders set the New Testament canon in its current
h Key Figures ................................................................................................. 2 form in the 4th century CE. It is the second part of a larger
collection of sacred scriptures. The first part is the Hebrew
k Plot Summary ............................................................................................. 7
Bible, called the Old Testament by Christians, and together the
Hebrew Bible and the New Testament make up the Christian
c Book Summaries .................................................................................... 12
Bible for Protestant Christians. Catholic and Orthodox
g Quotes ........................................................................................................ 39 Christians also include additional books as part of the Old
Testament canon; these so-called deuterocanonical texts were
l Symbols ..................................................................................................... 42 composed by Jews during the Hellenistic period (4th century
BCE to 1st century CE) and are not part of the Hebrew Bible.
m Themes ...................................................................................................... 44
The Hebrew Bible provides some of the historical background
m Glossary ..................................................................................................... 46 and theological foundation for the books of the New
Testament, and many key themes, figures, and events from the
b Interpretations ........................................................................................ 50 Hebrew Bible appear and are transformed in the writings of the
New Testament. The collected texts of the New Testament
b Source for Biblical Quotations ........................................................ 51
reveal important questions and concerns that Christ-believers
faced as they formed communities and wrote about their
e Suggested Reading .............................................................................. 52
experiences. Many of these questions remain relevant for
Christians today: how to live with other believers; how to
interact with nonbelievers; how to think about the significance
j Book Basics of Jesus's life and death; how to apply his teachings in
community life; how to act as a member of the body politic; and
how to conceptualize the relationships between God, Jesus,
AUTHOR
the Holy Spirit, human beings, and the natural world. The New
Various
Testament continues to serve as a source for authoritative
YEARS WRITTEN teaching, personal guidance, and Christian liturgy (public
1st to 2nd centuries CE worship). It is also a rich source of inspiration for literature, art,
film, and music up to the present day in a variety of cultures
GENRE and religious traditions. Characters, themes, images, and even
Religion direct quotations from the New Testament pervade much of
popular culture, and understanding the primary texts can
AT A GLANCE
New Testament Study Guide In Context 2
provide insight into their later artistic use and interpretation. belief that Jesus is the Christ. Jesus is mentioned throughout
There is also a deeply regrettable tradition of using New Paul's letters and the other New Testament letters, and he
Testament texts to support the persecution or vilification of takes on the role of judge in the expected "parousia" (second
Jews. At times, Christian interpreters have advanced a coming) in the book of Revelation.
"supersessionist" reading of the New Testament, which holds
that Christians effectively replaced Jews as God's chosen
people. This Study Guide highlights the importance of avoiding God
such anti-Jewish or anti-Semitic interpretations. In life,
government, philosophy, and literature—especially in the God is the God of Israel whose story is told in the Hebrew
Western world—the writings of the New Testament have Bible. The New Testament depicts God as a father who sends
exerted an extraordinary influence. People of all religious his son Jesus to save all those, both Jews and gentiles, who
traditions, and those without professed religion, read and profit believe in him. God is depicted as loving and merciful to all
from these 27 books. This guide follows the canonical order of human beings, who are identified as God's children. God will
the books of the New Testament: Gospels, Acts, Pauline also guarantee just judgment for the living and the dead at the
Letters, Catholic Letters, and Revelation. end of time.
Holy Spirit
d In Context
In the gospels, the Holy Spirit comes down upon Jesus at the
time of his baptism in the Jordan River, and the Spirit is
a Author Biography described as motivating or driving Jesus to perform certain

actions. In the farewell discourse of the Gospel of John, Jesus
promises that once he has died and returned to the Father
(God), he will send the Holy Spirit to be with his apostles as a
h Key Figures paraclete or advocate who will assist them in their ministry.
The Acts of the Apostles narrates the descent of the Holy
Spirit at a feast called Pentecost, and the Spirit is a driving
force for the apostolic mission in that book.
Jesus/Jesus Christ
Jesus is a 1st-century Jew from the region of Galilee in the John the Baptist
Roman province of Judea. As an adult he takes on a complex
role as a healer, teacher, prophet, and exorcist. His public According to the Gospel of Luke, John the Baptist is the son of
ministry begins after he is baptized in the Jordan River by John Elizabeth, who is the cousin of Mary the mother of Jesus. John
the Baptist. He gathers a group of 12 followers called apostles was arrested by the Jewish king Herod Antipas, who eventually
who join him in his travels and his mission. As recorded in the beheaded him at the request of his wife and daughter.
canonical gospels, eventually Jesus's teaching and ministry
bring him into conflict with Jewish authorities who pay his
disciple Judas Iscariot to hand him over. The Jewish authorities
accused him of blasphemy, after which he was arrested by
Mary the mother of Jesus
Roman forces, given to the Roman governor Pontius Pilate, and
Luke's Gospel describes an event called the Annunciation,
condemned to death by the Roman authorities. Jesus is
when the angel Gabriel announced to Mary ("Miriam") that she
crucified but is resurrected from the dead. After his
would bear God's son. While pregnant, she travels to visit her
resurrection he appears bodily to his apostles for a period of
cousin Elizabeth, who is also pregnant at the time with John
40 days, after which he ascends into heaven. Later he appears
the Baptist. While visiting Elizabeth, Mary proclaims a song of
to Saul/Paul in the Acts of the Apostles and inspires Paul's
praise to God, called the Magnificat. According to the Gospel
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New Testament Study Guide Key Figures 3
of John, Mary was at the foot of Jesus's cross with the Beloved
Disciple, and Jesus charges them to become mother and son The Twelve disciples or
so that the disciple takes her into his home. The Acts of the
Apostles notes that Mary is present with the community of apostles
Christ-believers after the resurrected Jesus has ascended into
heaven. The Twelve are called individually or in pairs to become
followers of Jesus. According to Matthew, Mark, and John,
there are several sets of brothers among the group (Andrew
Paul (formerly Saul) and Simon Peter; James and John, the sons of Zebedee). Also
among the group are Levi or Matthew the tax collector and
Judas Iscariot, who eventually hands Jesus over to the Jewish
Paul's story is told in the Acts of the Apostles, which describes
authorities. The Twelve have several important functions in the
his dramatic realization that Jesus was the Christ or Messiah
accounts. They are one major audience for Jesus's teachings.
promised in the Hebrew Bible. Acts describes Paul's journeys
When he tells parables (short symbolic narratives that end with
through the Mediterranean, his preaching, and his conflicts
a moral teaching) that are cryptic, he usually explains the
with Jewish and gentile opponents. Paul's own words to Christ-
deeper meaning to the Twelve. They may also represent
believing communities are preserved in at least seven letters
typical Christ-believers who see Jesus's power and hear his
that most scholars think are genuine, and other New
message but nevertheless have difficulty understanding his
Testament letters that are attributed to him.
significance until after the crucifixion and resurrection. In the
Acts of the Apostles, they continue spreading the Christian
good news throughout the Mediterranean region, setting up
Herod Christ-believing communities in Jerusalem and beyond.
Herod appears in the Gospel of Matthew as a villain who seeks

to kill the infant Jesus, because Jesus has been identified as a
"king of the Jews" and Herod feels his own power is being
Simon/Simon Peter/Cephas
threatened. In the Gospel of Luke, Herod also plays a role in
Simon's name is changed to Peter (Greek for "rock") after he
helping Pontius Pilate decide what to do with Jesus after his
correctly identifies Jesus as the Messiah (= "anointed one"),
arrest. The name Herod actually refers to several different
while others misrecognize him as a prophet or another John
kings: Herod the Great and his son Herod Antipas, who is
the Baptist. He also called Cephas in the New Testament, an
responsible for beheading John the Baptist, according to the
Aramaic word also meaning "rock." In Matthew, Jesus tells
Synoptic Gospels. Beyond the gospels, Acts 12 mentions
Peter he will be the rock on which the church is built. Peter's
Herod Agrippa I persecuting the church; and Acts 25 describes
special status does not prevent him from stumbling. At the Last
his son, Agrippa II, as sympathetic to Paul's preaching.
Supper Jesus predicts Peter will deny him three times, a
prediction that is proven correct while Jesus is on trial before
Jewish authorities. Nevertheless, after Jesus's resurrection
Pontius Pilate Peter steps up as a leader of the remaining apostles and
disciples. The Acts of the Apostles expands on Peter's story,
Pontius Pilate is variously portrayed as a villain in Jesus's story
telling how he became an important missionary, spreading
and as a somewhat sympathetic figure who is put in a difficult
Christian teachings to both Jews and gentiles (non-Jews) in
position by the Jewish authorities who seek to execute Jesus.
Jerusalem and nearby cities. The letters of 1 and 2 Peter are
To follow local custom, Pilate attempts to release a
traditionally attributed to him.
prisoner—either Jesus or Barabbas—to the people of
Jerusalem. They choose Barabbas and Jesus is condemned.
Famously, Pilate washes his hands of responsibility for Jesus's
death.

Gospel writer(s)
In reality, the authors do not name themselves in their texts,
and scholars do not know the real identity of the evangelists.
The Greek style of each text varies, so most scholars would
argue the evangelists have varying levels of formal Greek
education.All four canonical gospels refer to material in the
Jewish Scriptures, such as important figures like Moses and
selected Psalms. The evangelists must have known about
Jewish teachings describing the Messiah (Hebrew for
"anointed one"; translated "Christos" in Greek), as well as major
portions of the law and the prophets.

Full Key Figure List Pontius Pilate was the Roman

governor in the province of Judea who
Pontius Pilate conducted the trial of Jesus and
condemned him to death by
Key Figure Description
crucifixion.
Jesus is the main figure whose life

The Twelve are the core group of
story is told in each gospel. He is
Jesus's followers, also identified as
identified as the Son of God and as
Jesus/Jesus apostles (Greek for "one who is sent")
the Christ or Messiah (a Hebrew term
Christ The Twelve and disciples (Latin for "students").
that means "anointed one") whose
disciples or Although the list of their names varies
arrival was promised in the Hebrew
apostles slightly from gospel to gospel, the
Bible.
Twelve are usually treated as a unit
who learn from Jesus and participate
God appears in the New Testament as in his mission of teaching and healing.
the Father of Jesus and the creator of
God the universe who first established a
Simon, a fisherman, is the brother of
covenant relationship with the people
Andrew, another of Jesus's apostles.
of Israel.
Simon is one of the first called to
follow Jesus. Together with James
The Holy Spirit, sometimes also called Simon/Simon and John, the sons of Zebedee, Simon
the Spirit of God or the "paraclete" Peter/Cephas is frequently chosen to accompany
Holy Spirit (advocate), is a divine being who Jesus in a select group to key events
works with the Father (God) and the or places (for example, the
Son (Jesus). transfiguration and the garden at
Gethsemane).
John the Baptist is a prophet like

John the Elijah. He preaches the repentance of The gospel accounts are traditionally
Baptist sins and baptizes people, including attributed to apostles or other early
Jesus, in the Jordan River. Christ-believers. Mark was a follower
Gospel of Peter, Matthew was a tax collector
writer(s) and one of The Twelve, Luke was a
Mary ("Miriam") is the mother of physician and traveling companion of
Jesus. Her pregnancy is said to be Paul, and John was identified with the
from the Holy Spirit, and her son is Beloved Disciple of Jesus.
Mary the
also the Son of God. She is also a
mother of
follower of Jesus's teachings and
Jesus Andrew is one of the first people
seems to be present for some parts of
his ministry. The fullest account of her called to follow Jesus. He and his
story is given in the Gospel of Luke. Andrew brother Simon (later called Peter) are
fishermen who leave their livelihood
behind to become disciples.
Paul is the author of New Testament
Paul (formerly letters and an important early follower
Saul) of Jesus, even though he did not meet Apollos is a Jewish Christ-believer
Jesus during Jesus's earthly life. from Alexandria who is preaching and
baptizing in the same regions of the
Mediterranean world as Paul. The
Herod the Great is a Jewish ruler, a Acts of the Apostles reports that
client king subject to the Roman Apollos Apollos taught in Ephesus, and Paul
imperial forces that control the Roman also mentions his ministry in 1
province of Judea. His successor and Corinthians. In the epistle, it seems
Herod
son Herod Antipas is sometimes also there was some conflict in the
simply called Herod. Herod Agrippa I community between followers of
and Agrippa II are mentioned in Acts Apollos and followers of Paul.
of the Apostles.

Aquila and his wife Prisca are Christ- John of Patmos is the author of
believers connected to the Pauline Revelation. He was on the island of
mission. In his letter to the Romans, Patmos in the Aegean Sea when he
John of Patmos
Paul writes a personal greeting to received and recorded a series of
Aquila and
Aquila and Prisca and says there is a heavenly visions related to the end of
Prisca (or
church in their household. They are time.
Priscilla)
also mentioned in Acts of the
Apostles, where they accompanied
Paul on a journey from Corinth to Joseph of Arimathea is identified as a
Syria. prominent Jew and a wealthy man
Joseph of who is sympathetic to Jesus's
Arimathea teachings. After Jesus's crucifixion,
Elizabeth is the cousin of Mary, the Joseph obtained the body from Pilate
mother of Jesus. Her story is told only and buried Jesus in his own tomb.
in the Gospel of Luke. She and her
Elizabeth husband, Zechariah, thought they
were too old to have a child, but the Joseph the carpenter is the earthly
angel Gabriel foretold the birth of their father of Jesus, though the Gospels of
son, John the Baptist. Matthew and Luke point out Mary was
pregnant because of the Holy Spirit.
Joseph the
Nevertheless, various figures in the
carpenter
This angel is a heavenly messenger text refer to Joseph as Jesus's father.
from God who appears to Zechariah According to Luke, Joseph is
and to Mary the mother of Jesus in descended from the line of King
Gabriel
Luke's Gospel to foretell the births of David.
John the Baptist and Jesus,
respectively.
Judas ("Judah") Iscariot is one of the
Twelve apostles or core followers of
These two brothers are fishermen Judas Iscariot Jesus. He hands Jesus over to the
who are among the first called to Jewish authorities, which eventually
follow Jesus. They are frequently leads to Jesus's crucifixion and death.
chosen as members of a select group
James and with Simon Peter to accompany Jesus
John, sons of at key moments (the transfiguration; Jude ("Judah") is a Jewish Christ-
Zebedee the garden at Gethsemane). John is believer who is traditionally identified
sometimes identified as the Beloved Jude as a brother of Jesus named in the
Disciple and author of the Gospel of Gospel of Mark. One of the Catholic
John, though this cannot be Letters is attributed to Jude.
confirmed.
Lazarus is the brother of Martha and
According to the Acts of the Apostles, Mary who lives at Bethany. He is
James, the brother of Jesus emerged Jesus's friend, and in the Gospel of
Lazarus
as a leader among early Christ- John raises him from the dead after
believers in Jerusalem and he has already been in the tomb for
participated in the Jerusalem Council. four days.
The Letter of James is also
traditionally attributed to him because Lydia is a wealthy woman from Philippi
the author identifies himself as (modern-day Filippoi, Greece) who
James, the
"James" (actually "Jacob" in Greek; Lydia becomes a Christ-believer and
brother of
the author shares a name with the patroness after hearing the gospel
Jesus
Jewish patriarch in Genesis 22–35) in from Paul.
the letter prescript, the opening lines
that name the sender and addressees.
Traditionally, this James has been Mary ("Miriam") and Martha are
identified with the brother of Jesus friends of Jesus. They live in Bethany,
who is mentioned by Paul (Galatians Mary and a city outside Jerusalem, and
1:19) and is described as the leader of Martha according to the Gospel of John they
the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13). are the sisters of Lazarus, whom
Jesus raised from the dead.

New Testament Study Guide Plot Summary 7
Mary ("Miriam") Magdalene is one of The whore of Babylon, a female figure

the most important female followers from the book of Revelation, is a
of Jesus. According to certain gospel villainess aligned with Satan and the
accounts, she was present at the foot various beasts who oppress the
The whore of
Mary of the cross when other disciples had Christ-believers. It is likely she is a
Babylon
Magdalene fled. She is also present at the tomb symbol for the city and empire of
to discover that Jesus has been Rome, and her "whoredom"
raised from the dead, and in John's represents unfaithfulness to God, or
Gospel she is the first to encounter idolatry.
the risen Jesus.
The woman clothed with the Sun, a

Michael is an angel of God who leads female figure from the book of
the divine military forces (an army of Revelation, is threatened by the evil
Michael angels) in a battle against the dragon dragon, but she and her child are
The woman
and his angels in the book of protected by God. It is likely she is a
clothed with
Revelation. symbol for either Mary the mother of
the Sun
Jesus or for the whole church of the
Christ-believers, and her rescue
Satan is a spiritual being and former represents God's care for God's
angelic figure who fell from heaven people.
and became an adversary of God,
Satan Jesus, and Christ-believers in the New
Testament. Revelation describes how
Satan will ultimately be punished in a
lake of fire at the end of time.
k Plot Summary
Stephen is a Christ-believer in the city
of Jerusalem who is appointed to
serve as a deacon in the Acts of the
Apostles. Because he publicly
Gospels
accuses Jews of killing Jesus like they
killed God's prophets in the past, The New Testament includes four gospels, all written between
Stephen Stephen is accused of blasphemy and about 65 and 95 CE. These semibiographical narratives
stoned to death. His attitude toward
describe the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus.
death and toward those who execute
him is forgiving, echoing the death of Although there are some basic similarities and consistent
Jesus on the cross. He is identified as stories across the four narratives, each account offers a
a proto-martyr (first person to die for
unique portrait of this historical figure and his teaching. The
his Christian faith).
portraits may have been directed toward different communities
of Christ-believers, and each author has a unique religious
Timothy is a follower of Paul and the
addressee of two letters in the New message to communicate about the significance of Jesus and
Testament. The Acts of the Apostles what it means to follow him.
introduces Timothy as one of Paul's
traveling companions and missionary The gospels, which are anonymous, are named after their
Timothy partners. Various Pauline letters
supposed authors, the four evangelists. An evangelist writes an
mention Timothy as a valued partner
and even figurative child of Paul. The euangelion, a Greek term meaning "good news." In the canon,
letters 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus the gospels appear in the following order:
assume Timothy is in a position of
church leadership in Ephesus.
Gospel of Matthew
Gospel of Mark
Titus is a traveling companion of Paul, Gospel of Luke
named in the Acts of the Apostles and
Titus Gospel of John
in a Pauline letter addressed to him.
He is a leader in the early church.
Matthew, Luke, and Mark are called Synoptic Gospels.
Synoptic comes from two Greek word parts, the prefix syn-,

"together," and the noun opsis, "seeing, view, or appearance." Saul, who becomes Paul, a Jewish man who encountered the
The three can be "seen together" and share many parallels. risen Jesus in a vision and became a Christ-believer. These
Most scholars agree that the Gospel of Mark was written two figures and others are portrayed as missionaries,
earliest. When the three share common material, it is likely that empowered by the Holy Spirit to carry the good news to Jews
Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source. and gentiles throughout the Mediterranean world. Although it
offers historical information about the early Jesus movement,
In other cases, Matthew and Luke share material not in Mark, the Acts of the Apostles is not just a history book. It is an
such as the so-called "Lord's Prayer" or "Our Father" in account of Christian beginnings with a theological message,
Matthew 6 and Luke 11. Many scholars think Matthew and Luke and it seeks to inform its audience about Christian teaching
shared some other source. Scholars identify this hypothetical and ritual practices.
source as Q, which stands for quelle, the German word for
"source." Other experts argue instead that, in addition to
having a version of Mark, perhaps Luke knew Matthew's
Gospel, or vice versa. Finally, scholars try to account for
Pauline Letters
material that appears only in Matthew, such as the unique birth
The 14 letters traditionally associated with the Apostle Paul are
narrative. Most agree Matthew had his own special sources,
usually divided into several subcategories, based on whether
written or oral, and they call these sources "special M."
or not scholars agree the historical Paul is the author or
The Gospel of John is quite distinct from the Synoptic Gospels whether they might be pseudepigraphical (that is, written later
in content and structure. For example, John omits a nativity by another person and attributed to Paul). Scholars typically
story (birth narrative) and presents a different timeline for divide the 14 letters as follows:
some important events in the life of Jesus. In the synoptic

Authentic or Undisputed Paulines
accounts, Jesus cleanses the temple after his final triumphal
entry into Jerusalem, near the end of his public ministry Romans
(Matthew 21; Mark 11; Luke 19). However, the Gospel of John 1 Corinthians
locates this event early in Jesus's ministry (John 2). 2 Corinthians
Galatians
John also omits certain events; while Matthew, Mark, and Luke
Philippians
all describe Jesus sharing bread and wine during a Passover
1 Thessalonians
meal with his disciples, John does not include this episode and
Philemon
instead describes Jesus washing the feet of his disciples
during their final gathering (John 13). Most scholars conclude Deutero-Paulines or Disputed Paulines
that although John probably knew other accounts of Jesus's
life, his own theological project led him to rely on alternative Ephesians
sources and to construct his narrative differently. Colossians
2 Thessalonians
1 Timothy
Acts 2 Timothy
Titus
The Acts of the Apostles is a companion volume to the Gospel Hebrews (Note: Although traditionally attributed to Paul
of Luke, written by the same Greek-speaking author, and it across the centuries, Hebrews does not name its sender,
picks up the story of Jesus's apostles after the resurrection and most scholars no longer attribute this letter to Paul.)
and ascension of Jesus. Together, the Gospel of Luke and the

Most of the letters are occasional works; in other words,
Acts of the Apostles are sometimes called "Luke-Acts" as a
written for particular occasions in response to the specific
way of signifying their close connection and shared authorship.
needs of an individual or community. These letters contain
Acts focuses especially on two figures: Simon Peter, an practical advice for Christian living as well as explanations of
apostle who followed Jesus during Jesus's earthly life; and and debates about Christian teaching. The letters receive their

names based on the individual or community to which they are

written.
Catholic Letters
The Catholic Letters receive this title because they are thought
to have been addressed to a "catholic" or "universal" (from the
Greek term katholikos) audience of all early Christ-believers.
Rather than being written to and named after specific
communities of Christians, they are named after their
purported authors, usually identified as apostles of Jesus. The
following letters are identified as catholic or universal, in
canonical order:
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 John
3 John
Jude
Revelation
The book of Revelation has the Greek title Apocalypsis
("apocalypse" or "revelation"), a term that can be used to
identify its genre (kind or sort of literary composition). The text
claims to preserve a series of visions revealed to a Christ-
believer named John, and it also includes a collection of short
letters to seven churches on the western coast of Asia Minor
(modern Turkey).
The text is highly symbolic and perhaps even coded,

describing the persecution and suffering of Christ-believers,
their future heavenly reward, and the punishment that their
persecutors will face. It is focused on events that Christ-
believers thought would take place at the eschaton (the end of
time), when Christ returns to carry out the final judgment.
Christians, past and present, have questioned the content and
utility of Revelation.

Timeline of Events
63 BCE
Octavius is born. In 27 BCE he becomes Caesar

Augustus, Emperor of the Roman Empire and acclaimed
"Son of God."
Before Jesus's birth
Jesus's birth is foretold through natural phenomena,

dreams, or the appearance of an angel.
c. 4 BCE
Jesus is born in the Roman province of Judea.
4 CE
Herod the Great dies; Herod Antipas (King Herod)

becomes Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea.
Jesus's childhood
Luke describes Jesus talking with the Jewish elders in

the Jerusalem temple.
14 CE
Tiberius is emperor of Rome, ruling until 37 CE; likely the

one referred to as "Caesar" by Jesus.
26 CE
Pontius Pilate becomes Prefect of Judea.
c. 25–30 CE
Jesus is baptized by John the Baptist at the Jordan

River.
c. 25–30 CE
Jesus travels through Judea, angering authorities as he

teaches, heals, and performs exorcisms.
c. 30 CE
Jesus is arrested and sentenced to death by crucifixion.

Three days later
Jesus's disciples report that he has been raised from the

dead.
30s–40s CE
The Twelve establish a community of Jewish and gentile

Christ-believers in Jerusalem and Judea.
40s–50s CE
Saul/Paul travels around the Mediterranean world,

preaching the gospel to Jews and gentiles
40s–50s CE
Paul writes letters to various communities of Christ-

believers.
c. 68–70 CE
Roman military forces under the command of Trajan

destroy and loot the Jerusalem Temple.
c. 90s CE
On the island of Patmos, John (author of Revelation)

records a series of apocalyptic visions.

New Testament Study Guide Book Summaries 12
identifying him as the Messiah and says now Simon will be

c Book Summaries called Peter and is the rock on which Jesus will "build [his]
church" (Matthew 16:18).
Matthew 18–20 provides guidelines for living in a Christian
Gospel of Matthew community, especially the need for forgiveness and the
dangers of wealth and power.
Jesus is welcomed into Jerusalem by crowds waving palm
branches and singing.
Summary Jesus predicts the destruction of the temple and the
suffering that will come at the "end of the age" before the
Son of Man arrives for the final judgment.
Chapters 1–2 Parables in Matthew 25 advise people to remain watchful
and be righteous.
The gospel opens with a genealogy and birth narrative.
Matthew traces the family of Jesus back to King David and

Chapters 26–28
Abraham, key figures in the Jewish Scriptures.
An angel appears to Joseph the carpenter in a dream to say
After his Last Supper with The Twelve, Jesus is arrested and
Joseph's fiancée Mary is pregnant because of the Holy
crucified. He is raised from the dead.
Spirit, and a child, Jesus, will be born in Bethlehem.
Magi (astrologers) from the east follow a new star to the Jesus shares a Passover meal with his disciples, offering
birthplace of Jesus. them bread and wine that he identifies as his body and
While the Jewish King Herod plots to kill the infant, the magi blood.
offer Jesus gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Judas betrays Jesus, who is arrested and sentenced to
Joseph hides his family in Egypt, returning to Nazareth after death by Pilate.
Herod's death. When Jesus dies on the cross, there is an earthquake and
dead people come back to life and appear to people in the
city.
Chapters 3–25 On the third day an angel at Jesus's empty tomb tells Mary
Magdalene and other women that Jesus has risen.
Jesus travels, preaches, teaches, and heals in his public
Jesus meets his disciples on a mountain in Galilee and
ministry.
commissions them to spread the good news.
John the Baptist baptizes Jesus in the Jordan River, while

the Spirit of God descends like a dove and a voice
announces that he is God's beloved son.
Analysis
Jesus gathers 12 apostles, beginning with four fishermen
The Gospel of Matthew portrays Jesus firmly embedded in
who will now "fish for people" (Matthew 4:19), and they
Jewish tradition, as a Messiah who fulfills the promises of the
travel through Galilee "proclaiming the good news of the
Hebrew Bible. The evangelist constantly refers to prophecy
kingdom" (Matthew 4:23) and healing many.
and remarks that certain events took place "to fulfill what had
In his Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5–7), Jesus
been spoken by the Lord through the prophet" (for example,
announces Beatitudes or "blessings" for particular groups.
Matthew 1:22).
In Matthew 10 Jesus sends The Twelve out to preach and
heal, warning them they will face persecution because they In many ways, the events of Jesus's life parallel the events of
follow him. Moses's life, particularly as described in the book of Exodus.
Jesus tells many parables, or short symbolic narratives that Already in Matthew's birth narrative there are parallels to the
culminate with a moral teaching. Exodus 2 story about Moses: a hostile ruler (Pharaoh/Herod)
In a conversation with The Twelve, Jesus praises Simon for threatens and kills infants (Hebrew slaves/infants in

Bethlehem), but the story's hero (Moses/Jesus) escapes death of his son.
through divine providence and returns to/from Egypt to lead
his people.
Moses's important role as the lawgiver who brings the

Gospel of Mark
Decalogue (Ten Commandments) down from Mount Sinai
(Exodus 20) is echoed in Jesus's Sermon on the Mount in
Matthew 5–7 where Jesus, too, comments on the Mosaic law
Summary
and ways to maintain a right relationship with God and with
others. Even the dreams of Jesus's adoptive father, Joseph,
create another link to the Hebrew Bible, for the patriarch Chapters 1–13
Jacob had a son named Joseph, whose story is told in the
Jesus travels throughout the Roman province of Judea,
book of Genesis (chapters 37–50). That Joseph was another
teaching, gathering disciples, and performing miracles.
famous biblical dreamer.
John the Baptist baptizes Jesus in the Jordan River, and a

A second Hebrew Bible allusion seems to inform the
voice from heaven proclaims to Jesus, "You are my beloved
evangelist: the prophets who bring God's message to God's
son" (Mark 1:11).
people. The historical and prophetic books of the Hebrew Bible
Jesus performs healings and exorcisms for many and
describe figures who arrive to share God's message when the
teaches using parables, short symbolic narratives that
people turn to idolatry or social injustice. Often, these prophets
culminate with a moral teaching.
are rejected, even violently, by the Jewish people or their rulers
He calls followers and chooses 12 to be his apostles.
who continue to commit acts that are not righteous. Jesus
Jesus exorcises a demon called Legion.
himself references this biblical pattern in Matthew 23:29–39.
Rejected in his hometown of Nazareth, Jesus continues
There is a repeated type-scene in the Gospel of Matthew
teaching and also sends The Twelve out to preach, heal,
where Pharisees and scribes, leaders of the Jews, challenge
and exorcise demons.
Jesus's teachings and reject his message (see Matthew 12:1–8
Peter correctly identifies Jesus as the Messiah, and Jesus
and 21:23–27).
responds by giving the first of three predictions of his own
At the same time, Matthew shows some unexpected groups impending death: he will be handed over, killed, and then
such as tax collectors and sinners welcoming Jesus and his raised from the dead (Mark 8:31).
message. Even gentiles (non-Jews) such as the magi in When Jesus enters Jerusalem crowds greet him, shouting
Matthew 2 are more likely than Jews to accept Jesus in this "Hosanna" and "blessed is the coming kingdom of our
text. When the people of Jerusalem call for Barabbas to be ancestor David" (Mark 11:9–10).
released and say of Jesus, "Let him be crucified!" (Matthew Jesus foretells a period of suffering and religious
27:22–23), the gospel implies that Jesus's passion and persecution his followers will have to face, and he promises
crucifixion reenact the Jewish tendency to reject God's after the suffering the "Son of Man" will come.
prophets in the Hebrew Bible. Chapter 13 is often called the "little apocalypse" of Mark.
This is paralleled in Matthew 24–25 and Luke 21.
Another compelling feature of Matthew's account is its focus
on unusual natural phenomena, especially at Jesus's birth and
death. In part this might reflect a Greco-Roman fascination Chapters 14–16
with interpreting omens. In Greek and Roman biographies,
supernatural signs are said to accompany the births of many Jesus is betrayed and crucified, and then resurrected from the
famous rulers, such as Alexander the Great. But the new star dead.
of Matthew 2:2 and the earthquake of Matthew 27:51 could
Jesus and the disciples celebrate a Passover meal in
also be linked to a particular view of God. The God who
Jerusalem; he shares bread and wine with The Twelve,
created the heavens and the earth in Genesis 1–3 could
describing these as his body and blood.
certainly influence natural phenomena to mark the birth and
Judas arrives where Jesus is praying in the garden at

Gethsemane, and identifies Jesus by kissing him on the who he is during his lifetime. They misunderstand his teaching
cheek, so Jesus is arrested. (Mark 8:14–18) and wonder among themselves about who he is
A council of Jewish leaders and the high priest accuse (Mark 4:41). Some even push back against his prophetic
Jesus of blasphemy and announce he deserves to die. statements about his impending death; Simon Peter is
In the morning Jesus is tried by the Roman prefect Pontius reprimanded in Mark 8:33 when he tries to argue that Jesus
Pilate and sentenced to death. will not suffer and die. The Twelve are prime examples of what
At Golgotha, Jesus is put on the cross and dies. it looks like to grapple with a puzzle scholars call "the
After the Sabbath women among Jesus's followers find the Messianic secret" in the Gospel of Mark: Jesus is the Messiah,
tomb open and empty, and a young man in white clothing but most people who encounter him are unable to recognize or
tells them Jesus has been raised. understand this fact, at least until after his death.
Early manuscripts end with Mark 16:8: "And they said
nothing to anyone, for they were afraid." The unusual and composite ending of the gospel offers some
Later manuscripts include an additional ending or endings insight into what the evangelist hopes to accomplish and what
that describe the resurrected Jesus appearing to his he means by calling this text an euangelion or "good news."
followers and instructing them to spread the good news. The addition of verses 9–20 suggests the earliest readers
found the abrupt ending confusing or unsatisfying. If the
women who spoke with the mysterious figure in 16:6–7 did not
Analysis tell anyone about the empty tomb, how did news of Jesus's
resurrection spread? Some scholars argue the original, shorter
One of the most notable features of the Gospel of Mark is its ending of the Gospel of Mark might have been written
identification of Jesus as the Christ or Messiah. This claim intentionally to inspire the readers themselves to take on the
appears right away in Mark 1:1, where the evangelist role of ambassadors for the good news. After all, readers were
announces the narrative is "the good news of Jesus Christ, the told in the very first line that Jesus is the Christ and that his
Son of God." The title "good news" might describe the genre of story is good news.
the text, but it also characterizes the way the author would like
readers to think about the content of the story: this whole
account is good news for the reading and listening audience. Gospel of Luke
Yet Mark's good news is surprising, because the narrative
connects being Messiah with suffering. In his three passion
predictions and in the passion scene (Mark 15), Jesus
Summary
emphasizes suffering and even explains that those who follow
him will face persecution. This suffering figure overturns
traditional Jewish expectations about who the messiah
Chapters 1–2
(Hebrew for "anointed one") would be. Most Jews at the time
The gospel describes events leading up to Jesus's birth and
of Jesus expected the messiah would be a new king from the
describes the Nativity and selected events from Jesus's
line of David, or a prophet, or even a new Adam (the first
childhood.
human being created in Genesis 2). Jesus's criminal sentence
and violent death were certainly not what most Jews imagined The evangelist explains he researched the events of Jesus's
when they thought of God's anointed one "coming on the life in order to write an account for Theophilus (a Greek
clouds of heaven." That particular image originally appears in name meaning "friend of God" or "loved by God").
the visions described in the text of Daniel 7, but Jesus quotes it John the Baptist is born to the elderly couple Zechariah and
twice in ways that appear to refer to himself, in Mark 13:26 in Elizabeth; Elizabeth is the cousin of Mary the mother of
the so-called "little apocalypse" (a short section of apocalyptic Jesus.
teaching in Mark 13) and again during his trial before Jewish The angel Gabriel appears to the Virgin Mary and
authorities in Mark 14:62. announces she will bear the son of God.
Jesus is born in Bethlehem and visited by local shepherds
Even The Twelve, Jesus's apostles, do not seem to understand

who learned of his birth from angels. After Jesus's ascension into heaven, the disciples return to
At 12 years old, Jesus is separated from his family in Jerusalem.
Jerusalem at Passover, but they find him in the temple,
impressing the elders with his wisdom.
Analysis
Chapters 3–21 The portrait of Jesus in Luke depicts him in the role of a
universal savior, concerned especially with the needs of
Jesus travels through the province of Judea, preaching, society's outcasts: women, orphans, widows, the poor, and
healing, and gathering followers in his public ministry to Jews sinners. All of these groups, although they were typically
and gentiles (non-Jews). ignored or rejected in the society of Jesus's time, are explicitly
invited into the Christ-believing community. Luke's version of
Jesus reads promises of liberation and salvation from the
the Beatitudes in Luke 6 emphasizes the materially poor and
prophet Isaiah in the synagogue at Nazareth and tells the
those who literally hunger and thirst, a focus that contrasts
people those promises have been fulfilled today.
with the emphasis on spiritual poverty and righteousness in the
Beginning in Capernaum Jesus heals many and calls fishers
Matthean Beatitudes.
to be his first disciples.
Jewish Pharisees and scribes question his decision to dine Two famous passages in the special Lukan material (parts of
with tax collectors and his failure to follow usual Sabbath the Jesus story that appear only in Luke's Gospel) also deal
practices. with the theme of universal salvation. The parable of the Good
At the end of chapter 6 Jesus appoints 12 apostles and Samaritan (Luke 10) attempts to redefine religious boundaries,
gives a sermon that pairs Beatitudes (blessings) with woes highlighting the importance of including outsiders and being
to outline a set of ethics for his followers. generous even to your enemies. The parable of the Prodigal
Jesus continues to teach using parables while he gathers Son (Luke 15) illustrates the importance of repentance and
more followers, including many women. forgiveness among the followers of Jesus.
In a series of conflicts and debates with Jewish authorities,
Jesus denounces them and warns his apostles against The Gospel of Luke also has important connections to material
them. and ideas from the Jewish Scriptures. Especially in the early
Jesus enters Jerusalem and is greeted by crowds shouting, parts of the Gospel of Luke, scholars identify stylistic and
"Blessed is the king who comes in the name of the Lord!" thematic parallels between Luke's telling of Jesus's story and
(Luke 19:38). narratives from Israel's sacred texts. The story of the barren
couple Zechariah and Elizabeth is similar to the Genesis
account of Abraham and Sarah, who eventually have a
Chapters 22–24 promised son, Isaac.
Jesus is arrested and crucified, but he is raised from the dead When Mary sings her Magnificat, her song of praise to God,
and appears to his followers to encourage them. she echoes a similar song proclaimed by Hannah in 1 Samuel 2,
when Hannah rejoiced over the birth of her son, the prophet
Jesus shares a Passover meal with his disciples and offers Samuel. The content of the song situates the birth of Jesus in
them bread and wine that he says are his body and blood, the larger Jewish history of God's covenants with God's
asking them to repeat the meal to remember him. people. The Lukan Jesus aligns himself with the Hebrew Bible
Betrayed by Judas, Jesus is brought before the high priest prophets early on in Chapter 4, when he proclaims he has
and accused of blasphemy; the Roman governor Pontius come to fulfill the promises of liberation and salvation God
Pilate condemns Jesus to death. made through the prophet Isaiah.
Jesus is crucified.
After the Sabbath women find the empty tomb and report to
the other disciples that Jesus has risen from the dead.
Disciples encounter the risen Jesus on the road to Emmaus.

demonstrating a new and ideal model of leadership.

Gospel of John In a speech commonly called the Farewell Discourse (John
14–17), Jesus teaches his disciples and prays over them,
emphasizing the need to love one another. He promises to
Summary send the Holy Spirit as a Paraclete, or advocate, to assist
them after he returns to God the Father.
The Prologue (John 1:1–18)

Chapters 18–21
The Prologue describes the relationship between God and
Jesus, the Word of God, as a creation narrative. Jesus is betrayed, arrested, and crucified, but after his
resurrection he appears to his followers to explain their
The Word participated in creation and then came to earth in ongoing mission.
the human person Jesus.
John the Baptist appears on the scene and explicitly Jesus allows himself to be arrested and tried.
identifies himself as a witness, testifying to the arrival of Pontius Pilate sentences Jesus to death as Jews in
Jesus. Jerusalem demand, "Away with him! Away with him! Crucify
him!" (John 19:15).
On the cross Jesus entrusts his mother Mary to the care of
Chapters 2–17 the Beloved Disciple and then dies.
Outside the empty tomb the resurrected Jesus appears to
Jesus performs a series of miraculous signs designed to bring Mary Magdalene.
people to faith in his identity as the Son of God. The apostle Thomas insists he will not believe Jesus was
resurrected unless he sees and feels the nail marks in his
Jesus transforms water into wine at a wedding in the village
hands, so Jesus appears again to bolster Thomas's faith.
of Cana and then confronts merchants in the Jerusalem
In another resurrection appearance Jesus joins his disciples
Temple and drives them out, claiming they are misusing the
by the Sea of Tiberias (Galilee) to share breakfast and offer
sacred space.
final instructions for Peter and the Beloved Disciple.
By night a Jewish man named Nicodemus secretly visits
Jesus in order to learn from him.
Jesus offers "living water" to a Samaritan woman beside a
Analysis
well and heals the son of a royal official. When he heals on
the Sabbath, Jews object to his violation of the ritual day of From the prologue forward the Gospel of John depicts an
rest. extremely exalted and divine Jesus. The Johannine Jesus is a
Jesus miraculously feeds a crowd of 5,000 people and man "from above," and this repeated description describes his
walks on water before identifying himself as the "bread of heavenly origin and destination. This elevated view of what it
life" (John 6:35). means for Jesus to be the Christ or Messiah, the "anointed
Jesus forgives a woman caught in adultery, heals a man one," is what scholars call a "high" Christology.
born blind, and teaches some Pharisees who challenge him
that he is the good shepherd who "lays down his life for the John's high Christology is reflected in the "I am ..." sayings
sheep" (John 10:11). throughout the Gospel of John. Jesus uses these statements
Jesus's public ministry and miracles culminate when he to refer to different aspects of his identity. He says, "I am the
raises his friend Lazarus from the dead. bread of life" (John 6:35), "I am the light of the world" (John
Crowds in Jerusalem greet Jesus, shouting: "Hosanna! 8:12), and "I am the good shepherd" (John 10:11), among other
Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord—the statements.
King of Israel" (John 12:13).
During a private gathering with his disciples, Jesus washes These statements also echo the language of the self-revelation
their feet, explaining that this humble action is a way of of "I am who I am," or "Yahweh"—God's name in the sacred

texts of Israel—to Moses at the burning bush: "I am who I am" Beloved Disciple who is credited with testifying to the events
(Exodus 3:14). Some people do not speak or write the name recorded in the narrative, and he is called a reliable witness.
"Yahweh" out of respect. The connection to Exodus is most
obvious in the scene of Jesus's arrest, when Jesus answers There even appears to be some form of competition between
the guards who are looking for him with the sentence "I am" Simon Peter and the Beloved Disciple. When they race to the
(John 18:5) and they fall to the ground in awe. Even the empty tomb, John makes a point of reporting, "the two were
miracles that appear only in John's Gospel seem to emphasize running together, but the other disciple outran Peter and
Jesus's divine power, such as Jesus transforming water into reached the tomb first" (John 20:4), although he steps back to
wine (John 2) and raising Lazarus from the dead (John 11). let Peter enter the tomb first. The competitive dynamic
between Peter and the Beloved Disciple comes to a head
This divine Jesus performs what John calls "signs," which are during the final resurrection appearance of Jesus in John 21.
related to the evangelist's project of helping readers come to Jesus has just predicted Peter's death, and Peter tries to get
believe Jesus is the Christ and the Son of God the Father. The Jesus to tell him when the Beloved Disciple will die, but Jesus
question of belief is especially important in the story of tells Peter to mind his own business, again displacing him from
"doubting" Thomas in John 20. The apostle refuses to believe the lead role he enjoys in the Synoptic Gospels.
in Jesus's resurrection unless he sees physical proofs, and
John's Jesus makes a special point of saying that those who
can believe without seeing are more blessed than those who Acts of the Apostles
rely on signs. This teaching probably reflects the evangelist's
concern for those who read and hear the Gospel of John at the
end of the 1st century CE and beyond: although they did not
Summary
meet Jesus during his earthly lifetime, they can read about the
signs others witnessed and still come to believe.
The evangelist organizes his account differently from the Chapters 1–8
synoptic gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke), and its sequence
After Jesus ascends to heaven, his disciples begin an
provides some insight into his theological message about
evangelizing mission in Jerusalem under the leadership of
Jesus's divine knowledge. The cleansing of the temple, an
Peter and guided by the Holy Spirit.
event that makes the Jewish authorities seek to kill Jesus,
takes place not during Jesus's final visit to Jerusalem, but right On the Jewish feast of Pentecost, the Holy Spirit descends
away at the beginning of his ministry, so that the death of on the apostles and gives them the power to speak foreign
Jesus seems inevitable early on in the Gospel of John. languages, so that many in the crowd believe and are
baptized.
In John's account the timing of the Passion and crucifixion are
The Christ-believers share their possessions to help those
also distinct. In the other gospels, Jesus celebrates the
in need.
Passover meal with his disciples the night before his death. But
Apostles are arrested by the Jewish high priest and the
in John, they gather one night earlier, so that Jesus dies on the
Sadducees, but an angel opens the prison doors and lets
cross at the time when the lamb for the Passover feast was
them out.
traditionally sacrificed (see information on the Passover feast
A deacon named Stephen is stoned to death for speaking
in the book of Exodus, especially Exodus 12). This change in
against the Jews and accusing them of "opposing the Holy
the timeline reinforces Jesus's identity as the "Lamb of God,"
Spirit" (Acts 7:51).
announced by John the Baptist (John 1). Jesus seems to be in
The Christ-believers begin to travel and preach outside of
control of events and their timing.
Jerusalem; through Philip, the message travels to Samaria
The apostles in this gospel are also different from their and Ethiopia.
synoptic counterparts. In particular, the figure of the Beloved
Disciple changes The Twelve from a group mostly led by
Simon Peter to a group with multiple key figures. It is the

Chapters 9–17 Analysis

The apostle Peter and a new Christ-believer, Paul, expand the Acts depicts the growth of the Christian community, and the
mission beyond Jews, inviting gentiles (non-Jews) from cities author concentrates on who is included in the community and
throughout the Mediterranean to join the community. what is required for those who would follow what he
sometimes calls "the Way" (Acts 9:2). This "Way" is not just a
A Jewish man named Saul is arresting Christ-believers, but
set of beliefs but also a manner of life. Initially the circle of
while traveling to Damascus he hears the voice of Jesus ask
Jesus's apostles expands in Jerusalem and the immediate
him, "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?" (Acts 9:4).
area, incorporating Jews who already think of themselves as
After this, Saul joins the community.
the people of God into the group of Christ-believers; this early
While staying with a Roman centurion named Cornelius,
expansion effort shows how deeply the Christ-believing
Peter has a vision that teaches him to include gentiles in the
movement was embedded in Judaism and the teachings of the
Christian mission.
Jewish scriptures.
King Herod kills James, the brother of John, and imprisons
Peter, but one angel helps the apostle escape from prison Following "the Way" means becoming part of the people of
and another strikes Herod down. God who were first called by God as described in the Jewish
Saul, now known as Paul, travels with Barnabas to teach scriptures. Certain rituals and practices also play a role in
gentiles about Jesus the Christ in Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, marking the Christ-believers as a unified community. The
and Derbe. Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 lays out a more limited set of
At a formal council in Jerusalem the Christ-believers agree legal requirements than the Torah; circumcision is no longer
that gentiles who join the people of God need not be required, but gentiles who join the people of God as Christ-
circumcised, a requirement of the covenant God made with believers should still "abstain ... from things polluted by idols
Abraham in Genesis 17. and from fornication and from whatever has been strangled
Paul, Timothy, and Silas begin a mission to gentiles and from blood" (Acts 15:20).
throughout Macedonia and eventually reach Athens and
Corinth in the province of Achaia (modern-day Greece). Other rituals also become important for the community. The
early chapters of Acts depict the addition of followers through
the ritual of baptism, and those who join the Christ-believers
Chapters 18–28 also "devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and
fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers" (Acts
The text focuses on Paul's mission, which eventually leads him 2:41–42). These ritual acts served to unite the early Christ-
into conflict with both Jewish and Roman authorities. believers through communal practices.
At Ephesus in Asia Minor, Paul conflicts with those who But one particular belief is essential: Paul's conversion story
worship other gods. appears three times in the narrative (Acts 9, 22, 26),
After traveling to Macedonia and Greece again, Paul returns highlighting the importance of the moment when he came to
to visit Christ-believers in Ephesus and then moves on to believe that Jesus was indeed the Christ, the promised Jewish
Jerusalem, where he is arrested. Messiah (or "anointed one"). It is worth noting that the Paul
There is a Jewish plot to kill Paul, so a Roman tribune sends depicted in Acts is somewhat different from the Paul depicted
him to the Roman governor Felix in Caesarea. After two in his own authentic letters. In the Letters he strongly objects
years in prison, Paul is sent by King Agrippa to Rome so he to any Christ-believers needing to follow the Jewish law; this
can be tried by the emperor. opposition is tempered in Acts (compare Galatians 2:3 and
On the way Paul is shipwrecked, but everyone survives and Acts 16:3). Perhaps most surprisingly, Acts does not ever say
gets to Malta. that Paul wrote letters as part of his missionary activity.
Finally in Rome, Paul preaches to Jews in the city and
accuses them of rejecting God's message so that it gets Importantly, the Acts story introduces the Holy Spirit as an
sent to gentiles instead. agent in the growth of the Christ-believing community.
Paul continues to teach about Jesus for two years in Rome. Although the authors of the Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and

John all mention this divine being, the author of Luke and Acts
goes into greater detail about the role of the spirit: it inspires, Pauline Epistles and Romans
empowers, and guides the apostles and all those who join the
Christ-believing movement.
Summary
From its first appearance in the text at Pentecost (Acts 2), the
Holy Spirit plays an important role in the Christian ritual of the Paul introduces himself as an apostle, explains that he will
laying on of hands, which accompanies baptism as a way of spread the faith to gentiles (non-Jews) such as the Romans,
incorporating people into the community. At the end of the and expresses his desire to come visit them.
book Paul also notes that the Holy Spirit, speaking through the Paul warns Jews, "If you break the law, your circumcision
prophets, had correctly predicted the fate of the Christian has become uncircumcision," while gentiles who are not
movement. Some scholars have even proposed that Acts can physically circumcised may have a spiritual circumcision
be read as a history of the Holy Spirit working in the early (Romans 2:25, 29).
church. He teaches that faith in Jesus leads to righteousness for
any believer.
Throughout Acts readers see the apostles and Christ-believers
Abraham in Genesis can be the ancestor of all who have
empowered by the Spirit but facing human disbelief and even
faith because his promise comes through faith.
outright opposition. There is a repeated pattern in Paul's
Jesus is the key to faith because he died for the sake of all
journeys; for example, the apostle preaches first to Jews and
people.
then, after being rejected or imprisoned, moves on to share the
Paul writes that the believers' new life is a life in the Spirit
message with gentiles. Paul describes these breaks with the
(probably the Holy Spirit), which allows them to experience
Jews in passages such as Acts 13:46–47, 18:5–6, and
adoption as "children of God," becoming God's heirs
28:23–28. The shift from a mission to the Jews to a mission to
together with Christ (Romans 8:16).
the gentiles does not just happen city by city. Some scholars
Using the metaphor of grafting new branches onto a tree,
identify this shift of focus as a major theme of Acts. It could
Paul explains that gentile and Jewish Christ-believers have
even explain the focus on Peter, apostle to the Jews, in the
become one holy people.
early books and the change to a focus on Paul, apostle to the
Like diverse members of a single body, the Christ-believers
gentiles, in the second half of Acts.
should use their gifts for the good of the community.
Some of the most striking moments of cultural contact include Paul is proud of the work he has done to proclaim the good
Christian meetings with gentiles who are devoted to deities in news and hopes to continue his mission by traveling to
the Greek pantheon. When Greeks in Lystra and Derbe Rome and then Spain.
mistake Paul and Barnabas for the Greek gods Hermes and He concludes with personal greetings to figures in the
Zeus (Acts 14), the text seems to show that many people in the Roman ekklēsia (church community), such as his friends
ancient Roman world were trying to find commonalities Prisca and Aquila and apostles Andronicus and Junia.
between this new Christian message and kinds of theology or
religious stories that were more familiar.
Analysis
The conflict between Christ-believers and worshippers of
Artemis in Ephesus (Acts 19), however, shows that the growing The Letter to the Romans presents faith in Christ in highly
Christian community was sometimes perceived as a threat to sophisticated terms for a community of believers who are not
traditional gentile practices. Despite moments of tension and already familiar with Paul's particular version of the gospel
conflict, the text seems to suggest that some opposition to kērygma (proclamation). Many New Testament scholars think
Christ-belief can have a positive effect, because it can lead to this letter was written later in Paul's life and that it reflects his
an expanded mission and a wider distribution of the gospel mature theological thinking about faith in Christ, community
message. life, and concepts such as sin, righteousness, and justification.
This letter is one of Paul's longest letters, and as such it allows
him to present his gospel in expanded form.

One of the major points this letter makes is that the mission to himself.
the gentiles (non-Jews) is a sensible and worthwhile project. Paul reminds the Corinthians that by making himself a "fool"
Paul seems to defend his status as apostle to the gentiles in on behalf of them, Paul allowed the "power of God" to
two ways: first, he argues that the gentiles were always become the true focus (1 Corinthians 2:5).
included in God's plan of salvation; second, he maintains the Their teachers—Apollos and Paul—cooperate as builders
coming of Christ inaugurated a new way for all people to who add to God's "foundation" that is Jesus.
become children of God. He relies on frequent citations from Paul says his weakness has become a source of strength
the Jewish scriptures, especially the Psalms and prophets, to for the Christ-believers, who should imitate him.
illustrate that the God of Israel has always sought to include Paul advises the Corinthians about how to handle issues of
the gentiles. The inclusion of gentiles is God's intention from sexual morality in their community.
the time of creation (which Paul sees expressed in prophecy), Paul suggests people should remain unmarried unless
and it is accomplished through the life and death of Christ. sexual temptation would lead them into sin, and he reports
two teachings from Jesus forbidding divorce.
The relationship between law and faith is discussed. This topic Responding to reports that there are some in the
also appears in Paul's letter to the Galatians. In both letters, he community who eat food "offered to idols," probably in a
recognizes the importance of Moses, who received God's law gentile marketplace (1 Corinthians 8:4), Paul urges them to
and communicated it to the people. However, in both letters he avoid practices that threaten the faith of fellow believers.
also directs attention back before Moses to the time of Paul reminds them of the final meal Jesus ate with his
Abraham (Abraham's story appears in the book of Genesis). disciples, recounting the sharing of bread and wine and
Abraham's story is important for understanding what it means Jesus's command to repeat the process.
to belong to the people of God, because when God made a Metaphorically the believers form the body of Christ; they
covenant with Abraham he required that all males in the line of must care for and respect one another in their diversity.
Abraham be circumcised. From that point forward, according The greatest spiritual gift is love, and all members of the
to Jewish tradition, circumcision is a mark of the people of ekklēsia should put their gifts in the service of the others.
God. Paul describes the transformed "spiritual body" that
resurrected human beings will have.
Paul says that circumcision was actually a later addition to the
Paul concludes with a request that the Christ-believers
relationship between God and Abraham. That relationship
contribute money to support "the saints" in Jerusalem (1
began when God made a promise to Abraham that he would be
Corinthians 16:1).
the father of many nations and Abraham believed God, which
Paul characterizes as an act of faith. In Romans 4:11 Paul
argues, "[Abraham] received the sign of circumcision as a seal
of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still
Analysis
uncircumcised." When Paul puts faith at the center of the
The major theme of this letter to the Corinthian Christ-
relationship between God and God's people, a circumcision is
believers is unity. Paul has diagnosed their major difficulty as a
not required, nor is the law of Moses. Only faith is relevant, and
problem of factions and divisions. Throughout the letter Paul
both Jews and gentiles can have faith.
emphasizes cooperation, concern for others, and coming to a
recognition that their identity as Christ-believers does not
leave room for self-interest. He situates the Corinthian Christ-
1 Corinthians believers in the wider context of a unified community of
believers. Instead of dividing into groups loyal to particular
apostles or teachers, the Corinthians should consider
Summary themselves all as spiritual children who must learn to embrace
God's wisdom, even if that wisdom appears to be foolishness
Paul has heard that the Christ-believers have become or weakness from the perspective of the outside world.
divided based on which teacher shared the gospel with
them, whether it was Apollos, Cephas (Simon Peter), or Paul The lengthy, famous poetic discourse on love in 1 Corinthians
13 ("Love is patient, love is kind," 1 Corinthians 13:4) is a

meditation on the theological virtue that can bind the command that comes not from him but from "the Lord,"
Corinthian Christ-believers together. United in love for one presumably Jesus (1 Corinthians 7:10). Scholars who attempt
another, they can use their various spiritual gifts to support one to reconstruct a portrait of the historical Jesus use these
another and serve God instead of to gain recognition for their pieces of information about Jesus's sayings to supplement the
individual talents. narrative accounts of Jesus's life.
The letter offers some important historical insights into the

complexity of various problems Christ-believers faced as they
carved out a religious identity in a religiously pluralistic society.
2 Corinthians
Forms of worship, for example, were probably varied and could
lead to conflicts.
Summary
Gender roles are another complicated issue. In this letter Paul
offers guidance for men and women participating in liturgy, Paul recalls a past "painful visit" (2 Corinthians 2:1) but
giving instructions about men worshipping with heads writes that he hopes to visit them again.
uncovered while women wear head coverings (1 Corinthians He reminds the Corinthians in heartfelt terms that he faces
11:4–5). In a passage that some scholars believe was not everything for them, including suffering and persecution.
originally part of the letter but is a later interpolation (addition), Paul explains he has relied on God's grace while suffering
Paul also writes that women should not speak in church. hardships.
Paul praises the Corinthians for their willingness to repent,
In addition to addressing gender norms, Paul lists the kinds of which has become a cause for him to boast about them to
spiritual gifts that Christ-believers might have; his summary other believers.
reveals different roles that people could play in early Christian After writing a brief recommendation of Titus and other
liturgy, teaching, and leadership. coworkers in the mission, Paul appeals to the Corinthians to
give generously on behalf of the saints.
His instructions about the communal Lord's Supper indicate
Explaining that he works on behalf of God and not for his
that this liturgical practice was probably not performed in a
own advancement, Paul addresses some apparent
standardized way at this early stage. He has to admonish
challenges to his authority.
wealthier members of the community who bring their own food
Paul describes "a person in Christ"—probably himself—who
to the ritual meal and refuse to share with those who are less
experienced a heavenly journey as a vision or a real bodily
fortunate. He seems to be attempting to provide the
visit and received revelations.
Corinthians with some guidelines for their worship, reminding
Paul explains his plans to come visit Corinth again, so he
them that the meal is not a feast but a ritual celebration that
advises them to continue engaging in moral behavior until
should focus on its symbolic function.
his arrival.
1 Corinthians provides valuable information about what 1st-
century Christ-believers knew about the teachings and actions
of Jesus 20 to 25 years after Jesus's death. Paul is an Analysis
interesting source for this kind of information, because he
Paul identifies himself as an apostle, while it appears that some
admits in other letters that he never met the earthly Jesus
other early Christ-believers question his authority to teach the
(see, for example, Galatians 1:16). However, in 1 Corinthians he
gospel and even challenge his use of the apostolic title.
relates a narrative about Jesus's final meal with his disciples, at
Because Paul addresses this problem head on, the letter offers
which Jesus symbolically shared his body and blood with his
readers some insight into what various early Christ-believers
followers. Already by Paul's time this event had become the
thought an apostle was, and what responsibilities or liabilities
basis for a ritual meal among Christ-believers; eventually, it
went along with that position of authority.
served as the foundation for the proto-orthodox Christian ritual
of communion or Eucharist (Greek for "thanksgiving").
The definition of the Greek term apostolos is one who is sent
on behalf of another, an ambassador. Paul defends his use of
He also identifies his teaching forbidding divorce as a

the title when he describes his work: "So we are ambassadors distressing to the community at Corinth and "grieved" them (2
for Christ, since God is making his appeal through us; we Corinthians 7:8). Another popular partition theory suggests
entreat you on behalf of Christ, be reconciled to God" (2 that Paul is responding in 2 Corinthians 1–9 to a positive report
Corinthians 5:20). In 2 Corinthians 10 he points out that no from Titus, while the remaining chapters (2 Corinthians 10–13)
matter what attributes the others use to boast or brag about reflect a different, more negative situation.
themselves, he is equally qualified. In fact, he points out, his
willingness to undergo serious suffering and remain hopeful
makes him superior to those who just list their qualifications. Galatians
Paul's comments about the divine source of his authority are
also revealing; he asserts that a heavenly vision gives him
authority to teach. Most scholars agree that the cryptic
Summary
passage about "a man" who had a heavenly vision "whether in
Paul defends the gospel he preached to the Galatians as "a
the body or out of the body" (2 Corinthians 12:2–3) probably
revelation of Jesus Christ," not a teaching with human
refers to Paul himself. Paul understands this episode can
origins (Galatians 1:12).
provide his teachings with a sort of legitimization that he can
In a brief autobiography, Paul highlights his zeal for Jewish
use to refute those other apostles who challenge his role in the
traditions and describes how God revealed God's son to
Corinthian ekklēsia.
him.
The relationship between the Corinthians and other church Paul clarifies the nature of his calling to preach to the
communities is an important component of the discussion in 2 gentiles.
Corinthians. While 1 Corinthians seemed to focus mainly on Paul accuses Cephas of hypocrisy because although he had
ending divisions and creating unity within the Corinthian been eating meals with uncircumcised Christ-believers, he
ekklēsia, this letter reveals that a wider unity among all Christ- stopped once representatives from Jerusalem arrived in
believers was also important to Paul. town.
Paul claims it is not circumcision or dietary practices that
His desire for unified teaching and the spread the gospel lead to justification, but argues that people are justified
shapes several elements of the letter. First, Paul prioritizes "through faith in Jesus Christ" (Galatians 2:15–16).
teaching over his personal reputation and safety. He is willing Paul says that Abraham was counted righteous because he
to subordinate his own well-being to the mission. Second, the believed God, and anyone who believes is a descendant of
spread of the gospel is so important that the Corinthian Christ- Abraham.
believers need to put their personal grievances aside. Interpreting the Genesis story of Sarah and Hagar as an
Accordingly, in 2 Corinthians 7 Paul can rejoice that the allegory (symbolic narrative), Paul contrasts promise and
Corinthians have repented of their past wrongdoing, and in 2 flesh, freedom and slavery, and Mount Sinai and the
Corinthians 5 he can urge them to work toward reconciliation heavenly Jerusalem.
with others and with God. Third, the unity among Christ- Paul teaches that choosing to be circumcised means having
believers that Paul envisions gives him the confidence to to obey the entire law, a focus that may cut a person off
request monetary donations for the good of "the saints" from Christ, the real source of justification and freedom.
(believers) in Jerusalem. He warns against "works of the flesh" such as "sexual
immorality, impurity, licentiousness, idolatry" but encourages
Some New Testament scholars argue that the best way to gain
them to produce "fruits of the Spirit" such as "love, joy,
insight into the historical situation in Corinth is to search for
peace, patience, kindness, generosity" (Galatians 5:19–20,
seams in 2 Corinthians where it appears that multiple letters
22).
have been "stitched together" to form the single canonical
Paul proclaims that what truly matters is becoming "a new
letter that is part of the modern New Testament. The existence
creation" in Christ (Galatians 6:15).
of another letter in their ongoing correspondence would
explain a statement such as 2 Corinthians 2:3 ("I wrote as I
did") or Paul's admission that he sent a letter that was

Ultimately, Paul's argument against circumcision looks back to

Analysis Abraham and the circumstances under which the God of Israel
made a covenant with Abraham that, Paul says, was based on
The central question in the letter to the Galatians—whether or
Abraham's faith or belief. By turning to the Jewish scriptures as
not gentile Christ-believers should be circumcised as part of
a reliable source of instruction, Paul demonstrates that within
their initiation into the people of God—is one of the important
early Christ-believing communities, the sacred texts of
practical and theological concerns early Christ-believing
Judaism constituted the authoritative canon of scripture.
communities faced. Paul's argument in Galatians, which
eventually prevailed as the proto-orthodox position (orthodox The letter also highlights the tangible impact of biblical
literally means "right teaching" in Greek) makes clear that he interpretation and theological debates within Christ-believing
does not believe circumcision is necessary, because faith is communities. At the end of the letter, Paul frames his practical
the true means of becoming part of the people of God. It is advice to the community in the form of another dichotomy:
also clear from Paul's vehemence that there were other Christ- flesh and spirit. He draws on fairly traditional lists of virtues and
believers who thought circumcision was and should be vices that would have been familiar to both gentile and Jewish
required. audiences, but he maps his recommendations and warnings
onto flesh and spirit, with spirit representing the superior
The letter serves as a record of the messy nature of this
option.
debate and the fault lines that appear to have divided church
figures such as Paul and Peter/Cephas (Galatians 2:11–14); in It is also clear in the letter that the divisions between those
contrast, the Acts of the Apostles depicts a "Jerusalem who recommend circumcision and those, like Paul, who see it
Council" meeting where the followers of Jesus meet in as unnecessary are a source of distress. Throughout the letter
Jerusalem and calmly, without much strife, come to an official he expresses a concern for unity among Christ-believers.
agreement about not needing circumcision (see Acts 15).
Paul's argumentative techniques place him firmly in a

Hellenistic Jewish context: he employs sophisticated Greek
Philippians
rhetorical techniques in interpreting the language and content
of the Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures. He uses this
rhetoric to persuade the Galatians to accept his teachings. Summary
Paul sets up a series of dichotomies (strongly opposed pairs of Paul and his cosender Timothy write to "all the saints" in
concepts) to make his argument that circumcision is not a Philippi.
requirement for those who would belong to the people of God. Paul is in prison, but while there he has been able to spread
Some of the dichotomous pairs include law and faith (Galatians the gospel to the guards.
3:11), flesh and promise (Galatians 4:23), freedom and slavery Although he would like to "depart and be with Christ" by
(Galatians 4:25–26), and flesh and spirit (Galatians 5:16). These dying, he knows it is "more necessary" for his Philippian
strong contrasts are designed to encourage readers to agree followers that he continue to live and maintain a relationship
with Paul. with them (Philippians 1:23–24).
The poem or hymn in Paul's letter describes how Christ was
Throughout the letter, Paul engages in careful exegesis or
in the form of God but acted like a slave when he submitted
interpretation of the Jewish scriptures. He concentrates
to death on a cross.
especially on the story of Abraham, which appears in the book
Paul offers specific advice to two women, Euodia and
of Genesis. Paul also refers to the lawgiver Moses, whose
Syntyche, who have apparently been involved in some kind
story is told in the books of Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus, and
of dispute.
Deuteronomy. In Galatians 4 Paul employs allegorical
His final reminders to the community emphasize joy.
interpretation, reading the elements of the Genesis story about
Sarah and Hagar as symbols that represent other abstract
ideas.

Analysis 1 Thessalonians
The letter advises rejoicing in the midst of, and perhaps even
because of, suffering. Paul presents a number of examples
that the Philippians can imitate when they are ready to
Summary
participate in this way of life. Paul himself is one example. He
Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy write to the ekklēsia, or church
argues that his personal suffering can advance the gospel if
community, of the Thessalonians.
people see him persevering, even in prison (Philippians 1).
Paul praises the Thessalonians for their faith.
The autobiographical information in Philippians 3 provides a Paul notes he was worried that the Thessalonian community
model for shifting one's focus from what Paul calls the might have turned away from their faith, but writes that
concerns of the flesh to matters of the spirit. He uses this Timothy has visited the Thessalonians and reported back
dichotomy (pair of opposites) of flesh and spirit to describe his with "the good news of your faith and love" (1 Thessalonians
changing understanding of righteousness: while Judaism 3:6).
requires circumcision and participation in the covenant, Paul The letter encourages them to practice holiness and honor,
argues that Christ-believers are righteous because of Christ. a practice that will make them stand out from the gentiles
Finally, Paul points out that all of his suffering has taught him to and mark them as followers of God.
be satisfied with whatever life sends his way, as long as he Although some community members have died, Paul
relies on the strength he gets from God and Christ. reminds the rest of the resurrection and Jesus's second
coming.
The central example of how enduring suffering can be positive The "day of the Lord" will be a time of final judgment that will
comes from Jesus. The gospel summary in the hymn of come suddenly and unexpectedly; Paul compares it to a
Philippians 2 introduces a Christological concept called thief and to labor pains.
kenōsis, a Greek term that means emptying. According to the He advises them to remain attentive, to "put on the
hymn Christ was in the form of God but emptied himself and breastplate of faith and love, and for a helmet the hope of
became subject to suffering and death. Christ's willingness to salvation" (1 Thessalonians 5:8).
undergo the extreme humiliation of being executed as a Paul prays that "the God of peace himself" will bless them,
criminal is rewarded: God exalts Christ and gives him authority he requests their prayers, and he asks them to greet the
to be glorified in all of creation. members of the community.
Paul also references the idea of a divine reward if Christ-

believers share Christ's suffering "by becoming like him in his Analysis
death" (Philippians 3:10). The hymn may be an original Pauline
composition, but some scholars suggest it was a preexisting This fairly brief letter has an overwhelmingly positive tone, and
piece of Christ-believers' baptismal liturgy (public worship) that it appears that Paul considers the gospel mission in
Paul chose to include in the letter, because it supported his Thessalonica a success. His lengthy thanksgiving in Chapter 1
theological teachings. summarizes the positive outcomes of the community's
commitment to their newfound Christ-belief, including their
Some scholars suggest that Paul might have been considering
ability to serve as a good example for other groups in
suicide at the time he wrote this letter. In the ancient Greco-
Macedonia and Achaia. This idea of modeling committed faith
Roman world and in Paul's Jewish context, suicide could be
allows Paul to articulate a link between the Thessalonian
considered a form of noble death if it was undertaken out of
Christ-believers and Paul himself. In the letter he points out
commitment to some philosophical or religious ideal. In the
parallels such as being willing to suffer for one's faith (1
letter to the Philippians, Paul suggests that his own death and
Thessalonians 1:6 and 2:2) and abounding in love for others (1
departure from earthly life would have the advantage of uniting
Thessalonians 2:7–8, 10; and 3:12).
him to Christ. However, the religious ideal of serving the living,
Christ-believing community seems to outweigh Paul's own When Paul does address problems in the Thessalonian
desire to go be with Christ. ekklēsia, or faith community, he seems to be expanding on or

clarifying ideas that he presented while he was in the city. Philemon's household who has probably run away from the
Based on the advice in the letter, scholars can reconstruct household and fled to Paul.
some sense of the circumstances the Christ-believers were Paul urges Philemon to welcome the man back as a brother,
facing. Because it advises them on issues of sexual behavior, not a slave.
there may have been some particular situation that was a The letter closing lays out Paul's hope that he will be able to
challenge in Thessalonica. stay at Philemon's home.
The other major problem in Thessalonica seems to be that

some members of the community have died, and Jesus has not Analysis
returned yet, even though Paul's initial gospel proclamation
probably suggested that Jesus was returning imminently. Although it is quite brief, the letter to Philemon makes two
Again, Paul suggests a shift of focus to spiritual realities. He focused points that provide readers with insight into some
advises keeping their focus on the resurrection of Jesus, which ways Christ-belief could reconfigure traditional structures of
is a model for the resurrection that all believers will experience authority. First, Paul emphasizes the authority and power
at the end of time. Even if the parousia or second coming is associated with his identity as an apostle. By acknowledging
delayed, when it happens both the living and the dead will be that he is choosing to persuade rather than rely on his superior
raised. position in verses 8–9, he implies that an apostle of Jesus does
have the authority to command other believers.
The concept of the parousia reverberates throughout the
letter. The authors look ahead to the day when their praise for Second, Paul employs a powerful kinship (family) metaphor to
the Thessalonians will become "boasting before our Lord describe the ideal Christ-believing community, which is
Jesus at his coming" (1 Thessalonians 2:19). The similes of a structured somewhat differently from a typical Greco-Roman
thief and of labor pains highlight the fact that the second household. Paul himself describes Philemon's slave Onesimus
coming will be sudden and perhaps even frightening. The letter as his own "child" (Philemon 10). This language probably
includes a powerful metaphor of battle armor, which the expresses the closeness of their personal bond, but it might
authors use to illuminate something about the Christ-believers' also reflect Paul's view of the fictive kinship that exists
way of life in the world. Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy present between all Christ-believers. Paul's role as a virtual "father" to
them as embattled and perhaps even in danger from various Onesimus highlights again the nature of the hierarchical
spiritual threats. Hopelessness is just one such danger. The relationship between an apostle and those who learn from him.
Christ-believers must also prepare themselves to reinforce
their faith and love. Paul grounds faith, hope, and love (later, But the parent–child metaphor also suggests there is a tender
these are recognized as the cardinal virtues) in Christ but also or protective component to that relationship. Research on
in the community. ancient slaveholding practices reveals that a household slave
such as Onesimus would have been totally subject to the
commands of his owners, and there could be extremely harsh
Philemon punishments for running away. However, Paul suggests that
the runaway slave should be welcomed back into the
household not as a slave but as a "beloved brother" (Philemon
16) because he is now, like Philemon, a Christ-believer. Paul is
Summary suggesting that the status of believers should override any
existing social status.
Paul and Timothy write to Philemon, Apphia, and Archippus,
each of whom receives a special title: they are called a "dear
friend and coworker," "sister," and "fellow soldier,"
respectively (Philemon 2). Ephesians
Paul says Philemon's act of sharing his faith will become
part of "all the good that we may do for Christ" (Philemon 6).
Paul writes on behalf of Onesimus, an enslaved person from

soon for the final judgment, as the decades passed and he did
Summary not appear, Christ-believers struggled to explain and respond
to the delay of the parousia. Living in the midst of Greek cities
The letter sends a greeting and peace wish from Paul to
in the Roman Empire might have made it difficult to maintain
"the saints who are in Ephesus" (Ephesians 1:1).
the radically egalitarian community life that Paul
The author reminds the Ephesians of God's mercy.
recommended.
The author specifies that the Ephesians' salvation was
necessary because they were formerly gentiles and not The instructions to husbands, wives, parents, children, slaves,
Jews. and masters in Ephesians 5–6 outline a household hierarchy
The author explains his own role in the process of salvation: that corresponds much more closely with the status quo in
he received a commission to reveal "the mystery of Christ" Greco-Roman society. Such household codes might be one
to the gentiles (Ephesians 3:4). way the growing Christ-believing communities decided to
He tells the Ephesians that the faith community must grow create order while waiting for the delayed second coming. As
up in Christ so that they can avoid false doctrines and false the contrast between Galatians 3 and Ephesians 5–6 indicates,
teachers. the teaching of this letter is noticeably different from Pauline
The author provides instructions about relationships within teaching in letters that are universally recognized as authentic.
Christ-believing households: husband and wife, children and
parents, slaves and masters. The author of Ephesians situates the Christ-believers and their
The author's advice picks up a metaphor that Paul used in 1 experience in a cosmic context. He frequently refers to a
Thessalonians, the "armor of God" (Ephesians 6:10). dualistic battle between "the devil" (specifically mentioned in
Promising to send a missionary named Tychicus to the Ephesians 4:27 and 6:11) and the believers who are on the side
community, the author concludes with a wish that the of God and Christ. The image of spiritual battle armor creates
Ephesians will have peace and "love with faith" (Ephesians an elevated sense of Christ-believers being locked in mortal
6:23). combat with evil forces. The discussions of sin or
transgression in the letter are all framed as part of the same
cosmic battle.
Analysis
Human beings might play a role in misleading the Christ-
This letter provides some insight into the way Christ-believers believers through "trickery" or "craftiness in deceitful
developed a distinct identity that was grounded in Judaism but scheming," but the spiritual forces of evil are portrayed as
nevertheless separate from it. Many New Testament scholars more threatening (Ephesians 4:14). Most of the letters that
point out that the letter seems to assume its readers have very scholars recognize as authentically Pauline recognize the
little knowledge of Jewish traditions. existence of vices but do not make the explicit connection
between wrongdoing and evil.
The author makes a point of defining circumcision and
explaining that it is an actual physical procedure (Ephesians
2:11). In part, this gap in the Ephesians' knowledge can be Colossians
attributed to their gentile background. However, some argue
that the author needs to provide additional explanations
because he is writing to an audience of Christ-believers after
Summary
enough time has passed that the early connections between
Judaism and Christ-belief have started to deteriorate; that is, in
A thanksgiving section compliments the Colossian Christ-
the late 1st century CE.
believers on their faith, hope, and love, central virtues in
early Christian thought.
Some of the distinctive features of this letter can be explained
A short hymn praises Christ and explains his significance for
as part of an early Christian response to the passage of time
the ekklēsia (church community) and for creation as a
since the resurrection of Jesus. Although Paul and his early
whole.
followers believed that the resurrected Jesus would return
The author angrily warns that opponents of his own mission

are presenting "philosophy and empty deceit" that is not The ekklēsia (church community) described in this letter is
divine or linked to Christ (Colossians 2:8). centered on Christ but also includes households that are
Because the Colossians share in Christ's triumph, they do structured much like traditional Greco-Roman households in
not need to engage in the sorts of behaviors the new the 1st-century Mediterranean world. Colossians 3:18–4:1
teachers propose, which include observing festivals and offers what looks like a brief household code, a set of
Sabbaths and obeying dietary laws, but they should "set instructions for how various members of a family ought to treat
[their] minds on things that are above, not on things that are each other. Hierarchical relationships between men and
on earth" (Colossians 3:2). women, parents and children, and masters and slaves are to be
Wives, husbands, children, parents, slaves, and masters are preserved, and the author sees this order as "fitting" for Christ-
all advised to treat each other with respect and deference. believers. This view of household dynamics is somewhat
The author reminds the Christ-believers that prayer is an different from the radical egalitarianism found in some of the
important part of their community life, and he requests that Pauline Letters that scholars typically recognize as authentic.
they pray for him and his mission.
The author requests that once the Colossians have read the The letter has a distinctive view of salvation as well, which
letter they circulate it to believers in the nearby city of reflects the diversity of early Christian thought about how and
Laodicea, to spread its message. when salvation happens. The author appears to believe that
the Christ-believers in Colossae are already participating in a
full version of salvation; this view can be contrasted with some
Analysis Pauline teachings that claim Christ-believers will not
experience full participation until the resurrection, when their
This letter presents a distinctive Christology, or explanation of earthly lives have ended. In Colossians, the body does not
what it means to say that Jesus is the Christ (literally "anointed seem to be an obstacle. By becoming members of the
one" and a translation of the Hebrew "Messiah"). The hymnic community, the Colossians already have the kind of spiritual
language of Colossians 1:15–20 might reflect early Christian body that Paul elsewhere says will only happen in the
liturgical music, especially given that the author later instructs resurrection.
his addressees to "sing psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs to
God" (Colossians 3:16).
2 Thessalonians
The content of the hymn identifies Christ as preexistent,
present at the time of creation and active in the process of
creating the universe and everything in it. New Testament
scholars and theologians typically consider this kind of "high"
Summary
Christology to be a development that did not occur until the
Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy send their letter to the ekklēsia
end of the 1st century CE. The Christology of this letter to the
(church community) at Thessalonica, praising them for their
Colossians therefore suggests that it was probably not written
endurance in faith.
by the historical Paul, who composed most of his letters in the
At the parousia or second coming, Jesus will arrive "with his
40s and 50s CE.
mighty angels in flaming fire, inflicting vengeance on those
Another striking element of the view of Christ in this letter is who do not know God and on those who do not obey the
that the author identifies Christ as the head of the church gospel of our Lord Jesus" (2 Thessalonians 1:7–8).
(Colossians 1:18; 2:19). Letters of Paul that are usually The Thessalonians should not "be quickly shaken in mind or
considered authentic, for example 1 Corinthians, also use the alarmed" or "deceived" by anyone who teaches that the time
body as a metaphor to describe the community of Christ- has already come.
believers, but the emphasis in those passages is on all The end will not come until after the "lawless one," who is an
members of the body working cooperatively. The Colossians ally of Satan, and other evil forces have been destroyed.
image of Christ as head introduces a hierarchical component The letter warns the Thessalonians to avoid believers who
and makes explicit an uneven power dynamic between Christ are "living in idleness and not according to the tradition that
and those who follow him. they received from us" (2 Thessalonians 3:6).

Paul encourages idle members of the community to work. by teachings that do not match his own, even if those
teachings arrive in the form of a letter written "as though from
us" (2 Thessalonians 2:2). Although Paul frequently mentions
Analysis rival teachers and rival teachings in his letters, the specific
warning against forged letters is unusual and suggests the
This letter contains extensive structural similarities to the author of 2 Thessalonians is aware of pseudepigraphic Pauline
canonical letter 1 Thessalonians. The general outline of a Letters—presumably including his own.
prescript, thanksgiving, section about the parousia, second
thanksgiving, and paraenesis maps almost exactly onto a
similar outline of sections in 1 Thessalonians. Admittedly, most 1 Timothy
ancient letters follow a standard outline, or epistolary form.
However, the inclusion of a second thanksgiving is atypical and
stands out in both of these letters (cf. 1 Thessalonians 3:9 and
2 Thessalonians 2:13).
Summary
The letters also share much of the same vocabulary. Key The letter sends greetings from Paul to Timothy, who is
repeated terms include "persecutions" the Christ-believers teaching in Ephesus and facing opposition from some false
face (1 Thessalonians 1:6; 3:3 and 2 Thessalonians 1:4) and the teachers.
advice to "stand firm" in the face of them (1 Thessalonians 3:8 The author recounts how he was called to the service of a
and 2 Thessalonians 2:15). merciful Christ, even though he was a "blasphemer, a

persecutor, and a man of violence" (1 Timothy 1:13).
However, the view of the parousia in this letter is strikingly The community should pray for civic leaders; men should
different from what Paul describes in 1 Thessalonians. In 1 pray peacefully, and women should not teach or hold
Thessalonians, Paul seeks to reassure the Thessalonian authority over men in the community, a teaching the author
community that although some of their members have died and bases on the story of Eve misleading Adam in Genesis.
the risen Jesus has not yet returned, they should not worry. The author describes ideal qualities and personality traits
The expectation behind that consoling message is still that the for bishops and deacons: one way to judge their
parousia is imminent. qualifications is to see if they are good household
managers.
2 Thessalonians, in contrast, addresses a very different type of It is Timothy's responsibility to keep people informed about
problem: apparently, some Thessalonians have become sound teaching, even while false teachers introduce
convinced that the parousia already happened. The author different ideas.
needs to remind them that there are certain circumstances The letter provides instructions about how to treat specific
that must come to pass first, before the parousia. Most groups in the community, especially widows who should be
important among these is the destruction of the so-called cared for if they have need or who should remarry if they
"lawless one." This figure is not ever mentioned in the letters are young.
that scholars accept as authentically Pauline. If people seek personal gain from their teaching, they are
entering into a gravely risky situation, for "money is a root of
Some other features of the letter lead New Testament
all kinds of evil" (1 Timothy 6:10), so Timothy himself should
scholars to suspect pseudepigraphy, or false attribution to
reject all these negative things and "fight the good fight of
another author. Many scholars read a passage such as 2
the faith" (1 Timothy 6:12).
Thessalonians 3:17 as a heavy-handed attempt to prove the
letter is authentic: "I, Paul, write this greeting with my own
hand. This is the mark in every letter of mine; it is the way I
write." This assertion is demonstrably false (see Romans, for
Analysis
example), but it is the kind of thing an author might say to try to
One of the most striking features of this letter is that it
convince readers of his fictional identity.
mentions bishops and deacons, people with formal titles who
Similarly, the author cautions his addressees not to be fooled held church leadership positions in early Christian

communities. Bishops (Greek episkopoi or "overseers") and

deacons (Greek diakonoi or "servants") are not mentioned in 2 Timothy
the letters that most scholars recognize as authentically
Pauline, so their inclusion in 1 Timothy is part of what leads
people to see the letter as a later pseudepigraphic Summary
composition.
Although the author, writing as Paul, is in prison and
However, the letter's information about such church leaders suffering, he does not want Timothy to be ashamed about
provides important insight into the hierarchy that was this undignified circumstance because the call from God
eventually organized to lead Christ-believing groups near the allows him to suffer without shame.
end of the 1st or the start of the 2nd century CE. The letter Timothy should focus on sound teaching from the author.
holds these individuals to high standards of personal integrity Timothy should be like a soldier, an athlete, or a farmer: by
and appropriate social behaviors. putting in the necessary work, even when it is challenging,
he will earn his reward.
The letter emphasizes the importance of reliable teaching, as
Hymenaeus and Philetus have been spreading an incorrect
well as of reliable teachers. It therefore offers modern readers
understanding of the resurrection, saying it has already
and scholars key information about how Pauline teaching was
taken place, and the author compares their misguided
received and respected among early Christ-believers. The
teaching to "gangrene" (2 Timothy 2:17).
teaching is something that was "entrusted" to Timothy (1
Suffering is an inevitable part of following Christ, so Timothy
Timothy 6:20), just as it was "entrusted" to Paul (1 Timothy 1:11).
should continue to hold on to the tradition embodied in the
The letter is concerned about false teachers who would sacred writings.
deceive and lie, and this concern seems to reinforce the great Like an athlete, the author says he has fought and run the
weight its author gives to authoritative teaching that comes race, and he is looking ahead to a crown of righteousness.
from reliable sources. Only this teaching can lead to "the The author writes he has been abandoned by several
knowledge of the truth" (1 Timothy 2:4). companions, but he looks forward to seeing Mark.
Household codes in 1 Timothy give information about the way

Christ-believing communities translated their beliefs and Analysis
teachings into everyday life. These kinds of practical concerns
would be unusual for the historical figure Paul, who advised One of the most important aspects of this letter is its
communities such as the Corinthian Christ-believers not to commentary on Christian suffering. It offers insight into the
change anything about their way of life, because Jesus's return way the author understood the relationship between the
was imminent. The development of complex household codes gospel and hardships. Put otherwise, the letter offers a
fits better in a time when Christ-believers needed to keep powerful summary of the way an early Christ-believer could
themselves organized, even though the parousia—the second view difficult experiences in light of teachings about Christ and
coming of the resurrected Jesus—had been indefinitely the resurrection.
delayed.
Suffering is apparently an unavoidable part of following Christ,
The expectations for women in this letter should be but it is not without purpose. Because the author, identifying
highlighted. While Paul wrote in Galatians 3:28 that "there is no himself as Paul, has "fought the good fight" and "finished the
longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus," race," he anticipates receiving a heavenly crown in the
the author does not hold such an egalitarian view. Women are resurrection or at the last judgment (2 Timothy 4:7). His
not supposed to be teachers or leaders in the community, and suffering can even serve as an inspirational example for
young women especially are encouraged to marry and bear others. His suffering has demonstrated to him that no matter
children. These gender roles bring Christ-believing what happens, Christ will not abandon him.
communities closely into line with traditional Greek
The letter employs a number of powerful similes to encourage
philosophical teachings about virtue and the restriction of
endurance, and this feature can help scholars understand the
women to a domestic sphere of influence.

cultural context of the letter and its author. 2 Timothy 2

exhorts Timothy to be like a "good soldier," like "an athlete,"
Analysis
and "like a farmer" (2 Timothy 2:3, 5, 6). All three of these
Like 1 Timothy, another of the three Pastoral Epistles, the letter
images call to mind someone who puts up with temporary
to Titus offers some information about the requirements or
difficulties for the sake of a larger goal. They are also images
expectations for leaders in the early Christ-believing
commonly used in Greek philosophical texts to inspire people
communities. The author describes the ideal bishop (Greek
to continue striving for a life of virtue even if it is difficult. Some
episkopos; literally, "overseer") in quite specific terms in Titus
scholars think the use of these similes in 2 Timothy reflects its
1:7–9. The letter also describes the qualities of an ideal
composition in a late 1st-century community of Christ-believers
teacher, albeit indirectly. All of the personal instructions given
who were seeking ways to reconcile their Christ-belief with
to Titus might be applicable to other missionaries or people
some aspects of Greek literary or philosophical culture.
who preach the gospel to potential Christ-believers.
Additionally, 2 Timothy offers insight into what character traits
Most importantly, preachers such as Titus must preserve the
are required (or at least desirable) for an early Christian
integrity of the teaching they have received. The author refers
community member. It talks about traits and attributes that are
to this teaching as "sound doctrine" and highlights that it is
important for believers such as Timothy, who does not seem to
trustworthy (Titus 2:1). Those who teach this doctrine do so
hold any formal office but is committed to teaching the gospel.
because it has been "entrusted" to them by God, who is the
Anyone who is "the Lord's servant" should teach with kindness,
main authority commissioning preachers to share the message
patience, and gentleness (2 Timothy 2:24–25). While 1 Timothy
about salvation (Titus 1:3).
seems concerned to build a Christian community and
leadership that does not give Christ-belief a bad reputation or Titus includes a brief household code that lays out the
repel people, 2 Timothy gives more attention to ways of expectations for different kinds of people within the Cretan
attracting and inviting new believers. churches. Although men and women of all ages, as well as
slaves, are instructed to cultivate self-control, there are also
distinctive instructions for each group, and these instructions
Titus outline a way of life that corresponds closely to gender roles
and hierarchies within a traditional Greek household of the 1st
century CE. These kinds of practical concerns would be
Summary unusual for the historical figure Paul, who advised communities
such as the Corinthian Christ-believers not to change their
The author states that he left Titus in Crete so that he could social status because Jesus's return was imminent.
take charge of the Christ-believing communities there.
The development of complex household codes fits better in a
Bishops that Titus appoints should be hospitable and
time when Christ-believers needed to keep themselves
virtuous, and it is most important that they teach sound
organized, even though the parousia—the second coming of
doctrine.
the resurrected Jesus—had been indefinitely delayed. The
Titus himself should teach sound doctrine and instruct
expectations for women and slaves in this letter should be
members of the Christ-believing communities to live
noted. Slaves are instructed to "be submissive to their
virtuously.
masters" (Titus 2:9), and women are to be "submissive to their
If the Christ-believers display self-control, outsiders will not
husbands" (Titus 2:5).
be able to say anything bad about them; more importantly,
Christ-believers should live well while waiting for the second
coming of Christ.
They should all avoid controversy and quarreling. Hebrews
The letter concludes rather quickly with some instructions
about sending messengers or coworkers back and forth
between Crete and Paul's location.

closing in Hebrews 13, especially because it ends with a

Summary statement about travel plans (the author says he and Timothy
will probably visit soon, in Hebrews 13:23) and asks the readers
God used prophets to speak to former generations but has
to greet specific groups (Hebrews 13:24).
now sent God's son, who "is the reflection of God's glory
and the exact imprint of God's very being," who purified sin The letter's view of Christ focuses on sacrifice and covenant.
and then was resurrected (Hebrews 1:3). Many scholars believe that Hebrews must have been written
Jesus viewed all human beings as brothers and sisters, near the end of the 1st century CE in order to allow time for
sharing the same Father, and he was willing to share their this type of Christology to develop in the years after Jesus's
flesh and blood to destroy the devil and free all human death. By comparing Jesus and Jewish priests, the author
beings from the fear of death. offers an interpretation of Jesus's crucifixion as an atoning
Quoting Psalm 95:7, the author advises the people not to sacrifice that secures, eternally, forgiveness for human sin.
harden their hearts; instead, he urges them to remember This interpretation is most clearly explained in Hebrews 9,
they "have become partners of Christ" (Hebrews 3:14). where the author goes into detail about the usual form of
God will discern and judge each person's worthiness. sacrifice in Jewish history and cult (religious practices). He
Instead of offering the blood of animals in sacrifice, Jesus describes how the priests perform sacrifices, tracing their
gave his own blood on the cross. work all the way back to the time when the tabernacle was first
Because there has been forgiveness of sins in Jesus's constructed in the wilderness and the priesthood was
unique sacrifice, offerings for sin no longer need to be established in Moses's brother Aaron. He focuses on the role
made. of animal blood in purification, explaining how the blood was
The Hebrews, surrounded by witnesses in the patriarchs used to sanctify and purify "those who have been defiled"
and leaders of the Jewish scriptures, should look to Jesus (Hebrews 9:13). By analogy, he explains that Christ's blood,
as the model for their faith. shed in the crucifixion, is an even greater atoning sacrifice that
The author encourages his readers to be hospitable, protect does not need to be repeated every year, but was effective
the integrity of marriage, respect their leaders, and always once and for all.
be willing to suffer like Jesus.
Although Jesus introduces a new covenant and a new, eternal
sacrifice, for the author of Hebrews his role in salvation is
Analysis deeply connected to Jewish history as told in the Jewish
scriptures. The author talks about a somewhat minor
Although Hebrews is listed with the letters in the New character, Melchizedek. This figure appears only in Genesis
Testament canon, it does not have usual epistolary features. and in Psalm 110, but in Hebrews he represents a tradition of
For example, it lacks a prescript, the opening portion of a letter worshipping God that can be traced back even before the
that identifies the sender(s) and any addressees. Instead, the priesthood and the tabernacle. Melchizedek therefore
text begins with a declarative statement about the way God foreshadows the priesthood of Jesus, which depends on
has interacted with God's people in history. This looks more knowledge of God and not on being born into the priestly tribe
like a theological treatise or sermon. of Levites.
It also has extensive quotations from the Jewish scriptures, As such, all who follow Jesus are now part of the people of
especially Psalms and some prophetic texts, including God, regardless of their ethnic or racial identity. In Hebrews 11,
Jeremiah. While other New Testament letters also cite the author rapidly summarizes the whole of Jewish history and
scripture, Hebrews does so at much greater length and more reframes God's people as people united by their shared faith.
frequently. This feature of the text makes it seem like an In Hebrews 12, he encourages the Christ-believers in his
exegetical exercise (exegesis is the process of interpreting audience to be faithful, following the model of all those
and explaining texts). "witnesses" from Jewish history and the model of Jesus, who
forges the connection between Jewish history and the Christ-
Hebrews is still grouped with the letters because of its closing. believing community (Hebrews 12:1).
It does have what looks like a typical epistolary farewell and

Catholic Letters and James Analysis

Among the documents of the New Testament, James is
remarkable for its lack of references to Jesus, who is only
Summary mentioned twice (James 1:1; 2:1). As a universal (Greek
katholikos) letter, James offers important ethical guidance
The early part of the letter advises believers to let their faith
grounded in a concept of active faith. The author reveals a
lead them to do good works and avoid wrongdoing.
special concern about the dangers associated with wealth and
The author encourages all readers to face any tests of faith the accumulation of wealth.
with joy.
For the person who is rich or trying to become rich, wealth
The author exhorts the Christ-believers to keep in mind that
comes with a particular set of temptations. A person looking to
riches are not worth boasting about because they are not
gain money might be drawn into unethical behaviors and, at the
permanent.
very least, is not properly focused on righteousness and the
Listening to God's word should inspire actions and
final judgment. Wealthy people also present a few kinds of
perseverance, because religion that is truly pure requires
danger to other members of the Christ-believing community.
one to do deeds like "care for orphans and widows in their
First, they might lead the community to show preferential
distress" (James 1:27).
treatment that is not God-like. Material wealth is insignificant to
The author accuses the Christ-believers of "favoritism"
God and might even be detrimental. The second danger arises
when they give preferential treatment to the rich who show
because wealth is associated with political and social power:
up in their worship spaces and treat the poor less well
the rich are identified as those who "oppress" the community,
(James 2:1).
and the author calls them litigious and blasphemous (James
The author points out that breaking any part of God's law is
2:6).
breaking the whole law.
It is not enough to claim to be faithful if that does not The letter also invites its readers to engage with a deeper
translate into caring for those who are hungry or naked. question behind the importance of ethical behavior: for Christ-
The tongue is compared to a horse's bridle or a ship's believers, actions reflect beliefs. The author insists that unless
rudder, because although it is small it can lead or mislead, someone performs good deeds, such as caring for the poor
and harsh words can damage others. and needy, that person's faith is not truly active or effective. It
is only on the basis of a person's good life that observers can
In Chapters 4 and 5 the author addresses specific conflicts
truly tell that the person believes in a loving God and his son
and suffering within the community, seeking to encourage his
Christ, who teaches people to love one another. The author
readers.
explains the need for both belief and action, using the terms
He blames their problems on people's desires for worldly "faith" and "works."
things, because being friendly to the world means being
Because the letter insists on the importance of works, it has
enemies with God.
had mixed reception among Christian groups at various times
The solution is for Christ-believers to "resist the devil" and
throughout history. For example, in the 16th century the
devote themselves to God in humility, admitting that they
Protestant reformer Martin Luther saw the letter of James as
have done wrong and need forgiveness.
teaching something incompatible with the letters of Paul. In
The letter offers encouragement to those who are waiting
Luther's reading, Paul claims that works of the law cannot lead
for the coming of the Lord, or the parousia.
to salvation, because only faith can save; James's insistence
The author highlights the importance of prayer, both in
that "faith by itself, if it has no works, is dead" could be seen as
terms of praising God for good things and making petitions
directly contradicting Paul's statements (James 2:17).
when people need healing or forgiveness.
However, many other interpreters, including Catholic

interpreters at Luther's time, saw no incompatibilities between
the teachings of Paul and James. Hardly any interpreters today

think that the author of the letter of James is rejecting an idea Peter 5:3).
of God's grace in favor of humans saving themselves through The author advises younger members of the community to
good deeds. Instead, most people read the letter as offering be humble and obedient to their elders.
corrective guidance to a community that thought belief was
enough even if their practical actions did not change.
Analysis
1 Peter This letter addresses a situation of perceived persecution
among the Christ-believers, but it does not appear to address
a form of systematic persecution with legal repercussions.
Instead, the letter may provide insight into the way that leaders
Summary of the Christ-believers thought the community should handle
social and cultural opposition.
The author reminds his readers of their Christian identity and
instructs them in how to hold on to that identity within their There are a number of clues in the letter that may indicate an
communities. intended audience of gentiles (non-Jews) who probably
participated in Greco-Roman religious cult, including the
The letter is written to several communities in Asia Minor
recognition and worship of multiple gods. For example, the
(modern-day Turkey) that the author calls "the exiles of the
author directs them in 1:14 not to "be conformed to the desires
Dispersion" (1 Peter 1:1).
that you formerly had in ignorance," a phrase that suggests the
The faith of the Christ-believers is impressive because they
believers had no background knowledge about the God of
have not ever seen Christ in person, but they can rely on the
Israel. When he offers advice for wives in the community, he
testimony of the prophets.
implies that some of them are married to nonbelievers. The
The believers are instructed to become holy like Christ who
author points out that the believers "have already spent
called them.
enough time in doing what the Gentiles like to do" and "they
The author provides a list of specific vices that the Christ-
are surprised that you no longer join them" (1 Peter 4:3–4).
believers can avoid, including "malice, and all guile,
Their new religious identity has alienated them from their
insincerity, envy, and all slander" (1 Peter 2:1).
former companions.
They should accept the authority of worldly rulers and use
their freedom for good. Given their gentile surroundings, the Christ-believers
Slaves are told to obey their masters; this obedience is to addressed in the letter would have stood out from their fellow
be modeled on the humility of Christ, who "when he was citizens because of their religion but also because of the
abused ... did not return abuse" (1 Peter 2:23). practical actions their religion demanded. This might have led
Wives should cultivate modesty, avoiding extraneous to public ridicule. The letter teaches that they should seek to
adornment in favor of "the lasting beauty of a gentle and live peacefully with their neighbors but not join in their
quiet spirit" (1 Peter 3:4). unethical behaviors (see 1 Peter 4:3–4, above).
The letter continues with an exhortation to think of suffering as More importantly, however, the letter's author instructs them to
a way to become closer to Christ. leave their neighbors no room to cast blame or malign the
community. At several places the author points out that they
All people, "the living and the dead," will be subject to divine
should conform themselves to society and not invite trouble.
judgment soon, because "the end of all things is near" (1
They should live peacefully under non-Christian rulers. This
Peter 4:5, 7).
commitment to doing what is right in all circumstances will
The community should not commit evils that cause them to
enable them to defend themselves if anyone attacks them.
suffer, such as murder, but if they suffer because of their
Christian faith, then it is aligned with God's will. Finally, the letter reveals an important aspect of the early
Writing as one community elder to the other elders, the Christian understanding of suffering. For this author, suffering
author exhorts them to "be examples to the flock" instead of is a way to become like Christ. He uses the example of Christ's
seeking any personal gain from their position of power (1

suffering as a way to exhort readers to accept their own

suffering. One striking statement even claims that suffering like
Analysis
Christ is transformative: "Since therefore Christ suffered in the
If the letter is a pseudepigraphic composition, its author and
flesh, arm yourselves also with the same intention (for whoever
readers were facing a situation when Jesus's earliest followers
has suffered in the flesh has finished with sin), so as to live for
had begun to die, so the Christ-believers could no longer rely
the rest of your earthly life no longer by human desires but by
on firsthand, in-person apostolic teaching for guidance and
the will of God" (1 Peter 4:1–2). The letter appears to assume
leadership. Instead, the next generation of followers needed to
that if someone tries to do the will of God in a hostile world,
apply the early lessons and sayings to a new historical setting.
suffering is inevitable. The call to suffer willingly is an early
example of the imitatio Christi (Latin for "imitation of Christ"), The letter may be an example of how Christians revived and
an idea that develops in later Christian tradition. reinterpreted apostolic teaching for the post-apostolic period.
This historical setting might help to explain the author's
comments that he wants to be sure the community knows and
2 Peter accurately understands his teaching before he can no longer
convey it to them in person. The end of the letter also suggests
time has passed since the age of the apostles and some
Summary Christ-believers may be interpreting apostolic tradition in ways
that upset the author.
"Simon Peter" writes to a community to remind them of his
Many New Testament scholars think the letter might be
teaching and offer his help in strengthening their faith.
fruitfully compared to another genre of religious texts, Jewish
It is from God's "divine power" that humans have been given testamentary literature. A "testament" was a form of text that
what they need to escape corruption in the world. imagined an important figure, sometimes one of the Hebrew
Believers are encouraged to acquire a chain of positive Bible patriarchs, on his deathbed. Before passing away the
attributes, beginning with faith and moving through patriarch would offer blessings, warnings, and advice to his
goodness, knowledge, self-control, endurance, godliness, descendants.
and mutual affection to love, with the ultimate goal of
Testamentary features in 2 Peter include the focus on
entering into Jesus's eternal kingdom.
preserving his teaching unchanged after his death. The author
The author will spend his life reminding the Christ-believers
also offers a warning that false teachers "who will secretly
of the truth and preserving a record of true teachings.
bring in destructive opinions" will threaten the community in the
He assures them God will judge those who are not
future (2 Peter 2:1). Other future threats include the "scoffers"
righteous, just as he previously punished angels with "chains
who "will come, scoffing and indulging their own lusts" and
of deepest darkness," those who were unrighteous in the
denying the promised the second coming of the resurrected
time of Noah, and the people of Sodom and Gomorrah (2
Christ (2 Peter 3:3). By focusing on guidance for the
Peter 2:4).
community of believers, the author of this letter creates a
False prophets are not afraid of the punishment that they
portrait of an elderly Peter, looking ahead to a time when he
will undergo.
can no longer support the community; while he still can, this
God's timing may seem slow or delayed from a human
imagined Peter takes an active role in shaping his legacy within
perspective, but God's sense of time is different and the
the churches of Asia Minor.
"day of the Lord" will arrive unexpectedly (2 Peter 3:10).
If the Christ-believers endure in holiness, then they will
experience "new heavens and a new earth" (2 Peter 3:13).
1 John

Summary Analysis
The author reminds readers of their common bond in faith and Although it is not written in a standard epistolary form, 1 John
their shared commandment to love one another. should be grouped with the letters 2 and 3 John because of
similarities in tone, style, theme, and vocabulary. It may have
On the basis of an eyewitness encounter, the author been written to the author's home community, while 2 and 3
declares "what we have heard, what we have seen with our John were sent to neighboring churches. If it was intended to
eyes, what we have looked at and touched with our hands, be read aloud in a gathering of Christ-believers while the
concerning the word of life" (1 John 1:1). author was in their midst, the absence of an epistolary
This truth creates fellowship with the Father and his Son, prescript (opening that identifies sender and addressee) and
Jesus. closing makes good sense.
God is identified with light, as opposed to darkness, and to
be in fellowship with God means to tell the truth. 1 John offers both broad and specific "paraenesis," or ethical
The author reminds his readers, whom he calls "my little advice, for the readers of his text. The ethical teachings here
children," that Jesus is "the atoning sacrifice for our sins" appear to be based on the Johannine portrait of Jesus
and the sins "of the whole world" (1 John 2:1, 2). developed in the Fourth Gospel. The main ethical instruction in
The Christ-believers should act like Jesus. the Fourth Gospel comes in the form of Jesus's farewell
Anyone who hates another person is aligned with darkness discourse (John 14–17), where he instructs the disciples to
and distant from the truth. "abide" in him and to love one another as he has loved them,
Addressing the community members as "children," "young before warning them about the hostility his followers will face
people," and "fathers," the author encourages them to keep in the world. The author of 1 John emphasizes exactly this
themselves separate from worldly concerns and focus on Johannine teaching while simultaneously reflecting on its
the will of God (1 John 2:12–14). practical application.
The author offers warnings and advice about problems in the The text also offers a glimpse of conflict in Johannine
community. communities, which appears to center around the correct
interpretation of Christological teachings. The author of 1 John
He states that many antichrists have come, identifying them offers his readers some instruction about how to address
with members of the community who defected in some way. those who challenge Johannine teaching about the incarnation.
He says "one who denies the Father and the Son" is an
antichrist (1 John 2:22). The opponents on the side of the world are characterized
While sinning makes a person a child of the devil, the author harshly. Anyone "who denies that Jesus is the Christ" is "the
reassures his readers that Jesus came "to destroy the antichrist, the one who denies the Father and the Son" (1 John
works of the devil" (1 John 3:8). 2:22). The teaching at stake is the incarnation, the claim made
The children of the devil can be recognized because they do most strongly in John's Gospel that Jesus is God's logos
not love their brothers and sisters. (Greek for "word") made flesh in human history.
The author encourages his readers to "test the spirits" to
find out if they are from God or from some other source, There also appears to be some conflict over the role of the
such as the world or the antichrist. incarnate, crucified, and resurrected Christ in guaranteeing
Ultimately, Christ-believers will be recognized because of eternal life. The text calls on the testimony of the Holy Spirit
their love, because "love is from God" and "God is love" (1 and God to claim "whoever has the Son has life" (1 John 5:12).
John 4:7, 8). The fact that some people denied Jesus's identity as a Christ
The believers have many sources of testimony about the in the flesh and as a Christ who is the way to eternal life may
truth of their faith: the Spirit, the water and blood through give insight into how some early Christ-believers responded to
which Christ was born, God, and even "the testimony in their the "high" Christology of the Gospel of John.
hearts" (1 John 5:10). Accepting this testimony and believing

Many New Testament scholars have commented on the
that Jesus is the Christ leads to life.
tension between realized and future eschatology in the text;

that is, between claims that salvation has been fully author reminds his readers that the definition of love is "that
accomplished and claims that some aspects of salvation are we walk according to his commandments" (2 John 6). There
still to come. On the one hand, the readers have a present, might be some ethical or ritual matters in view, and different
realized identity as adopted children of God, a status that was members of the Christ-believing community are not behaving in
promised by Jesus in John's Gospel (see especially John 3). consistent ways. The letter's preoccupation with the dangers
On the other hand, there is still some aspect of a Christ- of deception and schism suggests that at the time of
believer's identity with Christ that has not been fulfilled, and so composition, the community was undergoing some sort of
the readers look to the future and attach themselves to hope. crisis.
Because the author mourns community divisions, it is also
2 John worth considering what the letter might reveal about real and
ideal positive relationships among Christ-believers. The letter is
addressed to "the elect lady and her children," which most
interpreters think is a symbolic reference to a church and its
Summary members. The church could be referred to as a "lady" because
the Greek noun for a church assembly, ekklēsia, is feminine.
The "elder" writes to a church community and encourages
Identifying the church as a lady with children might also reflect
them to hold fast to faith in the face of false teachers and
Christian ideas that the church is a source of nourishment and
divisions.
training for its members, who are being guided to a mature
faith.
The letter is addressed to "the elect lady and her children,"
probably a metaphorical way of referring to the ekklēsia
By situating himself as an "elder" in relation to the "children" of
(Greek for "church, assembly") and its members (2 John 1).
the Christ-believing community, the author uses a household or
The author urges them to love one another.
kinship metaphor to legitimize his authority. At the same time,
They should be on the lookout for "deceivers," those people
the family language suggests the Christ-believers share bonds
who "do not confess that Jesus Christ has come in the
of affection and the obligation to care for one another. Finally,
flesh" (2 John 7). The author even calls someone who
the author expresses a desire to see his addressees face to
teaches this way "the antichrist" (2 John 8).
face instead of relying solely on epistolary communication.
The right option for the Christ-believers is to continue in
Jesus's teaching, remaining united with the Father and the
Son.
The author conveys greetings from "your elect sister and
3 John
her children," probably the church community in the city
from which he writes (2 John 13).
Summary
Analysis Addressing Gaius, "the elder" offers encouragement.
The author exhorts Gaius to remain faithful, especially in

With multiple elevated claims about the divine nature of Jesus
supporting members of the ekklēsia (Greek for "church,
the Christ, the author is invested in defending a "high"
assembly") and preparing them to serve as coworkers.
Christology that is distinctively Johannine. The most important
The author expresses concern that a member of the
issue seems to be the incarnation, a point emphasized in the
community, Diotrephes, does not accept his authority.
prologue of John's Gospel (especially John 1:14). The idea of
He writes that if he visits, he will address the situation head-
Jesus's incarnation in the flesh is apparently being challenged
on and deal with Diotrephes's refusal to "welcome the
by some group of opponents, and the author does not hold
friends" (3 John 10).
back in condemning those who teach that Jesus did not come
He encourages Gaius to choose good over evil, equating the
"in the flesh" (2 John 7).
good with God.
Other sorts of teachings are seen as problematic, too. The He also mentions a person named Demetrius, maybe a

Christ-believer who is visiting Gaius's community, and God.

provides a positive recommendation on Demetrius's behalf. Examples of disobedience include the Israelites themselves,
The letter closes with greetings from his community of as in the instances of Cain and Korah, and rebellious angelic
friends to the friends in Gaius's location. beings.
The author claims that the people who disturb the Christ-
believing community have fallen into the same kind of error
Analysis as those who rebelled against God, and he insists they will
face the same fate.
Although this letter is quite brief, it offers some insight into the Applying a series of nature metaphors to the rebellious
close personal relationships that developed between members figures, the author calls them "blemishes," "waterless
of the Christ-believing communities. These relationships are clouds," "autumn trees without fruit," and "wandering stars"
founded on shared belief, above all. John repeatedly calls (Jude 12–13).
Gaius "beloved" (3 John 2, 5, 11), and refers to other Christ- Jude reminds the community about prophetic
believers as friends and says they should be treated as such announcements that the last days would involve many
even when he explicitly states that they are "strangers" whom encounters with worldly people.
Gaius has never met before (3 John 5). Although the author He instructs them to "have mercy on some who are
calls himself an "elder," the emphasis throughout on bonds of wavering," in the hope that they might preserve such people
love and friendship in the community indicates that any from final judgment (Jude 22).
authority was perhaps poorly defined or not universally
accepted.
Analysis
The author's personal knowledge about individuals in the
community also demonstrates that sometimes the scale of The letter illuminates the close connection many early Christ-
conflicts among Christ-believers could be quite small. In this believers had to Jewish communities, texts, and teachings.
letter, it is a single, specific person whose opposition to the Jude emphasizes divine justice and the promise of an
author inspired him to write a letter. This gives readers a eschatological (end-times) judgment when God's justice will
glimpse of the precariousness of Christian leadership in the catch up with those who have committed unrighteous acts.
early Christ-believing communities, perhaps especially of
leadership that relied on long-distance communication. On the He even refers to the punishment of angelic beings, an idea he
other hand, the author's confidence in his ability to deal with draws from a text known as 1 Enoch, which was found among
Diotrephes and to convince Gaius not to be swayed suggest the collection of Jewish texts called the Dead Sea Scrolls. The
that personal appeals, like a letter, could have a significant Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in caves near Qumran in the
impact on the spread of certain strands of early Christian mid-20th century. This book, missing from most churches'
teaching. canons (lists of authoritative books), was probably composed
and revised over several hundred years, in the 4th to 1st
centuries BCE. It claims to be by the biblical figure Enoch, and
Jude the first portion that describes the fallen, rebellious angels also
tells about Enoch's journey through the regions of heaven.
Jude's familiarity with the noncanonical story suggests that he
Summary was deeply interested in the idea of a future divine judgment.

By grouping the opponents of his contemporary Christ-
believing community with historical rebels and lawless figures,
Jude writes to encourage and warn the community of Christ-
Jude gives a biblical and prophetic justification for the Christ-
believers.
believers to completely reject them.
Some "intruders" have infiltrated the community, and Jude
Additionally, the letter demonstrates that metaphors drawn
denounces them for denying Christ (Jude 4).
from the everyday world were of crucial importance for early
Jude reminds the people that God has consistently
Christian writers in their attempts to communicate theological
punished the people and groups who turned away from

teaching in relatable terms. Jude specifically compares the destroyed; merchants who have lost their wealth despair,
false teachers to natural phenomena, effectively conveying the but there is rejoicing in heaven.
idea that these teachers are not capable of contributing The beast and his armies are defeated, and the dragon who
anything positive to the Christ-believers. is "the Devil and Satan" is imprisoned for 1,000 years and
then cast into a lake of fire with others who are judged for
their evil works.
Revelation The book concludes with a promise of God's victory and a new
creation for all those who belong in the book of life. The
heavenly Jerusalem is "the bride, the wife of the Lamb"
Summary (Revelation 21:9).
In Chapters 1–3 John the visionary is on the Mediterranean

island of Patmos when he has a heavenly vision of Christ
Analysis
enthroned and shares a message of warning and hope with
seven churches on the nearby coast in Asia Minor (modern- The book of Revelation, the final book of the canonical New
day Turkey). Testament, presents a vision of judgment and destruction
intended to comfort a community of Christ-believers who
John's visions of heaven and his prophetic visions of the
perceive themselves as oppressed and persecuted in the
eschaton (end-times) include the destruction of the present
present day. The genre of this text, revealed in the Greek title
earth.
Apokalypsis, is apocalypse, and apocalyptic texts in both
In Revelation 4 and 5, John sees Christ enthroned in the Judaism and Christianity describe the revelation of heavenly
heavens, together with 24 elders who worship him and sing. realities to intermediary figures or visionaries. The visionary
Because he was sacrificed on behalf of people from all over John describes a series of heavenly visions and reveals his
the world, the lamb of God is proclaimed worthy to open a special knowledge about future events that will take place at
scroll with seven seals. the eschaton, the end of time.
The seven seals unleash eschatological forces (Revelation
Because these future predictions include punishment for those
6:1–8:1).
who have sided against God's faithful and rewards for the
Although 144,000 believers from the tribes of Israel are
faithful who endure persecution, the intended reading
sealed with a seal of God, and multitudes from every nation
audience might take comfort from the text and its claims about
of gentiles join the worship of God, most on earth are
theodicy (divine justice). John assures them that although they
suffering from destructive forces such as war, famine, and
suffer now, God will eventually enact just judgment for all
pestilence.
people.
Seven trumpets sound, and each trumpet blast continues
the destruction of the present earth, while two witnesses The book develops a highly negative portrait of earthly powers,
appointed as prophets foretell upcoming woes. setting them up as diametrically opposed to Christ the
A pregnant woman and her child are about to be devoured heavenly King. Merchants and rulers who cooperate with the
by a dragon, but God rescues them, and the archangel dragon and the beasts are explicitly identified as evil
Michael defeats the dragon. (Revelation 18). Although the author uses coded language to
Two frightening beasts gain dominion over the earth. The refer to earthly rulers, perhaps out of a fear of retribution, it
second beast, whose "number" is 666, probably symbolizing does become clear that the text criticizes and demonizes
the Roman Emperor Nero, begins to gather power and Roman imperial power. The figure of the whore of Babylon
oppress God's faithful people. seated on a beast with seven heads probably corresponds to
The Son of Man (Christ) reaps a harvest from the earth, and 1st-century Roman coins depicting the goddess Roma seated
an angel with seven bowls of God's wrath pour them out to on the seven hills of Rome.
complete the destruction in process.
The Whore of Babylon, representing the city of Rome, is The negative view of Rome may in part be a reaction to

New Testament Study Guide Quotes 39
specific historical events: Emperor Nero had blamed Christians

crowd, saying 'I am innocent of
for a fire in Rome (64 CE) and executed many of them in
retaliation. Emperor Trajan had led military forces in the this man's blood; see to it
destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE, an event that
yourselves.' Then the people as a
shook the foundations of Jewish religious life and deeply
affected the Christ-believers whose faith was rooted in whole answered, 'His blood be on
Judaism. Emperor Domitian had instigated some persecution
of Christ-believers during his reign (81–96 CE) and had claimed
us and on our children!'"
to be divine, even while he was still alive.
— Gospel writer(s), Gospel of Matthew
The book of Revelation may also be reacting more generally to
Roman claims about the emperors' power; Christ-believers
The Gospel of Matthew is attributed to Matthew the evangelist.
who recognized Jesus as the Son of God would have objected
This quote comes from Matthew 27:24–25. An interaction
strongly to Roman imperial cult, a set of devotions and
between the Roman governor Pilate and the Jewish people
sacrifices directed toward the emperors (sometimes identified
places the blame for Jesus's crucifixion firmly on the Jews,
as divine figures and saviors) or to the gods on behalf of the
even implying that all future generations of Jews are equally to
emperors.
blame. This verse has served as an unfortunate basis for some
anti-Semitic tendencies in later Christian history. In its original
historical and rhetorical context, the presentation of Jewish
g Quotes guilt is one way Matthew the evangelist creates a link between
Jesus and Hebrew Bible prophets who were rejected by God's
people in their own time.
"Blessed are you, Simon son of
It may also have been a way to insist that Christ-believers were
Jonah! For flesh and blood has not
somewhat separate from both Roman society and traditional
revealed this to you, but my Father Judaism.
in heaven. And I tell you, you are

Peter, and on this rock I will build "The beginning of the good news
my church." of Jesus Christ, the Son of God."
— Jesus/Jesus Christ, Gospel of Matthew — Gospel writer(s), Gospel of Mark
This pronouncement is made in Matthew 16:17–18 (compare The Gospel of Mark is attributed to Mark the evangelist. This
with Mark 3:16, Luke 6:14, John 1:42). With the statement Jesus first verse of the earliest gospel (Mark 1:1; compare with
praises Simon, now to be called Peter (Greek for "rock"), for Matthew 1:1) identifies the story that follows as "good news"
recognizing Jesus's identity: he is the Messiah. This moment (Greek euangelion) and makes a theological claim that Jesus is
also marks a formal beginning for church leadership, which the Christ or Messiah, the anointed one of God promised in
Jesus leaves in the hands of his apostles. prophecy.
"So when Pilate saw that he could "For God so loved the world that
do nothing ... he took some water he gave his only Son, so that
and washed his hands before the everyone who believes in him may

— Paul (formerly Saul), Romans

not perish but have eternal life."
— Jesus/Jesus Christ, Gospel of John Paul writes this in Romans 6:3–4. He assures his readers the
ritual of baptism is more than a cleansing of sins. On his
interpretation, baptism becomes a means of participating in
This statement from John 3:16 about the importance of Jesus,
the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Resurrection here
God's son, is foundational for Christian belief in the early
means a new life in the present and a promise of eternal life
church and throughout history. The single verse is thought to
after death.
summarize key connections among divine love, God's
generosity, Christ's sacrifice, and eternal life for those who
believe.
"There is no longer Jew or Greek,
there is no longer slave or free,
"But you will receive power when there is no longer male and female;
the Holy Spirit has come upon you; for all of you are one in Christ
and you will be my witnesses in Jesus."
Jerusalem, in all Judea and
— Paul (formerly Saul), Galatians
Samaria, and to the ends of the
earth." In Galatians 3:28, Paul emphasizes the ability of a belief in
Christ to create unity. He is writing during a time when Jews
— Jesus/Jesus Christ, Acts of the Apostles and gentiles (non-Jews) tended to have separate religious and
cultural practices, but he insists that belief in Christ can bring
This quotation comes from Acts 1:8. Just before he ascends them together into a single community, also dissolving divisions
into heaven, the resurrected Jesus tells his apostles they will based on social status and sex.
continue to carry out an evangelizing mission with the help of
the Holy Spirit. This statement previews the action of the Acts
of the Apostles, which describes the expansion of the Christian "[Christ Jesus] emptied himself,
message far beyond Jerusalem.
taking the form of a slave, being
born in human likeness. And being
"Do you not know that all of us found in human form, he humbled
who have been baptized into himself and became obedient to
Christ Jesus were baptized into the point of death—even death on
his death? Therefore we have a cross."
been buried with him by baptism
— Paul (formerly Saul), Philippians
into death, so that, just as Christ
was raised from the dead by the This excerpt (verses 7–8) from the famous hymn in Philippians
glory of the Father, so we too 2 is one summary of the life of Christ, commenting on the self-
sacrificial life and death of Jesus. Jesus's decision to suffer
might walk in newness of life."

crucifixion is described as obedience to God, and in the This statement from 2 Timothy 4:7–8 is attributed to Paul
context of the letter, Paul uses the hymn to recommend that all although its authorship is disputed. Paul describes his life of
Christ-believers imitate Jesus's humble obedience. The hymn faith and faithfulness with athletic metaphors, implying the life
may be an original Pauline composition, but it is also possible it of a Christ-believer requires effort and endurance. He also
is a pre-Pauline piece of writing that he adopts from Christian expresses a belief that Jesus will be the ultimate judge of all
liturgy (public worship). people and will reward his faithful believers with a crown. The
crown probably symbolizes eternal life.
"For in him [Jesus] all the fullness

"For we do not have a high priest
of God was pleased to dwell, and
who is unable to sympathize with
through him God was pleased to
our weaknesses, but we have one
reconcile to himself all things,
who in every respect has been
whether on earth or in heaven, by
tested as we are, yet without sin.
making peace through the blood
Let us therefore approach the
of his cross."
throne of grace with boldness, so
— Paul (formerly Saul), Colossians that we may receive mercy and
find grace to help in time of need."
This quotation from Colossians 1:19–20 is attributed to Paul
although its authorship is disputed. The letter writer is listing
unique attributes of Christ, and this excerpt highlights Jesus's — Narrator, Hebrews
important role as God's representative on earth. Jesus's life

and his self-sacrificing death by crucifixion were a way for God In Hebrews 4:15–16, the author compares Christ to the high
to reestablish unity with creation. This quotation emphasizes priests of the people of Israel, who performed sacrifices that
Jesus's role as savior. purified the people and brought them into right relationship
with God. Jesus, the new high priest, understands the human
struggle because he lived as a human. Christ-believers can be
"I have fought the good fight, I confident that this Jesus, now in heaven, will assist them.
have finished the race, I have kept

the faith. From now on there is "What good is it, my brothers and
reserved for me the crown of sisters, if you say you have faith
righteousness, which the Lord, the but do not have works? ... So faith
righteous judge, will give me on by itself, if it has no works, is
that day, and not only to me but dead."
also to all who have longed for his
— James, the brother of Jesus, James
appearing."
The writer of James is traditionally identified with James, the
— Paul (formerly Saul), 2 Timothy brother of Jesus, though the author might have been

New Testament Study Guide Symbols 42
anonymous. In James 2:14, 17 argues that faith or belief that God and Christ forever. The text becomes an important part of
does not inspire the holder to take action, specifically in the Christian liturgy (public worship), enduring until today.
form of good works that serve people in need, is not a living
faith.
"See, I am coming soon; my reward
"Beloved, let us love one another, is with me, to repay according to
because love is from God; everyone's work. I am the Alpha
everyone who loves is born of God and the Omega, the first and the
and knows God. Whoever does last, the beginning and the end."
not love does not know God, for — Narrator, Revelation
God is love."
This prophetic saying from Revelation 22:12–13 (compare with
— Gospel writer(s), 1 John Revelation 1:8) refers to the figure of the risen Christ, who will
return at the eschaton (the end of time) to judge all people,
punishing evildoers and ensuring an eternal reward for those
Because of similarities between the Johannine letters (1, 2, and
believers who have remained faithful.
3 John) and the Gospel of John, many scholars have tended to
identify the letter writer with the evangelist, who is traditionally
thought to be John, the Beloved Disciple of Jesus (named in
passages such as John 19:26 and 21:24). Current scholarly
consensus no longer supports the identification of the Beloved
l Symbols
Disciple with either the evangelist or the letter writer, but most
New Testament scholars do believe the letter writer knew the
Gospel of John and may have been a member of a so-called Baptism
Johannine community.
The proclamation from 1 John 4:7–8 identifying God as love

and the source of love sets up a requirement for those who are The gospels and the Acts of the Apostles use baptism as a
Christ-believers: they must also participate in the love that multivalent symbol, representing purification or cleansing and
comes from God. conversion to a way of life. John the Baptist was "proclaiming a
baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins" (Mark 1:4),
focusing on cleansing.
"Day and night without ceasing By the end of the gospels the meaning of this symbol has
they sing, 'Holy, holy, holy, the shifted somewhat. The resurrected Jesus commands his
apostles to use baptism as a ritual for bringing more followers
Lord God the Almighty, who was into the community of Christ-believers, and so baptism has
become a sign representing not only forgiveness but also
and is and is to come.'"
participation in a new kind of life; this is also true for figures
such as the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8.
— Narrator, Revelation
In the Pauline Letters baptism is not just a ritual practice that
cleanses one's sins and joins one to the community, but it
This scene from John's vision of the heavenly throne room in
becomes a symbol of a person's participation in the death and
Revelation 4:8 depicts divine beings praising and worshipping
resurrection of Christ. By figuratively dying in the water as

New Testament Study Guide Symbols 43
Christ died on the cross, a person rises from baptism to a new therefore, becomes shorthand for referring to Christ's humility
life, imitating Christ's resurrection from the dead. Therefore, and willingness to suffer on behalf of God's people (Philippians
baptism is a symbol of death and resurrection for early Christ- 2:5–11).
believers who follow Paul's teaching.
Fruit and Fruitfulness

Body
The New Testament deploys this agricultural symbol to talk
In the letters of Paul, the body becomes an important symbol about behavior and ethics. In the gospels Jesus tells the
that represents the Christian community and its members. Paul Jewish authorities who question him about his failure to
explains that individual Christ-believers are like hands, feet, participate in Jewish ritual practices; "the tree is known by its
eyes, or ears of the human body: they have different functions, fruit" (Matthew 12:33). This saying ties a good or virtuous
but all of them are necessary for the health and wholeness of nature to good fruit (= good outcomes) and bad fruit (= bad or
the community (1 Corinthians 12). In this metaphor, Christ is the vicious characters). These figurative fruits of a person's
head, the symbolic leader of the body. As members of this internal disposition are considered a more accurate way to
body, people in Christ-believing communities are encouraged judge whether someone is righteous than his or her ritual
to cooperate with each other, to share their gifts to build one purity.
another up, and to follow the lead and model of Christ.
The letters of Paul also deploy the image of fruit to talk about
At the time the New Testament was written, sickness was the positive outcomes when a person believes Jesus is the
understood as both spiritual and physical. In the four canonical Christ and the savior of human beings. Paul points out that in a
gospels, bodily healing is often a symbol for the healing of community of Christ-believers, one is likely to see the "fruit of
spiritual ailments. For example, in John 9 Jesus heals a man the spirit," such as "love, joy, peace, patience, kindness,
born blind and uses this physical miracle to comment on the generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control"
spiritual blindness of the Pharisees who are portrayed as his (Galatians 5:22–23).
opponents in the text.
Fruitfulness in the New Testament symbolizes general
flourishing and well-being, and the authors of the New
Testament argue that fruitfulness cannot occur apart from
Cross God and Christ. In the farewell discourse at John 13–17, Jesus
identifies himself as the true vine and God as the vine-grower,
telling his apostles they are the branches, and only by
remaining close to Jesus will they be able to bear fruit.
As evidence of the brutality and offensive behavior of the
Roman Empire toward its subjects, the cross becomes an In his letter to the Romans Paul uses the image of a gentile
important symbol for suffering and self-sacrifice in the gospels branch grafted onto a deeply rooted tree that represents the
and other New Testament texts. It is associated with these Jewish people of God. He promises that this hybrid plant,
concepts because of Jesus's death by crucifixion. In the symbolizing the combined community of Jewish and gentile
accounts of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, Jesus tells his disciples Christ-believers, can flourish and be fruitful.
that following him means "taking up [their] cross" and enduring
suffering and persecution (Mark 8:34).
The Pauline Letters also emphasize the importance of the Sheep and Shepherd
cross, which is a "stumbling block to Jews and foolishness to
Gentiles" (1 Corinthians 1:21), because of the unthinkable idea
that God's Son and Messiah could be crucified. The cross,

New Testament Study Guide Themes 44
The powerful image of sheep and their shepherd is used to ruled over the Jews, they nevertheless continued to hold to
symbolize the Christ-believing community throughout the New messianic expectation, the belief that God would send a
Testament. In John 10 Jesus identifies himself as the "good messiah to liberate God's people from their imperial rulers and
shepherd" who guides and protects the sheep of his flock and to once again lead them as an independent priestly nation.
sheep from other flocks, a reference to both Jews and gentiles Prophetic and apocalyptic texts in the Hebrew Bible look
who will receive the Christian message. forward to the arrival of this messiah and to his future reign
(for example, Daniel 7).
The symbol can also illustrate the depth of God's care. In Luke
15 Jesus tells a parable about a shepherd searching for one Jesus and his earliest followers are living and working in the
lost sheep out of a flock of 100 to explain that God will rejoice context of Jewish messianic expectation. When Jesus's
over the return of one sinner to the community, just as a followers came to believe he was the Messiah, the Christ, and
shepherd rejoices to find a lost sheep. This image of a God started proclaiming this identity to others, they were making a
who cares for the people like a shepherd cares for the flock shocking and radical claim. How could they call this man the
would have been familiar to Jewish Christ-believers from Messiah when he seems to challenge Jewish law (Mark 7), and
Jewish scriptures such as Psalm 23, which identifies God as when he does not rule but is instead executed as a criminal?
the shepherd.
Yet early Christ-believers insisted on Jesus's status as God's
In some New Testament passages Jesus is not the shepherd anointed one who had come to establish a new kingdom of
but the sheep, when he is symbolically represented as the God on earth. Their reimagining of what it meant to be the
Lamb of God from the Passover sacrifice (Exodus 12). John's Messiah included some surprising elements: undergoing
Gospel and the book of Revelation (Revelation 5) identify suffering on behalf of God's people (they found biblical support
Jesus with this lamb, whose sacrificial death atones for sins. for this idea in the prophetic book of Isaiah in chapters 52–53)
and even dying. The Pauline Letters in particular outline
connections between teachings in the Hebrew Bible about
m Themes God's promises to God's people and Jesus's death and

resurrection.
Christ or Messiah and

Discipleship
Messianic Expectation
A disciple is a student who follows the teachings of a leader.
The Christ or Messiah is a biblical title for someone who is The canonical gospels call Jesus's followers disciples because
anointed by God to fill an important role among God's people; they are consistently learning information about the kingdom
the term messiah means "anointed one." The English word of heaven and moral teachings about how to be in a right
"Christ" is derived from the Greek word Christos, which is a relationship with God and with one another in community. The
translation of the Hebrew word messiah. The term first other New Testament books expand the idea of discipleship
appears in the Hebrew Bible to refer to the kings of the people beyond the original followers who knew the historical Jesus to
of Israel, who are anointed with oil by God's prophets when the wider community, all those in the present and future who
they are appointed to rule (see, for example, the anointing of would believe Jesus was the Christ and the Son of God.
David in 1 Samuel 16). Because God made a covenant with the
Discipleship is usually discussed as a state of being that
royal line of David that one of his descendants would reign
requires a certain disposition and particular actions. All those
over Israel forever (2 Samuel 7), the figure of the anointed one
who believe Jesus is the Christ or Messiah are charged to
or messiah came to be associated with this kingly family line.
spread that "good news" to others. This is especially true in a
When the Davidic kingship eventually ended and other empires passage from Matthew 28 called the Great Commission. In a
and peoples (Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans) farewell speech to his followers, the risen Jesus tells them, "Go

New Testament Study Guide Themes 45
therefore and make disciples of all nations" (Matthew 28:19). members of their community have died before Jesus's return.
According to the Acts of the Apostles and the New Testament The Acts of the Apostles, the Deutero-Paulines (or Disputed
letters, disciples should also follow some basic ethical Paulines), and the Catholic Letters are written later and show
guidelines, including communal responsibility. how Christ-believers have grappled with the delay of the
parousia. All of these texts describe communities with more
Several Pauline letters outline lists of positive qualities to elaborate hierarchies and formal leadership positions.
cultivate and negative qualities to avoid. For example, in the
letter to the Galatians Paul advises against things such as For example, the author of 1 Timothy lays out qualities that are
"licentiousness, idolatry, sorcery, enmities, strife" (Galatians important for certain community leaders called bishops and
5:19–20) and recommends "kindness, generosity, faithfulness, deacons. The Acts of the Apostles describes how the position
gentleness, and self-control" (Galatians 5:22–23). of deacon originated. The Christ-believers, most scholars
agree, only began to appoint titled leaders and build
According to the gospels, discipleship is no easy task. Jesus institutional structures when it became clear that the first
predicts many times that those who follow him will suffer in the generation of apostles were starting to pass away and Jesus
same way he suffers. He specifically warns that his followers had not yet returned. The growing numbers of Christ-believers
will be persecuted, beaten, kicked out of synagogue also made it necessary to put more organized hierarchies in
communities, and put on trial, though he promises that if they place.
remain steadfast through all of these difficulties they will be
saved (Mark 13:9–13). The book of Revelation expands on this The book of Revelation looks ahead to the eschaton (the end
idea of Christian disciples facing persecution that will require of time) and describes the parousia as a critical element of that
them to endure. period. The Second Coming will be one of the key events,
along with the destruction of the current world, the final
judgment, and God's creation of a new, heavenly Jerusalem.
Parousia: The Second Coming

Salvation
Parousia is a Greek term that means "arrival" and is applied
specifically to the second coming of the resurrected Jesus,
when he will return from heaven to judge human beings at the The concept of salvation in the New Testament can refer to
end of time. The New Testament writers have a variety of ideas being saved from earthly difficulties and disease or the more
about when the parousia will take place and what it means for complex notion of salvation from sin and eternal punishment.
those who believe Jesus is the Christ or Messiah (anointed Most of the books in the New Testament use both senses of
one). salvation and portray Jesus as the most important agent of a
salvation who comes from God.
In the gospels, Jesus talks about the return of the Son of Man
(for example, Mark 13 and parallels in Matthew 24 and Luke In the gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, Jesus and his
21), who will bring an end to a period of suffering and followers save people from disease and demonic possession
persecution, reward the just, and punish the wicked. The timing through healings and exorcisms. Salvation from sin is initially
is uncertain, but Jesus warns his disciples to be alert, because reserved for Jesus, who forgives even people whom Jewish
it could happen at any time. people consider unclean or impure, such as the woman who
was caught in adultery and was about to be stoned to death
The Pauline letters also reflect an expectation that the (John 8).
parousia will happen soon. Paul advises his audience not to
change their way of life because Christ will be returning However, in Matthew 16, Jesus gives Peter the power to
imminently. In 1 Thessalonians, Paul even has to answer forgive sins on earth. Both trusting Jesus and living ethically
questions from Christ-believers who are surprised some are important ways to be saved from the final judgment. In

New Testament Study Guide Glossary 46
Matthew 25, Jesus teaches that all who serve their neighbors Babylonian Exile. Some phrases in the New Testament are in
are, by extension, serving Jesus and will avoid punishment in Aramaic.
the afterlife. The apostles and Paul spread the message of
Jesus's power to save in the Acts of the Apostles. baptism (n) a ritual act of cleansing or washing in water. For
Christians, baptism is performed in the name of the Father,
The Pauline Letters also present complex ideas about Son, and Holy Spirit, and it makes the baptized person a
salvation. Paul repeatedly insists that Jesus's death was a member of the community.
sacrifice on behalf of all human beings and that Jesus took on
the suffering of others, dying in their place. Christ-believers bishop (n) English translation of the Greek word episkopos,
can share in Jesus's death and resurrection by being baptized, which means "overseer." Some letters in the New Testament
but the most important path to salvation is through faith or depict bishops as leaders in local church communities,
trust in Jesus. responsible for activities such as teaching and leading liturgy
(public worship).
The Pauline Letters and the Catholic Letters expand on the
everyday effects and implications of salvation in the present canon (n) comes from the Greek word for "ruler" (as in
world; almost all the letters in the New Testament offer yardstick), used to refer to a list of books considered
practical advice for Christ-believers who need to live in authoritative for a particular community. The New Testament
community. Revelation illustrates that in order to achieve canon is sacred for Christians.
salvation and avoid final judgment, a person's faith must be

Catholic (adj) comes from the Greek word katholikos, which
firm.
means universal. The Catholic Letters are New Testament
letters written to the universal community of Christ-believers.
census (n) an official list documenting all the residents of a

m Glossary particular region, typically used for purposes of taxation and
military conscription. The Gospel of Luke mentions an empire-
apocalypse (n) Literally, the term means "revelation" or wide census taken by the Romans around the time of Jesus's
"uncovering." In the New Testament, it refers to the book of birth.
Revelation that collects the end-time visions of a man named
centurion (n) A Roman military officer called a centurion was
John and sometimes to the "little apocalypse" in Mark 13.
appointed over a group of soldiers called a century,
apocalyptic (adj) can be used to describe events and texts traditionally made up of 100 men.
that relate to the "revelation" of end-time events. The book of
Christ (n) This Greek word is the equivalent of the Hebrew
Revelation is an example of an apocalyptic text.
term Messiah. Both mean "anointed one" and refer to a figure
apostle (n) an emissary, someone who is sent on behalf of who was promised as a leader and savior for God's people. In
another person to deliver a message or perform a task. Jesus's the New Testament, "Christ" is sometimes used as a proper
closest followers are called apostles because they are name for Jesus.
appointed to continue his mission of teaching and healing.
Christmas (n) In Christian communities, Christmas is a holiday
apostolic succession (n) refers to the line of Christian celebrating the birth of Jesus the Christ. The Gospel of
authority and teaching that church communities, past and Matthew and the Gospel of Luke include stories about the
present, trace back to the original apostles of Jesus. Many nativity or birth.
interpreters see the roots of apostolic succession in scenes of
Christology (n) formed from two Greek terms (christ- and -
the apostles appointing new emissaries in the Acts of the
ology); means knowledge of or teachings about the Christ
Apostles or in New Testament letters.
(Messiah, anointed one). The New Testament books provide
Aramaic (adj, n) an ancient Semitic language similar to many insights into the Christology of Jesus's early followers.
Hebrew, used by Jews in Israel beginning around 535 BCE
church (n) comes from the Greek noun ekklēsia, meaning
when Cyrus, king of Persia, permitted Jews to return from the

assembly; in New Testament usage comes to mean the group Essenes (n) members of a Jewish sect who considered the
or assembly of Christ-believers. It can refer to small local priesthood and temple cult of their time corrupt and so
groups such as household churches or to the Catholic removed themselves to live in separate communities outside
(universal) community; it generally does not refer to a physical Jerusalem, between the mid-2nd century BCE and 70 CE.
building until later. Their texts reveal a dualistic and apocalyptic worldview.
crucifixion (n) was a form of Roman capital punishment that ethics (n) field of study that seeks to understand what is good
involved being tied or nailed to a cross with arms outstretched. and how to pursue and achieve it. Ethics may also describe a
The victim hung in this position until he or she asphyxiated and specific set or code of behaviors that are thought to be moral
died. in a particular group.
deacon (n) comes from the Greek word diakonos, which euangelion (n) Greek term that is translated as "gospel" but
means "one who serves." The Acts of the Apostles and some technically means "good news." It refers to the genre of the
letters depict deacons as leaders in the Christ-believing four gospels in the New Testament.
communities or churches who are responsible for serving and
teaching other members of the community. Eucharist/Last Supper (n) Christian ritual, usually part of a
liturgical celebration; reenacts the last supper Jesus shared
Dead Sea Scrolls (n) This collection of texts originated in a with The Twelve before his Passion, when he identified bread
Jewish sect living at Qumran near the Dead Sea. The texts, and wine as his body and blood. The term eucharist comes
which include Hebrew Bible material and noncanonical Jewish from a Greek root meaning "thanksgiving."
documents, were discovered in the mid-20th century and have
proved to be a rich resource for biblical studies. evangelist (n) a technical term for someone who writes a
gospel, or euangelion. It can also be used to describe a person
disciple (n) comes from the Latin word discipulus; refers to a who spreads the gospel message orally.
follower or student. In the New Testament, Jesus calls
disciples to learn his message about the kingdom of God and evangelization (n) the work of spreading the "good news"
about how to live in community. gospel message, from the Greek term euangelion. Figures such
as Peter and Paul in the Acts of the Apostles engage in
discipleship (n) a way of life that involves following and evangelization by preaching.
learning from a teacher, such as Jesus. New Testament
discipleship might lead to suffering or being persecuted. genre (n) a kind or sort of literary composition, characterized
by style, form, or content, such as a novel or poem. The New
doctrine (n) a formal, authoritative teaching that a given Testament consists of 27 texts in a variety of different genres.
community holds to be true at a particular time. The New
Testament contains statements of doctrine for early Christ- gentile (adj, n) Jews use this term to identify any non-Jewish
believers and many Christians today. person or group.
Easter (n) This Christian feast commemorates the resurrection Good Friday (n) commemorates the day of Jesus's Passion
of Jesus. The founding events of the Easter story are and death by crucifixion, in Christian liturgical tradition. The
recounted in three canonical gospels and in a number of the events of the Passion are described in the canonical gospels
New Testament letters. and referenced in other New Testament texts such as Paul's
letters.
eschaton (n) Greek term referring to the end of time. In the
New Testament, the eschaton will be a time of judgment, with gospel (n) means "good news"; is a translation for the Greek
rewards for the righteous and punishments for those who have word euangelion. It is used as the name for a genre of
persecuted them. biographical texts in the New Testament, but it can also refer
to the story of Jesus's life, death, and resurrection in short, oral
eschatology (n) a worldview or set of beliefs related to the end form.
of time. A related adjective, eschatological, describes events or
texts that relate to the end-time. Hebrew Bible (n) a collection of texts that are sacred for

Judaism, as well as for Christianity and, to some extent, Islam. testimony" or "provide witness." A martyr is someone who is
These texts are also referred to as the Old Testament. willing to testify to his or her faith, even to the point of death,
giving up his or her life for the sake of faith.
idol (n) an object or thing that a person or group worships
instead of worshipping God. For biblical authors the term idol Messiah (n) Hebrew word meaning "anointed one"; was initially
usually refers to any deity besides the God of Israel, such as used to describe the Hebrew Bible kings or prophets. The New
Zeus or Athena in the Greek pantheon. Testament authors apply the term to Jesus, using the Greek
translation Christos, which in English becomes "Christ."
idolatry (n) the practice of worshipping idols. It is forbidden by
law in the Hebrew Bible and continues to be rejected by early occasional (adj) can mean infrequent or arising from a specific
Christ-believers in the New Testament. occasion. When it is applied to the letters of the New
Testament, it means these texts are written in response to
incarnation (n) a Christian belief and claim about Jesus that he particular situations or occasions, reacting to specific
is God made of flesh, both human and divine. Although the circumstances or answering the questions of a community.
orthodox doctrinal statement about the incarnation is a later
Christian development, it relies on New Testament passages papyrus (n) a plant that flourished in ancient Egypt, used to
such as the prologue of John's Gospel. make an ancient form of paper, which is also called papyrus
(plural: papyri). Scrolls and single sheets of papyrus were
kenosis (n) Greek term that means "emptying"; in Christian probably the material New Testament authors used to write
teaching it refers to Jesus's humble emptying of himself and down their texts.
his willingness to die on behalf of all people. The famous hymn
in Philippians 2 describes God's self-emptying in the person of parable (n) a short narrative with symbolic elements, used to
Jesus. teach a moral lesson. Jesus frequently uses parables to teach
his apostles, the crowds, and his Jewish opponents.
Koine Greek (n) "common" Greek; the language in which the
New Testament texts were written. It was the normal language paraenesis (n) Greek term meaning "advice or counsel"; refers
used by people throughout the Greco-Roman world from the to the practice advice and instructions that New Testament
4th century BCE until the 6th century CE. letter writers offer to their readers. Most paraenesis relates to
living peacefully in community or maintaining a right
liturgy (n) from the Greek word leitourgia (literally, "a public relationship with God.
work"; or "work of the people"), liturgy refers to the public
worship practices of a religious community. The New parousia (n) Greek term meaning "arrival"; used by early
Testament is used in contemporary Christian liturgy, but some Christ-believers to return to the second coming of Christ,
of its books also describe the liturgical practices of early which they anticipated would happen soon. At the parousia,
Christ-believing communities. Christ-believers expected the resurrected Jesus would serve
as cosmic judge.
magi (n) plural of the Latin magus, which can be translated
"magician" but may also refer to Persian priests from the Passion (n) comes from a Latin verb meaning "to suffer." In the
Zoroastrian religious tradition. Matthew's nativity story context of the New Testament, it refers to Jesus's suffering at
identifies the astrologers who travel to honor the infant Jesus the time of his crucifixion and death; it can also be used as
as magi. shorthand to talk about an account of those events (for
example, the Passion narrative).
Mariology (n) formed on the basis of Mary's name and the
Greek ending –ology; means knowledge of or teachings about Passover (n) a Jewish feast that commemorates the first
Mary the mother of Jesus. The gospels and the Acts of the Passover event described in the biblical book of Exodus, when
Apostles, along with noncanoncial sources and church dogma, the angel of death "passed over" the houses of Hebrew slaves
provide information about Mary that forms the basis of in the land of Egypt. The New Testament gospels of Mark,
Christian Mariology. Matthew, and Luke assert that Jesus celebrated the Passover
meal with his disciples the night before his crucifixion and that
martyr (n) from the Greek verb martyrein, which means "to give

the Passover meal was the Last Supper. quelle or Q (n) German for "source"; in the context of New
Testament studies, refers to a hypothetical source that
Pax Romana (n) Latin phrase literally meaning "the Roman Matthew and Luke used to compose their gospels. The
peace"; refers to a peaceful period established under the material that Luke and Matthew share that may have come
Roman emperor Augustus who ruled from 37 BCE to 14 CE. from Q is mainly composed of sayings, such as the Beatitudes.
Because of his work in creating the peace, Augustus was
hailed by many in the empire as a savior or "Son of God"—but Sadducee (n) refers to a person who belongs to a particular
was seen as a false peace to those living under his occupation. sect or group within 1st-century Judaism. Sadducees were
involved in temple worship and were interested in following the
Pentecost (n) a Jewish festival (The Feast of Shavuot or The teachings of the Torah (Jewish law in the Hebrew Bible) as
Feast of Weeks) that celebrates the harvest. The New written, without interpretation; they are portrayed as Jesus's
Testament Acts of the Apostles identifies the feast of adversaries in the gospels.
Pentecost after Jesus's ascension as the moment when the
Holy Spirit descended upon the apostles and empowered them scribe (n) usually a person who copies out documents; in the
to carry out an evangelizing mission. Jewish tradition during the Second Temple period, the scribes
were also involved in adjudicating theological and legal
Pharisee (n) refers to a person who belongs to a particular debates. In the gospels, the Jewish scribes are frequently
sect or group within 1st-century Judaism. Pharisees were portrayed as hostile toward Jesus and his followers.
interested in interpreting the laws of the Hebrew Bible for
everyday Jewish life. They are portrayed as Jesus's Second Temple (adj, n) the Jewish temple in Jerusalem during
adversaries in the gospels. Jesus's lifetime, constructed between around 515 BCE (the
first temple had been destroyed by Babylonians in 587 BCE)
Pneumatology (n) formed from two Greek word parts and destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. "Second Temple
(pneuma- and -ology); means knowledge of or teachings about Judaism" refers to Jewish life and practices during the period
the Pneuma (the Holy Spirit). The New Testament books, and between 515 BCE and 70 CE.
perhaps especially John's Gospel, provide many insights into
the Pneumatology of the Christ-believers. Son of God (n) a title used for Jesus in the New Testament;
many New Testament authors (including John the evangelist
prophecy (n) Biblical prophecy is presented as the revealed and several letter writers) call Christ-believers children of God.
word of God in speech or symbolic action that may predict The title Son of God was also used for Roman emperors to
future events, comment on history (past, present, or future), highlight their power.
and guide behavior. Many New Testament writings aim to show
that figures such as Jesus and his apostles fulfill Hebrew Bible synoptic (adj) derived from Greek terms meaning "viewed
prophecy, and some New Testament figures prophesize together." It is used to describe the Gospels of Matthew, Mark,
further events. and Luke as a group because of the large amount of shared
material and even verbal parallels among these three texts.
prophet (n) person who claims to speak the word of God to
God's people or to others who need to hear the message. The testament (n) in the biblical context is either a person's last will
New Testament not only refers to prophets from Israel's past and testament or another word for covenant. The New
but also introduces figures such as John the Baptist or John of Testament receives its name in part because it is seen as a
Patmos who serve God as prophets. new covenant between God and God's people, continuing and
renewing the covenant of the Hebrew Bible.
pseudepigraphy (n) refers to the practice of falsely attributing
the authorship of a given text to someone who did not write it; theology (n) based on two Greek terms meaning the study of
combines the Greek roots pseudos (false) and epigraph or information about God or the divine (theos). The New
(inscription). Many biblical scholars agree that some letters in Testament contains many theological teachings about who
the New Testament that claim to be written by Paul were God is and why that matters for God's people.
probably written by a later Christian and falsely attributed to
the historical Paul, making them pseudepigraphic texts. Zealots a sect that originated within Second Temple Judaism;

New Testament Study Guide Interpretations 50
promoted resistance to oppressive Roman rule and sought the and community leaders such as bishops compiled lists of
founding of an autonomous Jewish kingdom. They were active authoritative and useful books in their local communities. In the
during Jesus's lifetime, and one member of The Twelve, Simon, 4th century, Christian bishops gathered in councils and worked
is identified as a zealot. cooperatively to lay out a biblical canon for the whole church.
In 367 CE Athanasius, the Bishop of Alexandria, produced a
canon list of the 27 books. Although disputed at the time, that
b Interpretations list forms the New Testament canon today.
Several criteria were used in determining a text's canonical

status. The popularity of a book played an important role.
The New Testament Another consideration was theological content and the ability
to trace a text's teachings back to Jesus's apostles. Texts that
A canon is a list of texts or books that are considered sacred contain teachings accepted by a majority of Christ-believers
and authoritative by a particular religious group. The term or, alternatively, do not contain teachings that were considered
canon comes from the Greek word kanon, meaning "ruler" or incorrect, were more likely to be included in the canon.
"measuring stick." The New Testament canon consists of 27
The four gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) that are part
books that are considered sacred for Christianity; Christians
of the canonical New Testament were all traditionally linked to
use the New Testament together with the Hebrew Bible, called
the first followers of Jesus. They were widely read in Christian
the Old Testament by Christians, to form the full canon of the
communities throughout the Mediterranean world, and they
Bible.
each include a Passion narrative (an account of the death and
In the New Testament there are four narratives about the life resurrection of Jesus).
and death of Jesus: a historical book about the early Christ-
believing communities called the Acts of the Apostles; 14
epistles or letters traditionally attributed to the early Christ- Translation and Transmission
believer Paul and addressed to specific individuals or
communities; 7 Catholic epistles written to the "catholic" or The New Testament texts were originally composed in Koine
"universal" church; and an apocalyptic text about the end of or "common" Greek, a form of the ancient Greek language that
time and the final judgment, called Revelation. was used throughout the Mediterranean world during the
Hellenistic Period (the 4th century BCE to 31 BCE) and during
While these books form the canon, there are many other texts the Roman empire (31 BCE to the 5th century CE). Most
written by early Christ-believers that are not part of the canon. readers of the New Testament in the ancient world were
reading Greek versions of the texts that were eventually
included in the canon.
Forming the New Testament
Over time, communities that did not use Greek as their primary
Canon language began producing translations of the Bible. In the 4th
century CE a Christian bishop named Jerome made a
The New Testament canon formed over time as part of a translation of the Hebrew Bible and New Testament into Latin;
process involving different people and groups and some key it is known as the Vulgate, a title that comes from the Latin
principles of selection. The most important people involved adjective vulgata, which means "commonly used." The Vulgate
were the New Testament authors themselves. These was used in Western Christian churches for close to a
individuals wrote in Greek between about 50 CE and 125 CE, millennium. Eastern Orthodox churches continued to primarily
and they wrote in a variety of genres, depending on the use a Greek translation of the Bible.
intended audience and the type of content they wished to
Beginning in the 14th century the Bible was translated into
present.
modern European languages, largely as part of the Protestant
Christ-believing communities used and popularized the texts, Reformation, which placed a high value on enabling individual

New Testament Study Guide Source for Biblical Quotations 51
believers to read and hear the biblical texts in their native

language since Protestants hold Scripture to be the most Inspiration and Interpretation
important authority in religious life (known as the doctrine of
sola scriptura, or "Scripture alone"). As early as the 7th century The question of divine inspiration can affect New Testament
CE, attempts were made to translate the Bible into Old English. interpretation and usage. In general Christians hold that the
However, John Wycliffe is credited with the first complete New Testament texts are inspired by God, but explanations of
English translation. The King James Version is the most the process and implications of divine inspiration vary. Some
famous English translation from the early 17th century that more conservative readers tend to see inspiration as the direct
many Christians today still consider beautiful. Today, scholars influence of a divine agent like the Holy Spirit on the form and
and believers from around the world continue to produce even wording of the biblical texts. More liberal readers tend to
biblical translations and even paraphrases in a variety of world see inspiration as an indirect motivation that led human
languages. authors to express religious beliefs in literary and rhetorical

forms shaped by their specific historical and cultural contexts.
Interpretation is an inevitable part of reading, but there are

The New Testament in diverse views among believers and scholars about how best to
interpret the New Testament. A question about biblical
Christianity inerrancy often accompanies discussions about divine
inspiration. For certain groups of Protestant and American
The texts that belong to the canon are used in many ways by Evangelical Christians, especially in the late 20th century, the
individual Christians and Christian communities today, in every New Testament's teachings are seen to be without error in
part of life from private prayer to institutional organization. historical detail and doctrinal (teaching) content.
Most Christian congregations that gather for liturgy (public
worship) read selected portions of the New Testament. Often Other Christian groups, including some Protestants, Roman
the priest or minister will provide some commentary to help Catholics, and Orthodox Christians, also hold that the text is
people make connections between the biblical text and their without error in its theological teachings but allow that the role
everyday lives. of history and culture in biblical composition have led to
historical inaccuracies. Believers in these different groups
The New Testament also offers a framework for leadership often vary in their attitudes toward what is called a historical-
within many Christian churches, since narratives like the Acts critical approach to reading biblical texts.
of the Apostles and epistles like 1 Timothy and Titus describe
job titles and essential qualities for church leaders, such as This approach, developed primarily by biblical scholars in the
bishops or deacons. Christian religious rituals, like baptism (a 18th to 20th centuries, pays careful attention to the roles of
rite of initiation into the Christian community), may refer to the historical, geographical, and cultural contexts in shaping the
New Testament and even quote directly from it as part of the form and content of New Testament books. For example, when
ritual celebration. the four canonical gospels conflict in their telling of key events
in Jesus's life, a belief in biblical inerrancy would suggest that
Different sects or denominations within global all four are reporting events accurately, even if that creates
Christianity—such as Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox complicated historical problems; a historical-critical approach
Christians—have varying beliefs about what exactly takes might allow that a gospel author changed or misrepresented
place in a celebration of the Lord's Supper, but nearly all historical events in service of a theological message.
Christians refer to texts like Mark 14:22–24 and 1 Corinthians
11:23–26 to explain why they celebrate the ritual. Finally, the
b Source for Biblical

Christian practices of private prayer and Bible study usually
involve the New Testament as a source of authoritative
teaching and personal inspiration for ethics, spiritual growth, or
meditation.

New Testament Study Guide Suggested Reading 52
Quotations
Biblical quotations are from New Revised Standard Version
Bible, copyright © 1989 National Council of the Churches of
Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All
rights reserved worldwide. http://nrsvbibles.org/
e Suggested Reading
Mays, James Luther, and Joseph Blenkinsopp. The
HarperCollins Bible Commentary. HarperSanFrancisco, 2000.
Osiek, Carolyn. Philippians, Philemon. Abingdon, 2000. [See

also other commentaries in this series: Abingdon New
Testament Commentaries.]
Sanders, E.P. Paul: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP, 2001.
Stanton, Graham. The Gospels and Jesus. Oxford UP, 2013.
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New Testament

Study Guide by Course Hero

The New Testament is a collection of 27 books originally

a Author Biography described as motivating or driving Jesus to perform certain

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Herod appears in the Gospel of Matthew as a villain who seeks

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Full Key Figure List Pontius Pilate was the Roman

Jesus is the main figure whose life

John the Baptist is a prophet like

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Mary ("Miriam") Magdalene is one of The whore of Babylon, a female figure

The woman clothed with the Sun, a

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some important events in the life of Jesus. In the synoptic

and ascension of Jesus. Together, the Gospel of Luke and the

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names based on the individual or community to which they are

The text is highly symbolic and perhaps even coded,

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Octavius is born. In 27 BCE he becomes Caesar

Before Jesus's birth

Jesus's birth is foretold through natural phenomena,

Jesus is born in the Roman province of Judea.

Herod the Great dies; Herod Antipas (King Herod)

Luke describes Jesus talking with the Jewish elders in

Tiberius is emperor of Rome, ruling until 37 CE; likely the

Pontius Pilate becomes Prefect of Judea.

Jesus is baptized by John the Baptist at the Jordan

Jesus travels through Judea, angering authorities as he

Jesus is arrested and sentenced to death by crucifixion.

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Three days later

Jesus's disciples report that he has been raised from the

The Twelve establish a community of Jewish and gentile

Saul/Paul travels around the Mediterranean world,

Paul writes letters to various communities of Christ-

Roman military forces under the command of Trajan

On the island of Patmos, John (author of Revelation)

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identifying him as the Messiah and says now Simon will be

Matthew traces the family of Jesus back to King David and

John the Baptist baptizes Jesus in the Jordan River, while

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Moses's important role as the lawgiver who brings the

John the Baptist baptizes Jesus in the Jordan River, and a

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demonstrating a new and ideal model of leadership.

The Prologue (John 1:1–18)

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Chapters 9–17 Analysis

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