Otech Lab Mannual by Salik Haroon Abbasi

Geo-Technical Engineering Lab Manual
GEO TECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Lab Manual
Lab Manual by
Usman Ali
Salik Haroon Abbasi
Department of Civil Engineering University of Engineering and

Technology Lahore
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Contents
To Determine the Moisture Content of the Given Soil Sample By Oven Dry Method. ............... 13
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 13
Reference: ................................................................................................................... 13
Significance: ............................................................................................................... 13
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 13
Related Theory:........................................................................................................... 15
1.5.1 Moisture Content ................................................................................................. 15
1.5.2 Representative quantity of Moist Soil:.................................................................. 16
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 16
Observations: .............................................................................................................. 16
Calculations: ............................................................................................................... 17
Table of Observation and Calculations ........................................................................ 18
Graph .......................................................................................................................... 18
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 19
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 19
2 To determine the moisture content of the given soil sample by speedy moisture meter. ...... 20
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 20
Significance: ............................................................................................................... 20
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 20
Related Theory:........................................................................................................... 21
2.4.2 Calcium carbide gas moisture tester: .................................................................... 22
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 22
Observations: .............................................................................................................. 23
Calculations: ............................................................................................................... 23
Table of Calculations .................................................................................................. 24
Graphs ........................................................................................................................ 24
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 25
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 25
3 To determine the specific gravity of the soil solids in a given soil sample........................... 26
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Objective: ................................................................................................................... 26
Significance: ............................................................................................................... 26
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 26
Related Theory:........................................................................................................... 28
3.4.1 Specific Gravity ................................................................................................... 28
3.4.2 Determination of specific gravity in the LAB ....................................................... 29
3.4.3 Temperature correction ........................................................................................ 30
3.4.4 Table.................................................................................................................... 31
3.4.5 Typical Values of Gs................................................................................................ 31
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 32
Observations: .............................................................................................................. 32
Calculations: ............................................................................................................... 33
Table of Observations and calculations ....................................................................... 34
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 34
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 34
4 To Carry Out Sieve Analysis of a Given Soil Sample ......................................................... 35
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 35
Standard Reference: .................................................................................................... 35
Significance ................................................................................................................ 35
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 35
Related Theory:........................................................................................................... 36
4.5.1 Sieve: ................................................................................................................... 37
4.5.2 Nest of sieve: ....................................................................................................... 37
4.5.3 Shaking Period and breaking of soil lumps: .......................................................... 37
4.5.4 Particles struck in the sieve .................................................................................. 38
4.5.5 Particle size distribution ....................................................................................... 38
4.5.6 Co efficient of uniformity .................................................................................... 38
4.5.7 Co efficient of Curvature...................................................................................... 38
Observations and Calculations .................................................................................... 39
Graphs ........................................................................................................................ 40
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 40
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 40
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5 To Carry Out Hydrometer Analysis of a Given Soil Sample ............................................... 41

Objective: ................................................................................................................... 41
Significance ................................................................................................................ 41
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 41
Related Theory:........................................................................................................... 43
5.5.1 Hydrometer Analysis: .......................................................................................... 43
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 47
Observations and Calculations: ................................................................................... 48
Graphs ........................................................................................................................ 49
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 49
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 49
6 To Find Out the Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit of a Given Soil Sample ............................. 51
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 51
Significance ................................................................................................................ 51
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 52
Related Theory:........................................................................................................... 52
6.5.1 Consistency: ........................................................................................................ 52
6.5.2 Atterberg Limits:.................................................................................................. 53
6.5.3 Importance of Atterberg limits ............................................................................. 54
Procedure .................................................................................................................... 55
6.6.1 Liquid Limit......................................................................................................... 55
6.6.2 Plastic Limit......................................................................................................... 55
Observations and Calculations .................................................................................... 56
6.7.1 Liquid Limit......................................................................................................... 56
6.7.2 Plastic Limit......................................................................................................... 56
Graphs ........................................................................................................................ 58
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 59
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 59
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7 To Perform Standard Compaction Test on the Given Soil Sample ...................................... 60

Objective: ................................................................................................................... 60
Significance: ............................................................................................................... 60
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 61
Related Theory............................................................................................................ 61
7.5.1 Compaction.......................................................................................................... 61
7.5.2 Impact compaction ............................................................................................... 62
7.5.3 Optimum Moisture Content:................................................................................. 62
7.5.4 Maximum Dry Density: ....................................................................................... 62
7.5.5 Methods of Compaction ....................................................................................... 63
7.5.6 Purpose of Compaction: ....................................................................................... 64
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 64
Graphs ........................................................................................................................ 66
................................................................................................................................................. 66
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 66
Comments ................................................................................................................... 66
8 To Perform Modified Compaction Test on the Given Soil Sample ..................................... 67
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 67
Significance ................................................................................................................ 67
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 68
Related Theory............................................................................................................ 70
8.5.1 Compaction.......................................................................................................... 70
8.5.2 Impact compaction ............................................................................................... 71
8.5.3 Maximum Dry Density: ....................................................................................... 71
8.5.4 Methods of Compaction ....................................................................................... 71
8.5.5 Purpose of Compaction: ....................................................................................... 72
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 73
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Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 74
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 75
9 To Perform Core Cutter Test to determine the density of the soil in place. .......................... 76
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 76
Significance: ............................................................................................................... 76
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 76
Relevant Theory.......................................................................................................... 77
9.4.1 In-Situ Density ..................................................................................................... 77
9.4.2 Degree of compaction .......................................................................................... 77
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 78
Observation and Calculation: ...................................................................................... 78
Water/Moisture content determination ........................................................................ 79
Precautions ................................................................................................................. 79
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 80
10 To Perform Sand Replacement Test to determine the field density of the soil in place. ... 81
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 81
Significance: ............................................................................................................... 81
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 81
Relevant Theory.......................................................................................................... 82
10.4.1 Compaction Control Field Testing: ...................................................................... 82
10.4.2 In-Situ Density ..................................................................................................... 82
10.4.3 Degree of compaction .......................................................................................... 83
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 83
Observations & Calculations: ...................................................................................... 84
10.7.1 Sand Replacement Method: .................................................................................. 85
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 86
Comments: .................................................................................................................. 86
11 To Perform the consolidation test on the given soil sample. ............................................ 88
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 88
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Significance: ............................................................................................................... 88
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 88
Relevant Theory.......................................................................................................... 90
11.5.1 Consolidation: ...................................................................................................... 90
11.5.2 Over consolidation ratio or OCR .......................................................................... 91
11.5.3 Primary consolidation .......................................................................................... 91
11.5.4 Secondary consolidation ...................................................................................... 91
11.5.5 Types of Consoldiometer ..................................................................................... 92
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 92
Observations & Calculations: ...................................................................................... 94
Graph .......................................................................................................................... 95
Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 95
Comments: .............................................................................................................. 95
12 To determine the co-efficient of the permeability of the granular soil by the constant head
permeability. ............................................................................................................................. 96
Objective: ................................................................................................................... 96
Significance: ............................................................................................................... 96
Apparatus:................................................................................................................... 96
Related Theory............................................................................................................ 97
12.4.1 Permeability......................................................................................................... 97
12.4.2 Coefficient of permeability .................................................................................. 98
12.4.3 Range of Permeability for different soils .............................................................. 99
Procedure: ................................................................................................................... 99
Observations & Calculations: .................................................................................... 100
Table of Calculations ................................................................................................ 101
Precautions: .............................................................................................................. 101
Comments: ................................................................................................................ 101
13 To determine the co-efficient of the permeability of the fine grained soil by the falling
head permeability. ................................................................................................................... 102
Objective: ................................................................................................................. 102
Significance: ............................................................................................................. 102
Apparatus:................................................................................................................. 103
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Related Theory.......................................................................................................... 104

13.4.1 Permeability....................................................................................................... 104
13.4.2 Coefficient of permeability ................................................................................ 104
13.4.3 Which factors affect soil permeability? .............................................................. 105
13.4.4 Range of Permeability for different soils ............................................................ 105
Procedure: ................................................................................................................. 106
Precautions: .............................................................................................................. 108
Comments: ................................................................................................................ 108
14 Calibration of Speedy Moisture Meter .......................................................................... 109
Objective: ................................................................................................................. 109
Reference: ................................................................................................................. 109
Significance: ............................................................................................................. 109
Apparatus.................................................................................................................. 109
Related Theory:......................................................................................................... 111
14.5.1 Moisture Content ............................................................................................... 111
14.5.2 Calcium carbide gas moisture tester: .................................................................. 112
14.5.3 Representative quantity of Moist Soil:................................................................ 112
Procedure: ................................................................................................................. 113
Calculations and Observations .................................................................................. 114
Graphs ...................................................................................................................... 114
Results: ..................................................................................................................... 115
Precautions: ........................................................................................................... 115
Comments: ............................................................................................................ 116
15 To Find the Relative Density of Soil ............................................................................. 116
Objective: ................................................................................................................. 116
Reference: ................................................................................................................. 116
Significance: ............................................................................................................. 117
Apparatus.................................................................................................................. 117
Related Theory:......................................................................................................... 118
15.5.1 Void ratio........................................................................................................... 118
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15.5.2 Relative Density of Cohesion less Soils.............................................................. 119

15.5.3 Relative density ................................................................................................. 119
Mathematically ......................................................................................................... 119
Procedure: ................................................................................................................. 120
Observations and Calculations .................................................................................. 120
Result: ...................................................................................................................... 121
Comments: ............................................................................................................ 121
16 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by Direct Shear test ................................................ 122
Objective: ................................................................................................................. 122
Significance: ............................................................................................................. 122
Apparatus.................................................................................................................. 122
Related Theory:......................................................................................................... 123
16.4.1 Shear strength .................................................................................................... 123
16.4.2 Factors affecting shear strength .......................................................................... 124
16.4.3 Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion......................................................................... 125
16.4.4 Direct Shear Test ............................................................................................... 126
Procedure: ................................................................................................................. 126
Observation and Calculation ..................................................................................... 127
Graphs ...................................................................................................................... 129
16.8.1 Mohr Failure Envelope from Direct Shear Test .................................................. 129
16.8.2 Stress Strain Curve............................................................................................ 130
Results: ..................................................................................................................... 130
Precautions: ........................................................................................................... 131
Comments: ............................................................................................................ 131
17 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by Triaxial Compression Test ................................. 132
Objective: ................................................................................................................. 132
Standard Reference: .................................................................................................. 132
Significance: ............................................................................................................. 132
Apparatus.................................................................................................................. 132
Related Theory:......................................................................................................... 133
17.5.1 Shear strength .................................................................................................... 133
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17.5.4 Types of triaxial test........................................................................................... 136
17.5.5 Principle of U-U test .......................................................................................... 136
Procedure: ................................................................................................................. 137
Table of observations and calculations ...................................................................... 138
Moisture content ....................................................................................................... 141
Graphs ................................................................................................................... 142
Results: ................................................................................................................. 143
Precautions: ........................................................................................................... 144
Comments: ............................................................................................................ 144
18 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by Unconfined Compression test ............................ 145
Objective: ................................................................................................................. 145
Significance: ............................................................................................................. 145
Apparatus.................................................................................................................. 146
Related Theory:......................................................................................................... 146
18.5.1 Shear strength .................................................................................................... 146
18.5.4 Types of triaxial test........................................................................................... 149
18.5.5 Brief Description about test: ............................................................................... 149
Preparation of the sample and performing test ........................................................... 149
Procedure: ................................................................................................................. 150
Table of Observations and calculations ..................................................................... 151
............................................................................................................................................ 153
Graphs ................................................................................................................... 153
18.10.1 Stress Strain Curve ......................................................................................... 153
Mohr Circle ........................................................................................................... 154
Results: ................................................................................................................. 154
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Precautions: ........................................................................................................... 155

Comments: ............................................................................................................ 155
19 To Perform the consolidation test on the given soil sample. .......................................... 156
Objective: ................................................................................................................. 156
Significance: ............................................................................................................. 156
Apparatus:................................................................................................................. 157
Related Theory.......................................................................................................... 158
19.5.1 Consolidation: .................................................................................................... 158
19.5.2 Over consolidation ratio or OCR ........................................................................ 159
19.5.3 Primary consolidation ........................................................................................ 159
19.5.4 Secondary consolidation .................................................................................... 159
19.5.5 Types of Consolidometer ................................................................................... 160
Procedure: ................................................................................................................. 161
Analysis: ................................................................................................................... 162
Observations & Calculations ..................................................................................... 162
Graphs ................................................................................................................... 164
19.10.1 Void Ratio vs Pressure ................................................................................... 164
19.10.2 Void Ratio vs Log P ....................................................................................... 164
Results: ................................................................................................................. 165
Precautions: ........................................................................................................... 165
Comments: ............................................................................................................ 165
20 To perform the standard penetration test ....................................................................... 167
Objective: ................................................................................................................. 167
Significance: ............................................................................................................. 167
Apparatus:................................................................................................................. 167
Related Theory.......................................................................................................... 168
20.5.1 Standard Penetration Test................................................................................... 168
20.5.2 Standard Penetration Number............................................................................. 169
20.5.3 Limitations to SSPT test..................................................................................... 170
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20.5.4 Undisturbed soil sample (UDS) .......................................................................... 170

20.5.5 Disturbed soil sample ......................................................................................... 170
Procedure: ................................................................................................................. 171
Table of Observations & Calculations: ...................................................................... 173
Graphs ...................................................................................................................... 174
20.9.1 Stress Strain Curve............................................................................................. 174
20.9.2 Mohr Circle ....................................................................................................... 175
Results: ................................................................................................................. 175
Precautions: ........................................................................................................... 176
Comments: ............................................................................................................ 176
21 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by CPT ................................................................... 183
22 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by SPT ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
23 To Study the Variation in Strengths of Soil ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Experiment No: 1
To Determine the Moisture Content of the Given Soil Sample

By Oven Dry Method.
Objective:
➢ To find out moisture content in the given sample of the soil.
Reference:
ASTM D2216-66 (ASTM STANDARD PART-II).

It deals with Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content
of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures.
Significance:
➢ For many soils, moisture content is an important Factor used for establishing the
relationship between the way a soil behaves and its properties.
➢ The consistency of a fine-grained soil largely depends on its water content.
➢ The water content is also used in expressing the phase relationships of air, water, and solids
in a given volume of soil.
Apparatus:
➢ Containers with lids

➢ Weighing Balance
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➢ Electric Oven ( accurate temperature control at 110±5 ºC)
Figure 1.1Containers with lids
Figure 1.2 Electric Oven
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Figure 1.1 Weighing Balance
Related Theory:
The theory related to this experiment is given is as under
1.5.1 Moisture Content
Moisture content in a soil can be defined as under:

“Moisture content is the ratio between the Water of water in the soil sample to that of the weight
of soil solid in the same volume.”
Mathematical Formula:
We can represent the Moisture content in a soil sample mathematically as under

Ww
Moisture content = × 100 (%)
Ws
Where Ww: Weight of water in the soil sample
Ws: Weight of the soil solid in sample
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1.5.2 Representative quantity of Moist Soil:
To provide a reasonably reliable moisture content determination, the following wet soil sample
weights (representative samples) are recommended
Maximum size of the soil Recommended minimum Weighing balance accuracy

particle (95-100% passes mass of the moist sample
through the given sieve)
(gm) (gm)
No. 40 (425 μm) 10-200 0.01
No. 04 (4.75 mm) 300-500 0.1
12.5mm or 0.5″ 300-1000 0.1
50mm or 2″ 1500-3000 1.0
Procedure:
➢ First of all I took the four empty containers of Aluminum and cleaned those
containers carefully.
➢ Then I marked that containers with a definite number for my convenience for their
identification.
➢ Then I placed the cylinders on the balance and weighed these cylinders with a
precision of 0.01gm.
➢ Then I went to the field and took four Samples with a depth difference of 0.25m.
➢ Then I placed the samples in the container and weighed these wet soil samples using
the weigh balance respectively.
➢ Then I placed the soil sample in the drying oven at constant temperature of 110 ± 5 ºC
for at least 24 hours.
➢ After 24 hours I removed the container from the oven and weighed these containers.
Observations:
Observations for the group 1 are as under.
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Weight of empty Container = W1 = 43.42 g

Weight of container + Wet Soil = W2 = 209.60 g
Weight of container + Dry Soil = W3 = 184.83 g
Calculations:
Weight of Water = Ww = W2 – W3
= 209.60 – 184.83
=24.77 g
Weight of Soil Solids = Ws = W3 – W1
= 184.83 – 43.42
=141.41 g
Using the Formula, we have the moisture content
Ww
w= × 100
Ws
We may find out using this formula
W2 – W3
w= × 100
W3−W1
24.77
w = 141.41 × 100
w = 17.52 %
There is 17.52 % moisture content at a depth of 0.25m depth in the soil sample.
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Table of Observation and Calculations
Depth (meters) 0.25 0.5 0.75
Moisture can number D-1 D-2 D-3
W1 = Mass of empty, clean can + lid (grams) 43.42 50.38 45.93

W2 = Mass of can, lid + moist soil (grams) 209.60 141.07 146.93
W3 = Mass of can, lid+ and dry soil (grams) 14.83 126.17 127.41
Ww = Weight of water = W2 – W3 24.77 14.90 19.52
Ws = Weight of soil solids = W3 – W1 141.41 75.79 81.48
w = Water content, w% 17.52 19.66 23.96
Graph
Moisture Content (%)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.1
0.2
(17.5, 0.25)
0.3
Depth (m)
0.4
0.5 (19.6, 0.50)
0.6
0.7
(23.9, 0.75)
0.8
0.9
Graph between Moisture content (%) and Depth (m)
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Precautions:
➢ Ensure that weight soil samples are not much high because larger samples take too long
to dry, while smaller samples lead to inaccurate results.
➢ Do not put moist samples in the oven on a shelf below dry samples. Moist samples
should be placed on the top shelf and all partially dried samples placed on the lower
shelf. Do not allow dried samples to pick up moisture after they are removed from the
oven. Weigh them immediately after drying.
➢ Do not use metallic containers in a microwave oven. Arcing and oven damage may result.
➢ Do not over-load the oven, as this will create a much longer drying time
Comments:
As we took three soil samples from the same ground at different depths. It is clear that by
varying the depth the percentage moisture content in the soil sample also changes i.e. percentage
moisture content increases with the depth. Also the color of the soil sample was reddish grey. For
Group 1 and Group 4 and Group #3 the moisture content is varying directly with the depth that
may be due to the several unknown conditions like seepage of water from
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Experiment No: 2
2 To determine the moisture content of the given soil sample by

speedy moisture meter.
Objective:
We perform this job in order to get familiar that how to find out moisture content in the given
sample of the soil because moisture content is an important Factor used for establishing the
Significance:
For many soils, moisture content is an important Factor used for establishing the relationship
between the way a soil behaves and its properties. The consistency of a fine-grained soil largely
depends on its water content. The water content is also used in expressing the phase relationships
of air, water, and solids in a given volume of soil. This method has proven more efficient method
of determining the moisture content in the field.
Apparatus:
The apparatus being used in this experiment is given as follows:
➢ Speedy moisture meter (calcium carbide pressure moisture tester)

➢ Two 1.25″ (3.175 cm) steel balls
➢ Cleaning brush and cloth
➢ Scoop for measuring calcium carbide reagent
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➢ Calcium carbide reagent
Figure 2:1 Apparatus
Related Theory:

“Moisture content is the ratio between the Water of water in the soil sample to that of the
weight of soil solid in the same volume.”
o Mathematical Formula:
Ww
Ws
Where
Ww: Weight of water in the soil sample
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2.4.2 Calcium carbide gas moisture tester:
The calcium carbide gas moisture tester provides a quick and simple means of determining
the moisture content of the soil. It is particularly used for the field determination of moisture
content in conjunction with field compaction testing.
The basic premise of the calcium carbide gas moisture tester is that the free moisture in the
soil reacts with calcium carbide reagent to form a gas called acetylene gas.
CaC2 + H2O →CaO + C2H2
The reaction of Calcium carbide with the water produces the acetylene gas along with calcium
oxide, and acetylene gas exerts the pressure on the walls as well on the gauge.
The acetylene gas is tapped within the tester and registers on the pressure dial, which is
calibrated to read directly in percent of moisture by wet weight of soil. Since moisture content by
definition is expressed as a percentage of dry weight of the soil and the readings obtained by
speedy moisture meter are corrected using the following expression:
Wsp
(1 − Wsp)
Where
Wsp = Moisture content as obtained by speedy moisture meter expressed as decimal fraction
Procedure:
➢ First of all I weighed 26 gm soil sample on the tarred scale and place it in the cap of the
tester.
➢ Place three scoops (approximately 24 gm) of calcium carbide and two 1.25″ (3.175 cm)
steel balls in the larger chamber of the moisture tester.
➢ With the pressure vessel in approximately horizontal position, insert the cap in the pressure
vessel and seal it by tightening the clamp, taking care that no carbide comes in contact with
the soil until a complete seal is achieved.
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➢ Raise the moisture tester to a vertical position so that the soil on the cap will fall into the
pressure vessel.
➢ Shake the instrument vigorously so that all lumps are broken up to permit the calcium
carbide to react with available free moisture. The instrument should be shaken with a
rotating motion so that the steel balls will not damage the instrument or cause the soil
particles to become embedded in the orifice leading to pressure diaphragm.
➢ When the needle stops moving, read the dial while holding the instrument in the horizontal
position at eye level.
➢ Record the dial reading.
➢ With the cap of instrument pointed away from the operator, slowly release the gas pressure.
Empty the pressure vessel ad examine the material for lumps. If the sample is not
completely pulverized, the test should be repeated using a new sample.
➢ The dial reading is the percent of moisture by wet mass and must be converted to dry mass.
Observations:
Group#1, Container# 10
Weight of the empty flask = W1 = 14.95 g
Weight of container + Wet soil = W2 = 42.52g
Weight of container + Dry soil = W3 = 38.83g
Speedy moisture meter Reading = Wsp = 9.6
Calculations:
As we know that
Wsp
(1 − Wsp)
Putting the values in the above equation, we have
M.C = 10.62 %
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Also from the Oven dry method

M.C = 15.45 %
Table of Calculations
Container No. #10 #72 #2

Wt of empty Container W1 (g) 14.95 14.87 14.89
Wt of container + wet soil W2 (g) 42.52 37.50 39.89
Wt of container + Dry soil W3 (g) 38.83 35.30 37.57
Moisture content (%) 15.45 10.77 10.23
Speedy moisture meter reading Wsp 9.6 8.8 5
Moisture content by Speedy moisture meter 10.62 9.65 5.26
Graphs
Comparison of Moisture Content by Oven dry method and speedy moisture meter
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Precautions:
During the performance we must keep aware of these things

➢ While shaking the sand in the speedy moisture meter, we should not move it in the
vertical direction, instead we should move it in horizontal direction.
➢ Before placing the soi, we must assure that the apparatus is fully dry.
➢ For oven dry sample weight, we must weigh the sample just after removing the sample
from the oven.
Comments:
Since, finding out the moisture content by speedy moisture is an Easy and direct
approach to determine the percentage moisture content because it gives the percentage Moisture
content with in few minutes. But the main demerit of this method is that it is less accurate
method as compared to the oven dry method.
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Experiment No: 3
3 To determine the specific gravity of the soil solids in a

given soil sample
Objective:
This lab is performed to determine the specific gravity of soil by using a Pycnometer.
Significance:
➢ For many soils, moisture content is an important Factor used for establishing the
➢ The specific gravity of a soil is used in the phase relationship of air, water, and solids
in a given volume of the soil.
➢ The specific gravity is used in the computations of most of the laboratory tests, and is
needed in nearly all pressure, settlement, and stability problems in soil engineering.
Apparatus:
➢ Pycnometer
➢ Weighing balance
➢ Large beaker
➢ Thermometer
➢ Wash bottle
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Figure 3.1 Wash Bottle
Figure 3.2 Weighing Balance
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Figure 3.3 Thermometer
Related Theory:
The theory related to this experiment is as follow.
3.4.1 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of a soil can be defined as under

“The specific gravity of any substance is the ratio of the unit weight of the material to the
unit weight of the water as 4ºC”
Mathematically
Mathematically above equation can be written as
Gs = γ (material)⁄γ (water) at 4ºC
Where
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Gs : Specifc gravity of the material

γ material: Unit weight of the material
γ water: Unit weigh of water at 4ºC
3.4.2 Determination of specific gravity in the LAB
To determine the specific gravity in the laboratory, volumes of soils and the volume of
the water must be same.
Gs = γ (material)⁄γ (water) __________ (i)
As we know that
γ = W⁄V
Where
γ: Unit weight of any material
W: Weight of the sample
V: Volume of the sample
By putting the value of γ in the Equation (i) ,we have
Ws⁄
V
Gs = Ww⁄
V
Where
Gs : Specifc gravity of the material
Ws: Weight of the sample
Ww: Weight of the water
Since, here we take both the samples having equal volumes, so
V: Volume of the both water as well given soil sample
The volume of a known weight of the soil grains can be obtained by using a container of known
volume and the Archimedes principle that a body submerged in a volume of a water will displace
a volume of water equal to the volume of the submerged body.
The container of known volume is the volumetric flask which holds the standard volume of the
distilled water at 20ºC. At the temperature more than 20ºC, the volume will be slightly more and
29 | P a g e
below the 20ºC the volume will be slightly less. Generally in the routine work, we use tap water
instead of the distilled water.
3.4.3 Temperature correction
Since the density of a material changes with the change in the temperature. If we don’t
consider density change with temperature, however, a slight increase in precision to account
for temperature effect on the density of the water can be obtained by using the following
equation
Mathematically
Gs = (Ws / Ww) × α
Where
Gs: Specific Gravity of soil solids
Ws :Weight of soil solids
Ww : Weight of water
α : The co-efficient of temperature
α can be computed using the formula
α = γT / γ4ºC
Where
γT : Unit weight of the water at T temperature
γ4ºC : Unit weight of the water at 4ºC temperature
Typical values of correction factor α is as under
30 | P a g e
3.4.4 Table
Tº(C) Correction Factor(α)
4 1.00
15 0.9999
20 0.9982
25 0.9971
30 0.9957
35 0.9941
3.4.5 Typical Values of Gs
Some typical values of some spoil samples are as under which may be used for the comparison
purpose of the different specific gravities and also to check out whether our results are correct
or not.
Type of the Soil Gs
Sand 2.65 - 2.67
Silty Clay 2.67 – 2.70
Inorganic Clay 2.70 – 2.80
Soil with Mica and Iron 2.75 – 3.00
Organic Soil Variable (but <200)
31 | P a g e
Procedure:
➢ Determine and record the weight of the empty clean and dry Pycnometer, W1.
➢ Place 100g of a dry soil sample (passed through the sieve No. 10) in the Pycnometer.
Determine and record the weight of the Pycnometer containing the dry soil, W2.
➢ Add distilled water to fill about half to three-fourth of the Pycnometer. Soak the sample
for 10 minutes.
➢ Then shake Pycnometer to remove the entrapped air.
➢ Fill the Pycnometer with distilled (water to the mark), clean the exterior surface of the
Pycnometer with a clean, dry cloth.
➢ Determine the weight of the Pycnometer and contents, W3.
➢ Empty the Pycnometer and clean it. Then fill it with distilled water only clean the exterior
surface of the Pycnometer with a clean, dry cloth. Determine the weight of the
Pycnometer and distilled water, W4.
➢ Empty the Pycnometer and clean it. And also record the temperature.
➢ Specific gravity is then computed by dividing the weight of soil solids by the weight of
the water in equal amount.
➢ Repeat the above procedure.
Observations:
Weight of the empty Pycnometer = W1 = 18.93g
Weight of the Pycnometer +soil sample = W2 = 60.38g
Weight of the Pycnometer +soil sample + water filled = W3 = 97.79g
Weight of the Pycnometer completely filled with water= W4 = 72.13g
Temperature = T= 17ºC
32 | P a g e
Calculations:
W2-W1= Weight of soil sample = Ws
W4-W1 –(W3-W2) = Weight of water=Ww
As we know that Specific Gravity

[α (W2 − W1 )]
Gs =
[(W4 − W1) – (W3 − W2) ]
Putting the values in the above equation, we have
[α (60.38 − 18.93 )]
Gs =
[(72.13 − 18.93) – (97.79 − 60.38) ]
Gs = α × 2.625 ______ (i)
Now calculation for the α can be
Using the given table

20−15 20−17
=
0.9982−0.9999 0.9982−α
Rearranging above equation we have

α = 0.99922
Now putting back the values in equation (i) we get

Gs = 0.99922 × 2.625
Gs = 2.623
33 | P a g e
Table of Observations and calculations
Specimen number
Volume of the FLASK (ml) 50 50 50
W1 = Mass of empty, clean pycnometer (grams) 18.93 19.42 19.49
W2 = Mass of empty pycnometer + dry soil (grams) 60.38 44.49 43.64
W3 = Mass of pycnometer + dry soil + water (grams) 97.79 86.71 86.06
W4 = Mass of pycnometer + water (grams) 72.13 70.74 73.75
Specific gravity (GS) 2.62 2.75 2.73
Precautions:
➢ Pycnometer must be completely filled with the water.

➢ Shaking of the water should be in such a way that all the pores must be filled with water.
➢ While observing the temperature on the thermometer, the eye must be levelled to the
thermometer.
➢ Pynometer must not filled very much with the soil sample.
Comments:
Since the soil sample has an average specific gravity of about 2.70 that is showing that the soil
sample was a silty sand. The difference in the Specific gravity of the same soil sample is due to
the personal error. Also while filling the pycnometer with water, we used tap water instead of using
the Distilled water.
34 | P a g e
Experiment No: 4
4 To Carry Out Sieve Analysis of a Given Soil Sample
Objective:
This lab is performed to determine the different grain sizes in a soil sample he mechanical or sieve
analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-sized particles, and the
hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer particles.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422-63 Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
Significance
➢ The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of the soil.
➢ Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in the
classification of soils.
Apparatus:
The apparatus used in this job is as under

➢ Balance
➢ Set of sieves
➢ Mechanical Sieve shaker
➢ Soil pulverize
35 | P a g e
Figure 4.1 Sieve Apparatus
Related Theory:
As complex as it is, soil can be described simply. It consists of four major components: air, water,
organic matter, and mineral matter.
The percentage distribution of those parts determines soil structure. Mechanical analysis is the
determination of the size range of particles present in a soil, expressed as a percentage of the total
dry weight.
There are two methods generally used to find the particle size distribution of the soil
➢ Sieve Analysis
For particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter.
➢ Hydrometer Analysis
36 | P a g e
4.5.1 Sieve:
Sieve consists of a metal ring usually made up of a brass whose dimensions are typically 2 inches
deep and 8 inches in the diameter or 12 inches/19 inches in diameter.
The sieve is given a number that corresponds to number of openings per linear inch.
4.5.2 Nest of sieve:
The stack of sieves is called nest of sieves. The nest is arranged with the largest screen opening at
the top and gradually decreasing diameter of the sieve to the bottom of the other sieve and the
arrangement formed in this way is known as the nest of sieves. A lid is placed at the top of the
sieves and a pan is also provided at the bottom side in order to collect the soil that may pass through
the smallest openings.
Care must be paid while removing the sieve because all the sieves are joined tightly and while
removing the sieves a jerk may be there and whole the sample is disturbed
And the experiment is ruined and also might be performed again.
4.5.3 Shaking Period and breaking of soil lumps:
A 10 minute of shaking period is required and suggested for the proper shaking of the sample.
Shaking period also depends on the amount of the soil sample. Finer material requires a longer
time in order to have a proper shaking of the material while a coarser material needs a lesser
time
Also one thing must be kept in mind that there should be no lump of soil particles and all the
sample should be in there individual grains in order to get a corrected distribution of the soil
samples.
Also while breaking the soil lumps the sample particles should not be damaged or grind. That’s
why we use a rubber –tipped pestles not a ceramic or metal tipped pestle.
37 | P a g e
4.5.4 Particles struck in the sieve
The particles that struck in sieve should not be forced to pass through the mesh because forcing
the particles finer will be passing through the mesh by its own not by the force.
We should use a brush to remove the particles struck in the mesh and brush must be used on the
bottom side of the mesh and the particles that are not removed using a brush should not force to
pass.
4.5.5 Particle size distribution
The results of mechanical analysis (sieve and hydrometer analysis) are presented in the form of a
curve on a semi logarithmic plot. Percentage finer is plotted on the y axis using an arithmetic scale
while the size of the particles is plotted on abscissa using a logarithmic scale.
4.5.6 Co efficient of uniformity
It expresses the ratio of the diameter of the particle size at 60% to the diameter of the particles
at 10% finer by weight on the grain size distribution curve.
Cu = D60 / D10
Cu has direct relation with range in grain sizes. If Cu =1, it means that all the particles are of
same size
4.5.7 Co efficient of Curvature
It expresses the shape o0f particle size distribution curve
Cc = D30 2 / (D60 x D10 )

If Cc =1, it means that the soil is well graded.
Sands: Cc = 1-3 & Cu >6

Gravels: Cc = 1-3 & Cu >4Procedure:
38 | P a g e
➢ Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the sieve
analysis.
➢ Record the weight of the given dry soil sample
➢ Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve
numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieve.
Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
➢ Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
➢ Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the e
weight of each sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the
weight of the bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
➢ Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty sieve
from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight retained on
the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximated equals the initial
mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is unsatisfactory.
➢ Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each sieve
by the original sample mass
➢ Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and subtracting
the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.
Observations and Calculations

Wt. of Dry Sample: = 300 g
Sieve Diameter Mass of Soil Percent Cumulative % Percent Passing

Number (mm) Retained (g) Retained retained
¾″ 19.04 0 0 0 100
4 4.75 53.42 17.81 17.81 82.19
10 2.0 24.87 8.29 26.10 73.90
20 0.84 5.04 1.6 27.77 72.23
40 0.425 23.86 7.95 35.3 64.7
60 0. 25 43.68 14.56 50.29 49.71
140 0.106 74.76 24.92 75.21 54.79
200 0.075 63.54 21.18 96.39 3.61
Pan --- 10.58
Total Wt. =299.75g
39 | P a g e
Graphs
GRAPH BETWEEN PERCENTAGE FINER AND

GRAIN SIZE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
100
82.2
73.9 72.23
PERCENTAGE PASSING
64.27
49.71
24.79
3.61
100 10 1 0.1 0.01

GRAIN SIZE (MILIMETERS)
Precautions:
➢ The soil particles that struck in the sieve should not force to pass through the sieve.
➢ The soil particles that struck in the sieve should be brushed on the lower side of the mesh
and remaining should be kept at their place without forcing to pass.
➢ Remove the sieves gently from one another.
Comments:
The soil sample tested with the sieve analysis test in the laboratory has properties that come
very close to the general requirements and properties of a well-graded soil and a knowledge of
the sizes of the solid particles comprising a certain soil and their relative proportion in the soil
mass is very useful. We may use the results it for soil classification, soil filter design etc. Also
the sum of all the masses on each sieve retained is less than the total mass placed on the
beginning that is due to the error or the mass that might have struck in the mesh and is not
removed by the brushes.
40 | P a g e
Experiment No: 5
5 To Carry Out Hydrometer Analysis of a Given Soil Sample
Objective:
This lab is performed to determine the different grain sizes in a soil sample he mechanical or
sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-sized particles, and
the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer particles that passes
through sieve #200.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422-63 Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
Significance
➢ The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of the soil.
➢ Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in the
classification of soils.
Apparatus:

➢ Sedimentation Cylinder
➢ Hydrometer
➢ Dispersing agent (Sodium oxalate 5g)
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➢ Soil dispersion device (malt mixer)

➢ Thermometer
Figure 5.1 beaker
Figure 5.2 Hydrometer
42 | P a g e
Related Theory:
As complex as it is, soil can be described simply. It consists of four major components: air, water,
organic matter, and mineral matter.
The percentage distribution of those parts determines soil structure. Mechanical analysis is the
determination of the size range of particles present in a soil, expressed as a percentage of the total
dry weight.
There are two methods generally used to find the particle size distribution of the soil
➢ Sieve Analysis –
➢ Hydrometer Analysis
5.5.1 Hydrometer Analysis:
Grain-size analysis, which is among the oldest of soil tests, is widely used in engineering
classification of soils. The standard gain-size analysis test determines the relative proportions of
different gain sizes as they are distributed among certain size ranges. Soils with small grain sizes
cannot generally be analyzed using sieves, because of the very small size sieve opening that would
be required and the difficulty of getting such small particles to pass through. Grain-size analysis
for these soils is done, therefore, by another methods .Sedimentation by the pipette method
analysis. This method is based on Strokes' law, which says that the larger the grain size, the greater
it’s settling velocity in a fluid.
• Hydrometer consists of a long stem. And stem is graduated that gives the value of soil
suspension.
• In hydrometer analysis a soil specimen is dispersed in water.
• In a dispersed state, in the water, the soil particles will settle individually.
• Assume that all the particles of the soil are spheres.
Steps to be followed:
• Apply meniscus correction to the actual hydrometer reading.
➢ Calculate corrected hydrometer reading as follows:
Rc = RACTUAL - zero correction + Ct
• From Table 1, obtain the effective hydrometer depth L in cm (for meniscus corrected
reading).
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Table 1. Values of Effective Depth Based on Hydrometer and Sedimentation

Cylinder of Specific Sizes
Hydrometer 151H Hydrometer 152H
Actual Effective Actual Effective Actual Effective
Hydrometer Depth, L Hydrometer Depth, L Hydrometer Depth, L
Reading (cm) Reading (cm) Reading (cm)
1.000 16.3 0 16.3 31 11.2
1.001 16.0 1 16.1 32 11.1
1.002 15.8 2 16.0 33 10.9
1.003 15.5 3 15.8 34 10.7
1.004 15.2 4 15.6 35 10.6
1.005 15.0 5 15.5 36 10.4
1.006 14.7 6 15.3 37 10.2
1.007 14.4 7 15.2 38 10.1
1.008 14.2 8 15.0 39 9.9
1.009 13.9 9 14.8 40 9.7
1.010 13.7 10 14.7 41 9.6
1.011 13.4 11 14.5 42 9.4
1.012 13.1 12 14.3 43 9.2
1.013 12.9 13 14.2 44 9.1
1.014 12.6 14 14.0 45 8.9
1.015 12.3 15 13.8 46 8.8
1.016 12.1 16 13.7 47 8.6
1.017 11.8 17 13.5 48 8.4
1.018 11.5 18 13.3 49 8.3
1.019 11.3 19 13.2 50 8.1
1.020 11.0 20 13.0 51 7.9
1.021 10.7 21 12.9 52 7.8
1.022 10.5 22 12.7 53 7.6
1.023 10.2 23 12.5 54 7.4
1.024 10.0 24 12.4 55 7.3
1.025 9.7 25 12.2 56 7.1
1.026 9.4 26 12.0 57 7.0
1.027 9.2 27 11.9 58 6.8
1.028 8.9 28 11.7 59 6.6
1.029 8.6 29 11.5 60 6.5
1.030 8.4 30 11.4
44 | P a g e
• For known Gs of the soil (if not known, assume 2.65 for this lab purpose), obtain the
value of K from Table 2.
• Calculate the equivalent particle diameter by using the following formula:
L
D =K t
Where t is in minutes, and D is given in mm.

Table 2. Values of k for Use in Equation for Computing Diameter of Particle in
Hydrometer Analysis
Temperature Specific Gravity of Soil Particles
C
2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85
16 0.01510 0.01505 0.01481 0.01457 0.01435 0.01414 0.0394 0.01374 0.01356
17 0.01511 0.01486 0.01462 0.01439 0.01417 0.01396 0.01376 0.01356 0.01338
18 0.01492 0.01467 0.01443 0.01421 0.01399 0.01378 0.01359 0.01339 0.01321
19 0.01474 0.01449 0.01425 0.01403 0.01382 0.01361 0.01342 0.01323 0.01305
20 0.01456 0.01431 0.01408 0.01386 0.01365 0.01344 0.01325 0.01307 0.01289
0.01438 0.01414 0.01391 0.01369 0.01348 0.01328 0.01309 0.01291 0.01273

21
22 0.01421 0.01397 0.01374 0.01353 0.01332 0.01312 0.01294 0.01276 0.01258
23 0.01404 0.01381 0.01358 0.01337 0.01317 0.01297 0.01279 0.01261 0.01243
24 0.01388 0.01365 0.01342 0.01321 0.01301 0.01282 0.01264 0.01246 0.01229
25 0.01372 0.01349 0.01327 0.01306 0.01286 0.01267 0.01249 0.01232 0.01215
26 0.01357 0.01334 0.01312 0.01291 0.01272 0.01253 0.01235 0.01218 0.01201

27 0.01342 0.01319 0.01297 0.01277 0.01258 0.01239 0.01221 0.01204 0.01188
28 0.01327 0.01304 0.01283 0.01264 0.01244 0.01255 0.01208 0.01191 0.01175
29 0.01312 0.01290 0.01269 0.01269 0.01230 0.01212 0.01195 0.01178 0.01162
30 0.01298 0.01276 0.01256 0.01236 0.01217 0.01199 0.01182 0.01165 0.01149
➢ Determine the temperature correction CT from Table 3.
45 | P a g e
Table 3. Temperature Correction Factors CT
Temp C FactorCT
15 1.10
16 -0.90
17 -0.70
18 -0.50
19 -0.30
20 0.00
21 +0.20
22 +0.40
23 +0.70
24 +1.00
25 +1.30
26 +1.65
27 +2.00
28 +2.50
29 +3.05
30 +3.80
➢ Determine correction factor “a” from Table 4 using Gs
Table 4. Correction Factors a for Unit Weight of Solids
Unit Correction
Weight of factor a
Soil
Solids,
g/cm3
2.85 0.96
2.80 0.97
2.75 0.98
2.70 0.99
2.65 1.00
2.60 1.01
2.55 1.02
46 | P a g e
2.50 1.04
➢ . Calculate corrected hydrometer reading as follows:
Rc = RACTUAL - zero correction + CT
➢ Calculate percent finer as follows:
P=Rc×a×100 Ws
Where WS is the weight of the soil sample in grams.
➢ Adjusted percent fines as follows:
(F200 × P)⁄
PA = 100
F200 = % finer of #200 sieve as a percent
Procedure:
➢ Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a beaker, and add 125
mL of the dispersing agent (sodium oxalate solution). Stir the mixture until the soil is
thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.
➢ While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control cylinder and fill
it with distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at the top of the meniscus formed by
the hydrometer stem and the control solution. A reading less than zero is recorded as a
negative (-) correction and a reading between zero and sixty is recorded as a positive (+)
correction. This reading is called the zero correction. The meniscus correction is the
difference between the top of the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control jar
(Usually about +1). Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the contents are mixed
thoroughly. Insert the hydrometer and thermometer into the control cylinder and note the
zero correction and temperature respectively.
➢ Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if necessary, until
mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a period of two minutes.
➢ Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder. Add distilled
water up to the mark.
➢ Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with the palm of your
hand.Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright for a period of one minute.(The
cylinder should be inverted approximately 30 times during the minute.)
➢ Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the cylinder. After
an elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very slowly and carefully insert the
hydrometer for the first reading. (Note: It should take about ten seconds to insert or remove
the hydrometer to minimize any disturbance, and the release of the hydrometer
should be made as close to the reading depth as possible to avoid excessive bobbing).
➢ The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by the suspension and
the hydrometer stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly and placed back into the control
47 | P a g e
cylinder. Very gently spin it in control cylinder to remove any particles that may have
adhered.
➢ Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes and 24 hours
Observations and Calculations:
Date: February 25,2016.

Gs of solid = 2.70
Dispersing agent = sodium oxalate
Amount of dispersing agent=5g
Weight of solids, Ws =50g
Zero Correction = 5
Meniscus correction = 1
Tim Ela Tem Actu Correc % Hyd. L L/t K D Tc %

e pse p. al t Finer Corr. from (m/s) from (mm Adjust
d O Hydr hydro for Table Table ) ed
P
Ti C o. Menisc Finer
me( meter 1 2
Rdg. us PA
min readin
Ra
) g
1:32 0 22 0 - - - - - - - - -
PM
1:33 1 22 48 43.4 85.93 49 8.3 8.3 .0131 .038 +.04 81.9
1:34 2 22 44 39.4 78.01 45 8.9 4.45 .0131 .028 +.04 74.34
1:35 3 22 41 36.4 72.07 42 9.4 3.18 .0131 .023 +.04 68.7
1:36 4 22 38 33.4 66.13 39 9.9 2.47 .0131 .021 +.04 63.02
1:40 8 22 32 27.4 54.25 33 10 1.25 .0131 .015 +.04 51.07
1:47 15 22 28 23.4 46.33 29 11.5 0.77 .0131 .012 +.04 44.15
2:02 30 22 23 18.4 36.43 24 12.4 0.413 .0131 .008 +.04 34.71
4
2:32 60 21.5 17 12.4 24.55 18 13.3 0.222 .0131 .006 +.04 23.63
2
3:32 120 21 12 7.4 14.8 13 14.2 .118 .0131 .004 +.04 15.6
5
48 | P a g e
Graphs
Precautions:
➢ Drop the hydrometer gently in the Sedimentation Cylinder.

➢ Temperature must be noted each time to reduce the errors.
➢ Sedimentation Cylinder in which soil solution is present should not be disturbed. Otherwise
our experiment will be ruined.
Comments:
There was zero error present while performing this experiment and also the hydrometer test for the
given soil sample produced results for very small particles as expected. Though it was known that
49 | P a g e
this soil was of a somewhat high plasticity before this test was performed, the large amount of clay
and silt particles in the sample confirmed this since fine particles (particularly clay) are often a
good indicator of plasticity. The results from this laboratory test will be most important in
classifying the soil according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). This test was
fairly simple to perform and had very little potential for error. Any error that may have resulted
was probably due to omission of one reading. This resulted from lack of access to the lab in the
evening. Determining the grain size distribution of a soil is a very important aspect of working
with a soil sample and this test was just part of that step.
50 | P a g e
Experiment No: 6
6 To Find Out the Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit of a Given Soil
Sample
Objective:
The purpose of the Atterberg Limit Lab was to calculate different properties of a certain soil
type. In the lab there were experiments ran to find the liquid limit, plastic limit, and the
plasticity index. These experiments were all based on the amount of water in the soil. To
familiarize the general relationship between moisture content and the boundaries of states of
soils in terms of limits (i.e. Liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 4318 and ASSHTO T89 and T90.
Significance
Fine-grained soils in particular can be in one of several states depending on the amount of water
in the soil. When water is added to dry soil, the individual particle is covered with adsorbed water
forming a thin film around it. If the addition of water is continued, the thickness of the water film
will continue to increase, thereby facilitating the sliding effect between adjoining particles. Thus
it is a fact that the behavior of the soil is related to the amount of water in the Water plays an
important role in soil mechanics practice when dealing with density, void ratio, settlement and
strength characteristics of either disturbed or undisturbed soils.
51 | P a g e
Apparatus:

➢ Mortar and rubber-tipped pestle
➢ Balance capable of measuring to 0.1 g
➢ Spatula
➢ Porcelain dish
➢ Wash Bottle
➢ Liquid limit device
➢ Grooving tool
➢ Ground glass plate
➢ Water content containers and drying oven
Related Theory:
The theory related to this experiment is as under
6.5.1 Consistency:
Consistency is a term used to describe the degree of firmness of fine-grained soils (silt and clay).
The consistency of fine grained soils is expressed qualitatively by such terms very soft, soft, as,
stiff, very stiff and hard. Water content significantly affects properties of silt and clayey soils
(unlike sand and gravel).It has been found that at the same water content, two samples of clay of
different origins may possess different consistency.
From the figure above, at a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the
moisture content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid. Also, soil strength
decreases as water content increases. Therefore, the soil behavior of the soil, based on is divided
into four states based on moisture content: solid, semi-solid, and plastic, liquid.
52 | P a g e
Figure 6.1 consistency
6.5.2 Atterberg Limits:
Atterberg, a Swedish scientist, considered the consistency of soils in 1911, and proposed a series
of tests for defining the properties of cohesive soils. Strength decreases as water content
increases. At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the moisture
53 | P a g e
content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basis,
depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be divided into 4 basic states: solid,
semisolid, plastic, and liquid. These are water contents at certain limiting or critical stages in soil
behavior. These limits are:
➢ Liquid Limit (LL):
The water content, in percent, at the point of transition from plastic to liquid state.
Or
The moisture content at which soil begins to behave as a liquid material and begins to flow.
➢ Plastic Limit (PL):
The water content, in percent, at the point of transition from semisolid to plastic
state.
Or
The moisture content at which soil begins to behave as a plastic material
➢ Shrinkage Limit (SL):
The water content, in percent, at the point of transition from solid to semisolid state
Or
The moisture content at which no further volume change occurs with further reduction in
moisture content
6.5.3 Importance of Atterberg limits
If we know the water content of our sample is relative to the Atterberg limits, then we
already know a great deal about the engineering response of our sample.
The Atterberg limits may be used for the following:
➢ To obtain general information about a soil and its strength, compressibility, and
permeability properties.
54 | P a g e
➢ Empirical correlations for some engineering properties.

➢ Soil classification
Procedure
6.6.1 Liquid Limit
➢ Obtain a soil sample and place in the brass cup of the liquid limit device
➢ Cut a standard groove from the back of the cup to the front, and count the number of drops
of the device that are required to close the groove.
➢ If the number of drops is less than 20 or more than 30, the water content of the soil sample
is adjusted and the procedure repeated until the number of drops is between 20 and 30
drops, at which time the water content of the soil is determined.
➢ The liquid limit is computed using an equation involving the number of drops required to
close the groove and the associated water content of the soil.
➢ Run the test three times [N~(10-20), N~(20-30) and N~(35-45)].
➢ Plot number of blows vs. moisture content and determine the liquid limit (LL) (moisture
content at 25 blows).
6.6.2 Plastic Limit
➢ Roll another portion of the soil sample between the fingers and a roughed glass rolling
surface until a 1/8-inch diameter thread is obtained.
➢ Break the resulting specimen into smaller pieces, compress and repeat the rolling process
to a diameter of 1/8-inch.
➢ This procedure is repeated until the mass crumbles and can no longer be made into
threads.
➢ The plastic limit is now assumed to be reached and the water content (which is the
plastic limit) is to be determined by the equation: {[weight of water/weight of dry soil] *
%}
55 | P a g e
6.7.1 Liquid Limit
Weight of water = (wt. Sample + can wet) – (wt. Sample + can dry)
Wt. Of water =32.55 – 27.91
= 4.64 grams
Weight of dry soil = (wt. Sample + can dry) – cane
Wt. Of dry soil =27.91 – 15.07
= 12.84 grams
Water Content = (wt .water  wt .drysoil) 100

Water Content = (4.64  12.84)*100
=36.1 %
6.7.2 Plastic Limit
Weight of water = (wt. Sample + can wet) – (wt. Sample + can dry)
Wt. Of water =28.22 – 25.26
= 3.02 grams
Weight of dry soil = (wt. Sample + can dry) – cane
Wt. Of dry soil =25.26 – 13.32
= 11.94 grams
Water Content = (wt .water  wt .drysoil) 100

Water Content = (3.02  11.94)*100
56 | P a g e
=25.29 %
Atterberg Limits Tests Group Date

#1 Mar 01,2016.
Liquid Limit Test Plastic Limit Test
can no. 33 65 47 54 18 68
can mass (g) 15.07 14.99 15.1 13.32 11.11 17.55

Mass of wet soil + can (g) 32.55 34.04 31.10 28.22 15.65 20.84
Mass of dry soil + can (g) 27.91 29.19 26.66 25.26 14.82 20.28
Mass of dry soil (g) 12.84 14.2 11.56 11.94 3.71 2.73
Mass of moisture (g) 4.64 4.85 4.44 3.62 0.83 0.56
Water content, % 36.1 34.2 38.4 25.29 22.37 20.51
Number of blows 23 38 21 Average water content:
36.1+34.2+38.4
Liquid Limit ≈ Plastic Limit ≈ 22.72 %
3
Liquid Limit ≈ 36.23 %
57 | P a g e
Graphs
24 Blows Liquid limit against

25 number of blows
Trend Line of the Graph
23 Blows 25 Blows
38 Blows
LL by Graphical Method
39
38.4
38.5
38
37.5
Moisture Content
37
36.5 36.1
36
35.5
35
34.5 34.15
34
33.5
Log(number of blows)
Graphically:
Using One point Method
PI= LL – PL
58 | P a g e
PI = 36.23 – 22.72
PI = 13.51
Precautions:
➢ Two drops per second at a constant rate should be followed.
➢ The amounts of water that was added to the soil should be recorded correctly.
➢ Amounts of soil should not lost in the act of mixing, resulting in ratio of water to soil
being identified wrong.
Comments:
From the experimental values of the Liquid Limit (LL) and the Plastic Limit (PL) the Plasticity
Index (PI) was calculated to be 13.5.Throughout the lab a variety of tests are ran on the soil type.
Values were obtained for the liquid and plastic limits and the plasticity index. With this
information it is possible to come to the conclusion that the soil was classified as a lean clay soil.
The results are compared to other groups or published data. The group chose to check with other
groups because the soil is tested in the same atmosphere and with the same equipment. Although
the test is performed with the same equipment and in the same atmosphere, differences in the
results still appeared.
59 | P a g e
Experiment No: 7
7 To Perform Standard Compaction Test on the Given Soil Sample
Objective:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the

moisture content and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. Using this method
we may calculate Optimum Moisture Content from the proctor information also used to Compare
the field data to lab, and. The purpose of a laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper
amount of mixing water to use when compacting the soil in the field and the resulting degree of
denseness which can be expected from compaction at this optimum water
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 698 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using
Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbs/ft3 (600 KN-m/m3))
Significance:
Soil compaction is one of the most important aspects of any earthwork construction. Compaction
improves the engineering properties of the fills. Nearly all compaction specifications are based on
achieving a certain value of dry unit weight (γd). During
construction, the geotechnical engineers measure the unit weight of compacted soil in the field to
verify the contractor’s compliance with the requirement
60 | P a g e
Apparatus:
➢ Molds,
➢ Manual rammer
➢ Extruder
➢ Balance,
➢ Drying oven
➢ Mixing pan
➢ Trowel,
➢ #4 sieve,
➢ Moisture cans,
➢ Graduated cylinder
➢ Straight Edge
Related Theory
Theory Related to this experiment is as under
7.5.1 Compaction
Compaction can be defined as under

“Compaction is a process that brings about an increase in soil density or unit weight or
Compaction is a process that brings about an increase in soil density or unit weight accompanied
by decrease in air volume.”
Compaction may also be defined as
“The act of artificially densifying or increasing the unit weight of the soil through the application
of external forces; reducing the voids or pore spaces to a minimum and increasing the solid particle
content to a maximum”.
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective
means of stabilizing soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers
61 | P a g e
is the performance and analysis of field control tests to assure that compacted
fills are meeting the prescribed design specifications. Design specifications
usually state the required density (as a percentage of the “maximum” density
measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content. In general, most
engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage,
and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density.
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a specified
compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum water content
results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is weaker, more
ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than
soil compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the
optimum water content typically results in a flocculated soil structure (random particle
orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the optimum water
content to the same density.
7.5.2 Impact compaction
The proctor test is an impact compaction. A hammer is dropped several times on a soil sample in
a mold. The mass of the hammer, height of drop, number of drops, number of layers of soil, and
the volume of the mold are specified.
7.5.3 Optimum Moisture Content:
It can be defined as
“It is the moisture content at which the soil sample has maximum dry unit weight of the soil
sample”
At this Moisture content the dry density of the soil is maximum
7.5.4 Maximum Dry Density:
It can be defined as under

“It is the dry unit weight of the soil corresponding to the Optimum Moisture content is known as
maximum dry unit weight”
62 | P a g e
7.5.5 Methods of Compaction
The compactive effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several
different methods are used to compact soil in the field, and some examples include tamping,
kneading, vibration, and static load compaction. In the early days of compaction, because
construction equipment was small and gave relatively low compaction densities, a laboratory
method that used a small amount of compacting energy was required. As construction equipment
and procedures were developed which gave higher densities, it became necessary to increase the
amount of compacting energy in the laboratory test.
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed:
(1) The Standard Proctor Test

(2) The Modified Proctor Test.
This laboratory will employ the tamping or impact compaction method using the type of
equipment and methodology developed by R. R. Proctor in 1933, therefore, the test is also known
as the Proctor test.
The modified test was developed during World War II by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering to
better represent the compaction required for airfield to support heavy aircraft. The point is that
increasing the compactive effort tends to increase the maximum dry density, as expected, but also
decrease the optimum water content.
Dimensions Standard Proctor Modified Proctor

Test Test
Mold size (ft3) 1/30 1/30
Height of drop (inch) 12 18
Hammer weight (lb) 5.5 10
No. of layers 3 5
No. of blows per layer 25 25
Energy (ft.lb/ft3) 12,375 56,250
63 | P a g e
7.5.6 Purpose of Compaction:
improves the engineering properties of the fills.
➢ Increases load-bearing capacity.
➢ Prevents soil settlement and frost damage.
➢ Provides stability.
➢ Reduces water seepage, swelling and contraction.
➢ Reduces settling of soil.
Procedure:
➢ Take a representative oven-dried sample, approximately 5 kg in the given pan.

➢ Thoroughly mix the sample with sufficient water to dampen it to approximately four to six
percentage points below optimum moisture content.
➢ Weigh the proctor mould without base plate and collar. Fix the collar and base plate. Place
the soil in the Proctor mould and compact it in 3 layers giving 25 blows per layer with the
2.5 kg rammer falling through.
➢ Remove the collar, trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mould by means of
the straight edge and weigh.
➢ Divide the weight of the compacted specimen by 944 cc and record the result as the wet
weight Wwet in grams per cubic centimeter of the compacted soil.
➢ Remove the sample from the mould and slice vertically through and obtain a small sample
for moisture determination.
➢ Thoroughly break up the remainder of the material until it will pass a no.4 sieve as judged
by the eye. Add water in sufficient amounts to increase the moisture content of the soil
sample by one or two percentage points and repeat the above procedure for each increment
of water added.
➢ Continue this series of determination until there is either a decrease or no change in the wet
unit weight of the compacted soil.
Cylinder diameter = 4.5 inches

Cylinder height = 4 inches2
64 | P a g e
Cylinder Volume = 56.52 inches3

Cylinder Volume = 9.26×10-4m3
No. Description Units 1 2 3 4

1 Moisture added - 6% 9% 12% 15%
2 Wt. of mould (g) 2137 2137 2137 2137
3 wt. of mould + Wet Soil (g) 3943 4061 4206 4187
4 Weight of Wet Soil (g) 1806 1924 2069 2050

(KN) 0.017 0.0189 0.0203 0.0201
5 Bulk Desity, γb (KN/m3) 18.36 20.41 21.92 21.7
6 Container no. 4 5 6 18
7 Weight of container ,W3 (g) 14.84 15.65 12.55 11.27
8 Weight of container + wet soil , W1 (g) 29.21 40.81 41.77 38.09
9 Weight of container+ dry soil ,W2 (g) 28.53 38.94 38.87 34.91
10 Wt of water (g) 0.67 1.87 2.9 3.18

Ww=W1-W2
11 Wt of dry soil (g) 13.69 23.29 26.32 23.64
Ws = W2-W3
12 Water content % 4.89 8.03 11.02 13.45
w=Ww/Ws ×100
13 Dry density , γd (KN/m3) 17.50 18.89 19.74 19.13
65 | P a g e
Graphs
Graph between γd and m.c.

25
24
23
22
Dry Unit Weight
21
γd maximum
20
19 18.89 19.13
18
17.5
17
16
OMC
15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Moisture content
Precautions:
➢ While falling of the hammer location of the bounce must be changing each time to get
better results.
➢ Always try to work in the layers
➢ Do not add large amount of water at once.
Comments
The primary values determined in a compaction test are, of course the optimum moisture content
and maximum dry unit weight, however, the written report would normally also include the
compaction curve data form. OMC for this test is about 11% and γd Max is about 19.8 g/cc. The
OMC is the moisture content having maximum dry density for the given compactive effort.
66 | P a g e
Experiment No: 8
8 To Perform Modified Compaction Test on the Given Soil Sample
Objective:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the

moisture content and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. Using this method
we may calculate Optimum Moisture Content from the proctor information also used to Compare
the field data to lab, and. The purpose of a laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper
amount of mixing water to use when compacting the soil in the field and the resulting degree of
denseness which can be expected from compaction at this optimum water
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 1557 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil
Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft3 (2,700 KN-m/m3))
Significance
improves the engineering properties of the fills. Nearly all compaction specifications are based on
achieving a certain value of dry unit weight (γd). During
construction, the geotechnical engineers measure the unit weight of compacted soil in the field to
verify the contractor’s compliance with the requirement
67 | P a g e
Apparatus:

➢ Molds,
➢ Manual rammer
➢ Extruder
➢ Balance,
➢ Drying oven
➢ Mixing pan
➢ Trowel,
➢ #4 sieve,
➢ Moisture cans,
➢ Graduated cylinder
➢ Straight Edge
Figure 8.1 Test Procedure
68 | P a g e
Figure 8, 3 Test Procedure
69 | P a g e
Related Theory
Theory Related to this experiment is as under
8.5.1 Compaction
Compaction can be defined as under

“Compaction is a process that brings about an increase in soil density or unit weight or
Compaction is a process that brings about an increase in soil density or unit weight accompanied
by decrease in air volume.”
Compaction may also be defined as
“The act of artificially densifying or increasing the unit weight of the soil through the application
of external forces; reducing the voids or pore spaces to a minimum and increasing the solid particle
content to a maximum”.
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective
means of stabilizing soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers
is the performance and analysis of field control tests to assure that compacted
fills are meeting the prescribed design specifications. Design specifications
usually state the required density (as a percentage of the “maximum” density
measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content. In general, most
engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage,
and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density.
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a specified
compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum water content
results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is weaker, more
ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than
soil compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the
optimum water content typically results in a flocculated soil structure (random particle
orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the optimum water
content to the same density.
70 | P a g e
8.5.2 Impact compaction
The proctor test is an impact compaction. A hammer is dropped several times on a soil sample in
a mold. The mass of the hammer, height of drop, number of drops, number of layers of soil, and
the volume of the mold are specified.
Optimum Moisture Content:
It can be defined as
“It is the moisture content at which the soil sample has maximum dry unit weight of the soil
sample”
At this Moisture content the dry density of the soil is maximum
8.5.3 Maximum Dry Density:
It can be defined as under

“It is the dry unit weight of the soil corresponding to the Optimum Moisture content is known as
maximum dry unit weight”
8.5.4 Methods of Compaction
The compactive effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several
different methods are used to compact soil in the field, and some examples include tamping,
kneading, vibration, and static load compaction. In the early days of compaction, because
construction equipment was small and gave relatively low compaction densities, a laboratory
method that used a small amount of compacting energy was required. As construction equipment
and procedures were developed which gave higher densities, it became necessary to increase the
amount of compacting energy in the laboratory test.
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed:
(1) The Standard Proctor Test
(2) The Modified Proctor Test.
71 | P a g e
This laboratory will employ the tamping or impact compaction method using the type of
equipment and methodology developed by R. R. Proctor in 1933, therefore, the test is also known
as the Proctor test.
The modified test was developed during World War II by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering to
better represent the compaction required for airfield to support heavy aircraft. The point is that
increasing the compactive effort tends to increase the maximum dry density, as expected, but also
decrease the optimum water content.
Mold size (ft3) 1/30 1/30
Height of drop (inch) 12 18
Hammer weight (lb) 5.5 10
No. of layers 3 5
No. of blows per layer 25 25
Energy (ft.lb/ft3) 12,375 56,250
8.5.5 Purpose of Compaction:
improves the engineering properties of the fills.
➢ Increases load-bearing capacity.
➢ Prevents soil settlement and frost damage.
➢ Provides stability.
➢ Reduces water seepage, swelling and contraction.
➢ Reduces settling of soil.
72 | P a g e
Procedure:
➢ Take a representative oven-dried sample, approximately 5 kg in the given pan.

➢ Thoroughly mix the sample with sufficient water to dampen it to approximately four to six
percentage points below optimum moisture content.
➢ Weigh the proctor mould without base plate and collar. Fix the collar and base plate. Place
the soil in the Proctor mould and compact it in 5 layers giving 25 blows per layer with the
10lb. kg rammer falling through.
➢ Remove the collar, trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mould by means of
the straight edge and weigh.
➢ Divide the weight of the compacted specimen by 944 cc and record the result as the wet
weight Wwet in grams per cubic centimeter of the compacted soil.
➢ Remove the sample from the mould and slice vertically through and obtain a small sample
for moisture determination.
➢ Thoroughly break up the remainder of the material until it will pass a no.4 sieve as judged
by the eye. Add water in sufficient amounts to increase the moisture content of the soil
sample by one or two percentage points and repeat the above procedure for each increment
of water added.
➢ Continue this series of determination until there is either a decrease or no change in the wet
unit weight of the compacted soil.
Cylinder diameter = 4.5 inches

Cylinder height = 4 inches2
Cylinder Volume = 56.52 inches3
Cylinder Volume = 9.26×10-4m3
73 | P a g e
No. Description Units 1 2 3
1 Moisture added - 6% 9% 12%
2 Wt. of mould (g) 2137 2137 2137

3 wt. of Core Cutter+Wet Soil (g) 4167 4320 4235
4 Weight of Wet Soil (g) 2030 2183 2098

(KN) 0.0199 0.0214 0.0206
5 Bulk Desity, γb (KN/m3) 21.49 23.11 22.25
6 Container no. - 6 97 4
7 Weight of container ,W3 (g) 12.58 14.32 14.86
8 Weight of container+wet soil , W1 (g) 20.49 22.80 35.52

9 Weight of container+ dry soil ,W2 (g) 20.01 22.06 33.31
10 Wt of water (g) 0.48 0.74 2.21

Ww=W1-W2
11 Wt of dry soil (g) 7.43 7.74 18.45
Ws = W2-W3
12 Water content % 6.46 9.56 11.97
=Ww/Ws ×100
Precautions:
➢ While falling of the hammer location of the bounce must be changing each time to get
better results.
➢ Always try to work in the layers
➢ Do not add large amount of water at once.
74 | P a g e
Comments:
The primary values determined in a compaction test are, of course the optimum moisture content
and maximum dry unit weight, however, the written report would normally also include the
compaction curve data form. OMC for this test is about 11% and γd Max is about 19.8 g/cc. The
OMC is the moisture content having maximum dry density for the given compactive effort. If we
compare the Modified compaction test and standard proctor test it is clear that Modified
compaction test has higher Maximum dry unit as compared to the Standard proctor test and having
lesser OMC.
75 | P a g e
Experiment No: 9
9 To Perform Core Cutter Test to determine the density of the soil

in place.
Objective:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the dry density of the soil in place in the field very
quickly.
Significance:
The in situ density of natural soil is needed for the determination of bearing capacity of soils, for
the purpose of stability analysis of slopes, for the determination of pressures on underlying strata
for the calculation of settlement and the design of underground structures.
It is very quality control test, where compaction is required, in the cases like embankment and
pavement construction.
Apparatus:

➢ Cylindrical core cutter (1000 cc)
➢ Steel rammer
➢ Steel dolly
➢ Balance sensitivity 1 gm.
➢ Scale
➢ Spade or crowbar
➢ Straight edge
➢ Oven
➢ Water content containers
76 | P a g e
Relevant Theory
The Theory related to this experiment can be given as under

Compaction Control Field Testing:
During the construction of the project, a control must be in place to measure whether or not
the compaction requirements have been met. That control is density testing. If the results of
the density test determine that the compaction process has produced a density within the range
specified, then the compaction is complete.
9.4.1 In-Situ Density
The in-situ density is defined as the bulk density of soil measured at its actual depth. By
conducting this test, it is possible to determine the field density of the soil. The moisture content
is likely to vary from time and hence the field density also. So it is required to report the test
result in terms of dry density. By conducting this test it is possible to determine the field density
of the soil. The moisture content is likely to vary from time and hence the field density also. So it
is required to report the test result in terms of dry density. The relationship that can be
established between the dry density with known moisture content is as follows:
9.4.2 Degree of compaction
The relative compaction: is the percentage ratio of the in situ maximum dry density of the
compacted fill material to the maximum dry density obtained with the relevant laboratory
compaction test.
γd achieved
Rc = ⁄γd in lab
In place density can be measured by several methods in the field are used to determine the in-situ
density of a soil;
➢ Rubber balloon method
➢ Sand-replacement (sand cone) method,
77 | P a g e
➢ Core cutter method

➢ Nuclear moisture-density meter method.
Procedure:
➢ Measure the height and internal diameter of the core cutter and calculate its volume. Find the
weight of the core cutter (without dolly).
➢ Clean and level the ground where the density is to be determined. Put the dolly on top of the
core cutter and drive the assembly into the soil with the help of rammer until the top of the dolly
protrudes about 1.5 cm above the surface.
➢ Remove the soil around the cutter by spade. Lift up the cutter and trim the top and bottom
surfaces of the sample carefully with the help of straight edge.
➢ Clean the outside surface of the cutter. Take the weight of the core cutter with the soil.
➢ Remove the soil core from the cutter and take representative samples in
➢ the water content containers to determine the moisture content
➢ Repeat the test at two or three locations nearby and find the average dry density.
Observation and Calculation:
Internal diameter of cutter (cm) = 10.2 cm
Height of the cutter (cm) = 13 cm
Cross sectional area of the cutter (cm2) = 81.71 cm2
Volume of the cutter, V (cm3) = 1062.3 cm3
78 | P a g e
Water/Moisture content determination
Description Sample
Can # 48
Weight of can, W1 (gm) 13
Weight of can + wet soil W2 (gm) 46.87
Weight of can + dry soil W3 (gm) 41.64
Water/Moisture content w = (W2- W3)/( 18.26 %

W3- W1)*100
Results
Description Sample
Mass of core cutter, W1 (gm) 1037
Mass of cutter + soil from field, W2(gm) 2831
Wet density, (gm/cm3) t= (W2 – W1)/ V 1.71
Dry density , (gm/cm3) d= t / (1+w) 1.45
Precautions
➢ While removing the core cutter, it should not be bring out directly, instead we should first
clear all around the core cutter soil and remove it gently.
➢ Lower surface of the core cutter must be smooth.
➢ Surface should be selected such that ,there is not boulders or gravels
79 | P a g e
Comments:
Core cutter method is used for finding field density of cohesive or clayey soils placed as fill. The
result of this experiment, that bulk density, dry density and water content it is shown that the soils
is cohesive and clayey soils. Type of error factors affect soil permeability it is from when doing
the test is environmental error, systematic or equipment error and parallax error. It is necessary to
make repeated determination and to average them for the accurate results of field density test since
the dry density varies from point to point.
80 | P a g e
Experiment No: 10
10 To Perform Sand Replacement Test to determine the field

density of the soil in place.
Objective:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the dry density of the natural or compacted soil in
place in the field by using the sand replacement technique.
Significance:
The in situ density of natural soil is needed for the determination of bearing capacity of soils, for
the purpose of stability analysis of slopes, for the determination of pressures on underlying strata
for the calculation of settlement and the design of underground structures.
It is very quality control test, where compaction is required, in the cases like embankment and
pavement construction.
Apparatus:

➢ Sand cone apparatus
➢ Sand Pouring Cylinder
➢ Cylindrical calibrating container Metal tray with hole
➢ Balance sensitive to 1 g.
➢ Base plate
➢ Tools for excavating a hole in the ground
81 | P a g e
➢ Clean, uniformly graded sand ranging from #20 to #30 sieve such as Ottawa Sand
➢ Proctor compaction mold without attached extension (used for calibration)
➢ Plastic air-tight bag for carrying wet excavated soil from field to the lab.
➢ Metal tray with a hole in the center.
➢ Oven with temperature kept at about 105-110o
Relevant Theory
The Thory related to this experiment can be given as under
10.4.1 Compaction Control Field Testing:
During the construction of the project, a control must be in place to measure whether or not the
compaction requirements have been met. That control is density testing. If the results of the
density test determine that the compaction process has produced a density within the range
specified, then the compaction is complete.
10.4.2 In-Situ Density
The in-situ density is defined as the bulk density of soil measured at its actual depth. By
conducting this test, it is possible to determine the field density of the soil. The moisture content
is likely to vary from time and hence the field density also. So it is required to report the test
result in terms of dry density. By conducting this test it is possible to determine the field density
of the soil. The moisture content is likely to vary from time and hence the field density also. So it
is required to report the test result in terms of dry density. The relationship that can be
established between the dry density with known moisture content is as follows:
82 | P a g e
10.4.3 Degree of compaction
The relative compaction: is the percentage ratio of the in situ maximum dry density of the
compacted fill material to the maximum dry density obtained with the relevant laboratory
compaction test.
γd achieved
Rc = ⁄γd in lab
In place density can be measured by several methods in the field are used to determine the in-situ
density of a soil;
➢ Rubber balloon method

➢ Sand-replacement (sand cone) method,
➢ Core cutter method
➢ Nuclear moisture-density meter method.
Procedure:
➢ Weight of Sand Occupying the Cone of the Sand Pouring Apparatus

Pour sand into the apparatus with valve closed and determine weight of apparatus and
sand (W1). Place the apparatus on a smooth glass plate and open the valve to fill the
conical portion. After the sand stops running, close the valve sharply, and weight the
remaining sand into the apparatus (W2). The weight (W1 – W2) represents the weight
of sand required to fill the cone of the apparatus. Replace the sand removed in the
apparatus.
➢ Density of Sand
Fill the Sand Pouring Apparatus with known weight of sand (W3) and place it
concentrically on top of the calibrating cylinder. Open the shutter and allow the sand to
drain out. When no further movement of sand takes place in the apparatus, close the shutter
and weight the sand remaining in the apparatus (W4).The weight (W3-W4) represents the
quantity of sand used in filling calibrating cylinder as well as cone of the apparatus.
Now [(W3-W4) – (W1 – W2)] gives the weight of sand required to fill the calibrating
cylinder. Volume (Vc) of the cylinder may be determined either by measuring its internal
dimensions or by filling it with water.
83 | P a g e
Density of sand can be computed using mass of sand filled in cylinder and volume (Vc) of
the cylinder.
➢ Density of Soil
Prepare the surface of the location to be tested so that it is a level plane. Keep the soil tray
firmly on the place surface. Excavate with hand tools a hole with diameter equal to that
of the hole of the plate and about 10cm in depth with smooth walls and rounded bottom
edges. Place all loosened soil in a container being careful to avoid losing any material.
Seat the already weighed apparatus with sand on the hole of the tray. Open the valve and
after the sand has stopped flowing close the valve. Weigh the apparatus with remaining
sand and determine the weight of sand occupying the cavity. Weigh the material that was
removed from the test hole. Mix the material thoroughly and weigh a representative
sample for moisture determination. Dry and weigh the sample to determine moisture
content.
Observations & Calculations:
From the known density of sand and the weight of sand occupying the hole, calculate the volume
of hole .From the weight of the soil scooped out of hole whose volume is now known and the
value of moisture content, calculate the wet and dry density of soil.
Height of the cone = 12.5 cm
Diameter of the cone = 10 cm
Volume of the cone = 981.25
84 | P a g e
10.7.1 Sand Replacement Method:
No. Particulars 1
DETERMINATION OF BULK DENSITY OF SAND
1 Volume of calibrating cylinder (cc) 981.25

2 Wt of calibrating cylinder W4 (g) 1520
3 Wt of calibrating cylinder + sand (W5) g 2859
4 Wt of sand in vol V (W6) g 1339

5 Bulk density of standard Sand gm/cc 1.36
DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT OF SAND IN THE CONE:

6 Wt of sand pouring apparatus+sand before Exp (g) W1 4839
7 Wt of sand pouring apparatus+sand after Exp. (g) W2 4363
8 Weight of sand drained out gm W3= W1 –W2 476

DETERMINATIO OF BULK DENSITY OF SOIL
Wt of the wet soil from the hole (g) 43.44

6. Wt of apparatus + Sand (Before poring) W7 (g) 4832
7. V Wt of apparatus + Sand (after poring) W8 (g) 3234
8. Weight of sand in hole W9 = W7 – W8 – W3 1204
9. Wet density gm/cc 1.427
10. Moisture content 18.88%
11. Dry density gm/cc 1.201
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CONTAINER No: 48
Wt. of container + Wet Soil g 42.34
Wt. of container + Dry soil g 37.68
Wt. of container g 13
Wt. of water g 4.66
Wt. of dry soil g 24.68
Moisture Content in percent 18.88 %
Precautions:
➢ If for any reasons it is necessary to excavate the holes to the depth other than 15 cm, the
calibrating cylinder should be replaced by one of the depth which is the same as the hole
to be excavated.
➢ Case should be taken in excavating the hole to that it is not enlarged by levering the
dibber against the side of the hole, as this will result in lower density being recorded.
➢ No loose material should be left in the holes.
Initial height of sand in the pouring cylinder should be kept same during calibration and
density determinations.
➢ Since dry density of soils varies from point to point, it is necessary to repeat the test at
several points and to average the result.
➢ The excavated hole must be equal to the volume of the calibrating container.
Comments:
Core cutter method has a major limitation in the case of soils containing coarse-grained particles
such as gravel, stones and aggregates. Under such circumstances, field density test by sand
replacement method is advantageous, as the presence of coarse-grained particles will adversely
affect the test results. Type of error factors affect soil permeability it is from when doing the test
86 | P a g e
is environmental error, systematic or equipment error and parallax error. This test method may not
be suitable for soils consisting of unbound granular materials that will not maintain stable sides in
the test holes.
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Experiment No: 11
11 To Perform the consolidation test on the given soil sample.
Objective:
This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally
confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the
measured data, the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2435-70 Standard Test
Significance:
The consolidation properties determined from the consolidation test are used to estimate the
magnitude and the rate of both primary and secondary consolidation settlement of a structure or
an earth fill. Estimates of this type are of key importance in the design of engineered structures
and the evaluation of their performance.
Apparatus:
➢ Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water reservoir, and load plate)
➢ Dial gauge (0.0001 inch = 1.0 on dial)
➢ Sample trimming device
➢ glass plate
➢ Metal straight edge
➢ Clock, Moisture can
88 | P a g e
➢ Filter paper
Porous
Stone
Consolidometer
Top Ring
Loading Cap
Rigid Ring
Load Device
With Lever Arm
Consolidation Weights
Figure 11.1 Apparatus
89 | P a g e
Relevant Theory
The theory related to this experiment can be given as under
11.5.1 Consolidation:
Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. According to Karlvon

Terzaghi
90 | P a g e
“Consolidation is any process which involves a decrease in water content of saturated soil without
replacement of water by air."
In general it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of water under
long term static loads. It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to
pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume. When this occurs in a soil that is
saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil. The magnitude of consolidation can
be predicted by many different methods.
In the Classical Method, developed by Terzaghi, soils are tested with an odometer test to
determine their compression index. This can be used to predict the amount of consolidation.
When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining some of the
volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will consolidate
again along a recompression curve, defined by the recompression index. The soil which had its
load removed is considered to be over consolidated. This is the case for soils which have
previously had glaciers on them.
11.5.2 Over consolidation ratio or OCR
The over consolidation ratio or OCR is defined as the highest stress experienced divided by the
current stress. A soil which is currently experiencing its highest stress is said to be normally
consolidated and to have an OCR of one. A soil could be considered under
consolidated immediately after a new load is applied but before the excess pore water pressure has
had time to dissipate.
11.5.3 Primary consolidation
Primary consolidation is the settlement due to water being squeezed out of the soil caused by the
change in vertical stress being applied by a load. When all the water in the soil is squeezed out,
the primary consolidation has been achieved.
In reality, it would not be feasibility to wait for all the water to be squeezed out in clay. Usually
90% consolidation is taken as the end of the process. Primary consolidation in clay can take a very
long time, which is why for geotechnical engineering is usually the main concern for design
purposes.
11.5.4 Secondary consolidation
Secondary consolidation occurs during primary consolidation, but usually the practice is to
compute the secondary compression after the primary consolidation is complete. This
91 | P a g e
phenomenon is due to the fact that soil particles start to rearrange their orientation after the water
is removed into a more stable consolidated formation.
Secondary compression is the compression of soil that takes place after primary consolidation.
Even after the reduction of hydrostatic pressure some compression of soil takes place at slow rate.
This is known as secondary compression. Secondary compression is caused by creep, viscous
behavior of the clay-water system, compression of organic matter, and other processes. In sand,
settlement caused by secondary compression is negligible, but in peat, it is very significant. Due
to secondary compression some of the highly viscous water between the points of contact is forced
out.
11.5.5 Types of Consoldiometer
There are commonly two methods used to perform the consolidation test, given as under
➢ Floating Ring Consolidometer

➢ Fixed Ring Consolidometer
11.5.5.1 Floating Ring Consolidometer
The Floating Ring Consolidometer is designed to eliminate the friction that occurs between
the soil specimens and ring in consolidation testing. The unit consists of a one-piece machined
base, porous stones, and specimen ring.
11.5.5.2 Fixed Ring Consolidometers
All Fixed Ring Consolidometers are manufactured from corrosion resistant materials and
incorporate an integral cutting ring for trimming specimens to size. The design also features an
integral water reservoir for specimen inundation. All consolidometers are supplied complete
with upper and lower porous stones, pressure pad and specimen cutting ring.
Procedure:
➢ Weigh the empty consolidation ring together with glass plate.

➢ Measure the height (h) of the ring and it’s inside diameter (d).
➢ Extrude the soil sample from the sampler. Determine the initial moisture content and
the specific gravity of the soil.
92 | P a g e
➢ Cut approximately a three-inch long sample. Place the sample on the consolidation
ring and cut the sides of the sample to be approximately the same as the outside
diameter of the ring. Rotate the ring and pare off the excess soil by means of the
cutting tool so that the sample is reduced to the same inside diameter of the ring. It is
important to keep the cutting tool in the correct horizontal position during this process.
➢ As the trimming progresses, press the sample gently into the ring and continue until
the sample protrudes a short distance through the bottom of the ring. Be careful
throughout the trimming process to insure that there is no void space between the
sample and the ring.
➢ Turn the ring over carefully and remove the portion of the soil protruding above the
ring. Using the metal straight edge, cut the soil surface flush with the surface of the
ring. Remove the final portion with extreme care.
➢ Place the previously weighed Saran-covered glass plate on the freshly cut surface, turn
the ring over again, and carefully cut the other end in a similar manner.
➢ Weigh the specimen plus ring plus glass plate.
➢ Carefully remove the ring with specimen from the Saran-covered glass plate and peel
the Saran from the specimen surface. Center the porous stones that have been soaking,
on the top and bottom surfaces of the test specimen. Place the filter papers between
porous stones and soil specimen. Press very lightly to make sure that the stones adhere
to the sample. Lower the assembly carefully into the base of the water reservoir. Fill
the water reservoir with water until the specimen is completely covered and saturated.
➢ Being careful to prevent movement of the ring and porous stones, place the load plate
centrally on the upper porous stone and adjust the loading device.
➢ Adjust the dial gauge to a zero reading.
➢ With the toggle switch in the down (closed) position, set the pressure gauge dial (based
on calibration curve) to result in an applied pressure of 0.5 tsf (tons per square foot).
➢ Simultaneously, open the valve (by quickly lifting the toggle switch to the up (open)
position) and start the timing clock.
➢ Record the consolidation dial readings at the elapsed times.
➢ At the last elapsed time reading, record the final consolidation dial reading and time,
release the load, and quickly disassemble the consolidation device and remove the
specimen. Quickly but carefully blot the surfaces dry with paper toweling. (The
specimen will tend to absorb water after the load is released.)
➢ Place the specimen and ring on the Saran-covered glass plate and, once again, weigh
them together.
➢ Weigh an empty large moisture can and lid.
➢ Carefully remove the specimen from the consolidation ring, being sure not to lose too
much soil, and place the specimen in the previously weighed moisture can. Place the
moisture can containing the specimen in the oven and let it dry for 12 to 18 hours.
93 | P a g e
➢ Weigh the dry specimen in the moisture can. Analysis:

➢ Calculate the initial water content and specific gravity of the soil.
➢ For each pressure increment, construct a semi log plot of the consolidation dial readings
versus the log time (in minutes). Determine D0, D50, D100, and the coefficient of
consolidation (CV) using Casagrande’s logarithm of time fitting method. Also calculate
the coefficient of secondary compression based on these plots.
➢ Calculate the void ratio at the end of primary consolidation for each pressure increment
(see example data). Plot log pressure versus void ratio. Based on this plot, calculate
compression index, recompression index and reconsolidation pressure (maximum past
pressure).
Wt. of ring = 58.89 gm

Wt. of wet soil = 66.62 gm
Diameter of ring = 50 mm
Height of ring = 19 mm
Volume of ring = 37.30cc
Gs = 2.67
Moisture content = 30.17 %
eo = 0.96 so = 0.84
γb = 17.52 KN/m3
γd = 13.45 KN/m3
Loa Pressur Dial Chan Acc. Height Strain Void Cv av E=1/ mv

ding e(kN) readin ge Change of Ratio mv
g sample
Kg *0.01 mm Mm mm % e m2/s m2/M Mpa Mpa-1
mm N
0 0 1500 0 0 19 0.00 0.96
0.5 27.49 1461.5 0.385 0.385 18.615 2.03 0.92
1 54.99 1432 0.295 0.68 18.32 3.58 0.89 0.10 1.11 1.76 0.57
2 109.97 1391 0.41 1.09 17.91 5.74 0.85 0.14 0.77 2.54 0.39
4 219.94 1330 0.61 1.7 17.3 8.95 0.78 0.21 0.57 3.41 0.29
8 439.89 1240 0.9 2.6 16.4 13.68 0.69 0.31 0.42 4.62 0.22
16 879.78 1149 0.91 3.51 15.49 18.47 0.60 0.31 0.21 9.14 0.11
32 1,759.5 1052 0.97 4.48 14.52 23.58 0.50 0.33 0.11 17.16 0.06
8 439.89 1067 0.15 4.33 14.67 22.79 0.51
2 109.97 1090 0.23 4.1 14.9 21.58 0.54
0.5 27.49 1111 0.21 3.89 15.11 20.47 0.56
0 0 1142 0.31 3.58 15.42 18.84 0.59
94 | P a g e
Graph
Graph between e & P

1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
e
0.40
0.20
0.00
1 10 100 1000 10000
P(kN/m2)
Precautions:
➢ While preparing the specimen, attempts has to be made to have the soil strata orientated in
the same direction in the consolidation apparatus.
➢ During trimming care should be taken in handling the soil specimen with least pressure.
➢ Smaller increments of sequential loading have to be adopted for soft soils.
Comments:
Based on the experiment, that we have done, we have determined the consolidation properties of
the soil sample. When it occurs in the soil saturated with water then water will be squeezed out.
When large loads such as embankment are applied to the surface, cohesive sub soils will be
consolidate, such a settle over time, through combination of the rearrangement of the individual
particles and squeezing out of the water.
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Experiment No: 12
12 To determine the co-efficient of the permeability of the granular

soil by the constant head permeability.
Objective:
This test is performed to determine the coefficient of permeability of a soil using constant head
method by constant elevation reservoir with water supply.
Significance:
The knowledge of this property is much useful in solving problems involving yield of water
bearing strata, seepage through earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of canal
bank affected by seepage, settlement etc.
➢ Estimation of quantity of underground seepage water under various hydraulic conditions.
➢ Quantification of water during pumping for underground construction
➢ Stability analysis of slopes, earth dams, and earth retaining structures Design of landfill liner
Apparatus:

➢ Constant head permeameter apparatus
➢ Constant elevation reservoir with water supply
➢ Thermometer
➢ 1000ml Beaker
➢ Balance
➢ Meter stick
➢ Plastic tubing
➢ Stop watch
96 | P a g e
Figure 12.1 Constant Head Permeability Apparatus
Related Theory
12.4.1 Permeability
Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air and is one of the most
important qualities to consider for fish culture. A pond built in impermeable soil will lose little
water through seepage. The more permeable the soil, the greater the seepage.
Permeability is a measure of the ease in which water can flow through a soil volume. It is one
of the most important geotechnical parameters. However, it is probably the most difficult
97 | P a g e
parameter to determine. In large part, it controls the strength and deformation behavior of
soils. It directly affects the following:
➢ Quantity of water that will flow toward an excavation
➢ Design of cutoffs beneath dams on permeable foundations
➢ Design of the clay layer for a landfill liner.
For fine grained soil Falling head permeability test is done, whereas constant head permeability
test is done for the coarse grained soil.
12.4.2 Coefficient of permeability
The rate of flow under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional are of porous medium
under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability.
Coefficient of permeability is corrected because our standard value is at the 20oC but our room
temperature is different
Test Water ηT°C/η20°C Test Water ηT°C/η20°C
Temperature, T (°C) Temperature, T (°C)
15 1.135 22 0.953
16 1.106 23 0.931
17 1.077 24 0.910
18 1.051 25 0.889
19 1.025 26 0.869
20 1.000 27 0.850
21 0.976 28 0.832
Which factors affect soil permeability?

Many factors affect soil permeability. Sometimes they are extremely localized, such as cracks and
holes, and it is difficult to calculate representative values of permeability from actual
measurements. A good study of soil profiles provides an essential check on such measurements.
Observations on soil texture, structure, consistency, color/mottling, layering, visible pores and
depth to impermeable layers such as bedrock and clay pan form the basis for deciding if
permeability measurements are likely to be representative.
98 | P a g e
12.4.3 Range of Permeability for different soils
Soil Typical
Type Permeability,
k (cm/sec)
Gravels and > 10-1
Coarse Sands
Fine Sands 10-1 to 10-3
Silty Sands 10-3 to 10-5
Silts 10-5 to 10-7
Clays < 10-7
Procedure:
➢ Mix sufficient water into the sample to prevent segregation of particle sizes during placement
into the Permeameter. Enough water should be added to allow the mixture to flow freely,
forming layers.
➢ Remove both the chamber cap and upper chamber from the unit by unscrewing the three
knurled cap nuts and lifting them off the tie rods.
➢ Position one porous stone on the inner support ring in the base of the chamber.
➢ Using a scoop or funnel, pour the prepared specimen into the lower chamber, using a circular
motion to fill the lower chamber to a depth of 1.5 cm. A uniform layer should be formed.
➢ Use an appropriate tamping device to compact the layer of soil to the desired density. Repeat
the compacting procedure until the sample is within 2 cm of the top of the lower chamber
section.
➢ Replace the upper chamber section, placing the rubber gasket between the chamber sections.
Be careful not to disturb the test specimen. Continue the sample placement operation until the
level of compacted material is about 2 cm below the rim of the upper chamber. Carefully level
the surface of the specimen and place the upper porous stone on it.
➢ Place the compression spring on the porous stone. Replace the chamber cap and sealing gasket,
securing it firmly with the cap nuts. The spring will restrict upward sample movement.
➢ Measure and record the sample length.
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➢ Assemble the constant head funnel, rod and meter stick. Use the rod clamp the funnel's lower
portion.
➢ Adjust the level of the funnel to allow the constant water level in it to remain a few inches
above the top of the specimen.
➢ Connect the flexible tube from the tail of the funnel to the bottom outlet of the Permeameter.
Keep the valves on top of the Permeameter open.
➢ Place a receiver at the top outlet to collect any water that may come out.
➢ If preferred, a piece of tubing may be connected to the outlet, leading the water to a sink.
➢ Open the bottom outlet valve and allow water to flow into the permeameter.
➢ As soon as water begins to flow out of the top control valve, close the control valve, letting the
water flow out the outlet for a time.
➢ Close the bottom outlet valve and disconnect the flexible tubing at the bottom.
➢ Connect the constant head funnel to the top side port.
➢ Open the bottom outlet valve and raise the constant level head (funnel) to a convenient height
to get a reasonable steady flow of water.
➢ Measure and record the length of the specimen, L.
➢ Allow adequate time for the flow pattern and/or specimen to stabilize.
➢ After equilibrium flow has been established, measure the time taken to have specified volume
of water flowing out. Use a measuring cylinder and a stop watch. Repeat three or more times,
calculating the average time.
As we know that
K = VL/Aht
Where,
K= Coefficient of permeability
V= Collected volume of water
L= Length of soil column

A = Area of the soil column
h= Head difference
t= Time required to get V volume
Diameter of permeameter = 3.9”
100 | P a g e
Area of specimen= 77.07 cm2

Length of specimen = 12.7 cm
Volume of specimen = 45 ml and 30 ml
Test h1 h2 H T V Q T Kt K20
no.
(cm) (cm) (cm) (sec) (cm3) (cc/s) (oC) (cm/sec) (cm/sec)
1 60.4 16.1 44.3 30 90 3 26 0.011 9.7x10-3
2 60.4 16.1 44.3 30 30 3 26 0.011 9.7x10-3
Precautions:
➢ During test there should be no volume change in the soil,

➢ There should be no compressible air present in the voids of soil
➢ Soil should be completely saturated.
➢ The flow should be laminar and in a steady state condition.
Comments:
Type of error factors affect soil permeability it is from when doing the test is environmental error,
systematic or equipment error and parallax error. Coefficient of permeability is used to assess
drainage characteristics of soil, to predict rate of settlement founded on soil bed. As the value of
the co-efficient of the permeability lies near the 1x10-1 to 1 x 10-3 so the soil provided is a fine
sand.
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Experiment No: 13
13 To determine the co-efficient of the permeability of the fine grained soil by

the falling head permeability.
Objective:
This test is performed to determine the coefficient of permeability of a soil using constant head
method by constant elevation reservoir with water supply.
Significance:
The knowledge of this property is much useful in solving problems involving yield of water
bearing strata, seepage through earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of canal
bank affected by seepage, settlement etc.
➢ To estimate ground water flow.

➢ To calculate seepage through dams.
➢ To find out the rate of consolidation and settlement of structures.
➢ To plan the method of lowering the ground water table.
➢ To calculate the uplift pressure and piping.
➢ To design the grouting.
➢ And also for soil freezing tests.
➢ To design pits for recharging.
Thus the study of seepage of water through soil is very important, with wide field applications.
The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low discharge, whereas
the constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soils with a reasonable discharge in
a given time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity permeability test is recommended.
102 | P a g e
Apparatus:
➢ Falling head permeameter apparatus

➢ Stand pipe
➢ Thermometer
➢ 1000ml Beaker
➢ Balance
➢ Meter stick
➢ Plastic tubing
➢ Stop watch
Figure 13.1Falling Head Permeability apparatus
103 | P a g e
Related Theory
13.4.1 Permeability
Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air and is one of the most
important qualities to consider for fish culture. A pond built in impermeable soil will lose little
water through seepage. The more permeable the soil, the greater the seepage.
Permeability is a measure of the ease in which water can flow through a soil volume. It is one
of the most important geotechnical parameters. However, it is probably the most difficult
parameter to determine. In large part, it controls the strength and deformation behavior of
soils. It directly affects the following:
➢ Quantity of water that will flow toward an excavation
➢ Design of cutoffs beneath dams on permeable foundations
➢ Design of the clay layer for a landfill liner.
For fine grained soil Falling head permeability test is done, whereas constant head permeability
test is done for the coarse grained soil.
13.4.2 Coefficient of permeability
The rate of flow under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional are of porous medium
under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability.
Coefficient of permeability is corrected because our standard value is at the 20oC but our room
temperature is different
104 | P a g e
Test Water ηT°C/η20°C Test Water ηT°C/η20°C

Temperature, T Temperature, T
(°C) (°C)
15 1.135 22 0.953
16 1.106 23 0.931
17 1.077 24 0.910
18 1.051 25 0.889
19 1.025 26 0.869
20 1.000 27 0.850
21 0.976 28 0.832
13.4.3 Which factors affect soil permeability?
Many factors affect soil permeability. Sometimes they are extremely localized, such as cracks and
holes, and it is difficult to calculate representative values of permeability from actual
measurements. A good study of soil profiles provides an essential check on such measurements.
Observations on soil texture, structure, consistency, color/mottling, layering, visible pores and
depth to impermeable layers such as bedrock and clay pan form the basis for deciding if
permeability measurements are likely to be representative.
13.4.4 Range of Permeability for different soils

Soil Typical Permeability, k
Type (cm/sec)
Gravels and Coarse > 10-1
Sands
Fine Sands 10-1 to 10-3
Silty Sands 10-3 to 10-5
Silts 10-5 to 10-7
Clays < 10-7
105 | P a g e
Procedure:
➢ Mix sufficient water into the sample to prevent segregation of particle sizes during
placement into the Permeameter. Enough water should be added to allow the mixture to
flow freely, forming layers.
➢ Remove both the chamber cap and upper chamber from the unit by unscrewing the three
knurled cap nuts and lifting them off the tie rods.
➢ Position one porous stone on the inner support ring in the base of the chamber.
➢ Using a scoop or funnel, pour the prepared specimen into the lower chamber, using a
circular motion to fill the lower chamber to a depth of 1.5 cm. A uniform layer should be
formed.
➢ Use an appropriate tamping device to compact the layer of soil to the desired density.
Repeat the compacting procedure until the sample is within 2 cm of the top of the lower
chamber section.
➢ Replace the upper chamber section, placing the rubber gasket between the chamber
sections. Be careful not to disturb the test specimen. Continue the sample placement
operation until the level of compacted material is about 2 cm below the rim of the upper
chamber. Carefully level the surface of the specimen and place the upper porous stone on
it.
➢ Place the compression spring on the porous stone. Replace the chamber cap and sealing
gasket, securing it firmly with the cap nuts. The spring will restrict upward sample
movement.
➢ Measure and record the sample length.
➢ Assemble the constant head funnel, rod and meter stick. Use the rod clamp the funnel's
lower portion.
➢ Adjust the level of the funnel to allow the constant water level in it to remain a few inches
above the top of the specimen.
➢ Connect the flexible tube from the tail of the funnel to the bottom outlet of the
Permeameter. Keep the valves on top of the Permeameter open.
➢ Place a receiver at the top outlet to collect any water that may come out.
➢ If preferred, a piece of tubing may be connected to the outlet, leading the water to a sink.
➢ Open the bottom outlet valve and allow water to flow into the permeameter.
➢ As soon as water begins to flow out of the top control (deairing) valve, close the control
valve, letting the water flow out the outlet for a time.
➢ Close the bottom outlet valve and disconnect the flexible tubing at the bottom.
o Connect the constant head funnel to the top side port.
106 | P a g e
➢ Open the bottom outlet valve and raise the constant level head (funnel) to a convenient
height to get a reasonable steady flow of water.
➢ Accurately measure the vertical distance between the funnel overflow level and the
chamber outflow level.
➢ Measure and record the length of the specimen, L.
➢ Allow adequate time for the flow pattern and/or specimen to stabilize.
➢ After equilibrium flow has been established, measure the time taken to have specified
volume of water flowing out. Use a measuring cylinder and a stop watch. Repeat three or
more times, calculating the average time.
We know that
K = VL/Aht
Where,
K= Coefficient of permeability
V= Collected volume of water
L= Length of soil column
A = Area of the soil column
h= Head difference
t= Time required to get V volume
Observed perimeters are as under
Diameter of permeameter = 4”
Area of specimen= 81.07 cm2
Diameter of pipe = 0.60 cm
L = 11.43 cm
Length of specimen = 12.7 cm
Area of pipe = 0.283 cm2
Volume of specimen = 45 ml and 30 ml
107 | P a g e
Test no. h1 h2 T T Kt K20
(cm) (cm) (sec) (oC) cm/sec cm/sec
1 60 57.3 30 26 5.4 x 10-5 4.7 x 10-5
2 45 42.5 30 26 6.74 x 10-5 5.8 x 10-5
Precautions:
➢ During test there should be no volume change in the soil,.

➢ There should be no compressible air present in the voids of soil
➢ Soil should be completely saturated.
➢ The flow should be laminar and in a steady state condition.
Comments:
The flow was not laminar and not in a steady state condition. Coefficient of permeability is used
to assess drainage characteristics of soil, to predict rate of settlement founded on soil bed. As the
value of the co-efficient of the permeability is lesser than
1 x 10-3 so the sample is a silty sand. Type of error factors affect soil permeability it is from when
doing the test is environmental error, systematic or equipment error and parallax error.
108 | P a g e
Experiment No: 14
14 Calibration of Speedy Moisture Meter
Objective:
We perform this job in order to get familiar that how to find out moisture content in the given
sample of the soil. The water content is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of
“pore” or “free” water in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.
Reference:
ASTM D2216-66 (ASTM STANDARD PART-II).Standard Test Method for Laboratory

Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures.
Significance:
For many soils, moisture content is an important Factor used for establishing the relationship
between the way a soil behaves and its properties. The consistency of a fine-grained soil largely
depends on its water content. The water content is also used in expressing the phase
relationships of air, water, and solids in a given volume of soil.
Apparatus
➢ Containers with lids
109 | P a g e
➢ Weighing Balance
➢ Electric Oven ( accurate temperature control at 110±5 ºC)
➢ Speedy moisture meter (calcium carbide pressure moisture tester)
➢ Two 1.25″ (3.175 cm) steel balls
➢ Cleaning brush and cloth
➢ Scoop for measuring calcium carbide reagent
➢ Calcium carbide reagent
Containers with lids
Weighing Balance
110 | P a g e
Electric Oven
Related Theory:

“Moisture content is the ratio between the Water of water in the soil sample to that of the weight
of soil solid in the same volume.”
Mathematical Formula:
Ww
Ws
Where ,
Ww: Weight of water in the soil sample
111 | P a g e
14.5.2 Calcium carbide gas moisture tester:
The calcium carbide gas moisture tester provides a quick and simple means of determining the
moisture content of the soil. It is particularly used for the field determination of moisture content
in conjunction with field compaction testing.
The basic premise of the calcium carbide gas moisture tester is that the free moisture in the soil
reacts with calcium carbide reagent to form a gas called acetylene gas.
CaC2 + H2O →CaO + C2H2
The reaction of Calcium carbide with the water produces the acetylene gas along with calcium
oxide, and acetylene gas exerts the pressure on the walls as well on the gauge.
The acetylene gas is tapped within the tester and registers on the pressure dial, which is
calibrated to read directly in percent of moisture by wet weight of soil. Since moisture content by
definition is expressed as a percentage of dry weight of the soil and the readings obtained by
speedy moisture meter are corrected using the following expression:
Wsp
(1 − Wsp)
Where
Wsp = Moisture content as obtained by speedy moisture meter expressed as decimal fraction
14.5.3 Representative quantity of Moist Soil:
To provide a reasonably reliable moisture content determination, the following wet soil sample
weights (representative samples) are recommended
Maximum size of the soil Recommended minimum Weighing balance accuracy

particle (95-100% passes mass of the moist sample
through the given sieve)
(gm) (gm)
No. 40 (425 μm) 10-200 0.01
No. 04 (4.75 mm) 300-500 0.1
112 | P a g e
12.5mm or 0.5″ 300-1000 0.1

50mm or 2″ 1500-3000 1.0
Procedure:
➢ First of all I took the four empty containers of Aluminum and cleaned those containers
carefully.
➢ Then I marked that containers with a definite number for my convenience for their
identification.
➢ Then I placed the cylinders on the balance and weighed these cylinders with a precision
of 0.01gm.
➢ Then I went to the field and took four Samples with a depth difference of 0.25m.
➢ Then I placed the samples in the container and weighed these wet soil samples using the
weigh balance respectively.
➢ Then I placed the soil sample in the drying oven at constant temperature of 110 ± 5 ºC for
at least 24 hours.
➢ After 24 hours I removed the container from the oven and weighed these containers.
➢ First of all I weighed 26 gm soil sample on the tarred scale and place it in the cap of the
tester.
➢ Place three scoops (approximately 24 gm) of calcium carbide and two 1.25″ (3.175 cm)
steel balls in the larger chamber of the moisture tester.
➢ With the pressure vessel in approximately horizontal position, insert the cap in the
pressure vessel and seal it by tightening the clamp, taking care that no carbide comes in
contact with the soil until a complete seal is achieved.
➢ Raise the moisture tester to a vertical position so that the soil on the cap will fall into the
pressure vessel.
➢ Shake the instrument vigorously so that all lumps are broken up to permit the calcium
carbide to react with available free moisture. The instrument should be shaken with a
rotating motion so that the steel balls will not damage the instrument or cause the soil
particles to become embedded in the orifice leading to pressure diaphragm.
➢ When the needle stops moving, read the dial while holding the instrument in the
horizontal position at eye level.
➢ Record the dial reading.
➢ With the cap of instrument pointed away from the operator, slowly release the gas
pressure. Empty the pressure vessel ad examine the material for lumps. If the sample is
not completely pulverized, the test should be repeated using a new sample.
➢ The dial reading is the percent of moisture by wet mass.
➢ Then I plotted the graph between the two moisture contents and obtain the equation.
113 | P a g e
Percentage water 3 6 9 12 15
added (%)
Wt. of Wet + can 31.47 35.64 34.61 37.61 31.02
(g)
Can # 65 10 98 59 97
Wt. of dry soil + 31.06 34.54 33.01 35.43 28.94
can (g)
Wt. of can 14.99 14.95 14.12 15.62 14.06
(g)
Moisture content 2.55 5.62 8.47 11.0 13.97
(%)
m.c. by speedy 3.6 6.4 9.2 11.8 14.2
Moisture meter
(%)
Calculations and Observations
CALIBRATION CUVE OF SPEEDY MOISTURE

METER
16.00 13.98
14.00
OVEN DRY METHOD
12.00 y = 1.061x 11.00

- 1.2676
10.00 8.47
8.00 5.62
6.00
4.00 2.55
2.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
WSP (%)
Graphs
114 | P a g e
Results:
Here we obtain the equation

Wo = 1.061Wsp - 1.2676
WHERE
Wo: oven dry method moisture content
Wsp: speedy moisture meter reading
Precautions:
➢ Ensure that weight soil samples are not much high because larger samples take too long
to dry, while smaller samples lead to inaccurate results.
➢ Do not put moist samples in the oven on a shelf below dry samples. Moist samples
should be placed on the top shelf and all partially dried samples placed on the lower
shelf.
➢ Do not allow dried samples to pick up moisture after they are removed from the oven.
Weigh them immediately after drying.
➢ Do not use metallic containers in a microwave oven. Arcing and oven damage may result.
115 | P a g e
➢ Do not over-load the oven, as this will create a much longer drying time
➢ While shaking the sand in the speedy moisture meter, we should not move it in the
vertical direction, instead we should move it in horizontal direction.
➢ Before placing the soil, we must assure that the apparatus is fully dry.
➢ For oven dry sample weight, we must weigh the sample just after removing the sample
from the oven.
Comments:
For an ideal condition value of slope should be equal to 1 also C (i.e. y intercept) must be equal to
zero but here we have some value of c. This type of error factors affect the test is environmental
error, systematic or equipment error and parallax error. It is necessary to make repeated
determination and to average them for the accurate results.
Experiment No: 15
15 To Find the Relative Density of Soil
Objective:
This lab is performed to determine the relative density of cohesion less, free-draining soils using
a vibrating table. The relative density of a soil is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the
difference between the maximum index void ratio and the field void ratio of a cohesion less,
free-draining soil; to the difference between its maximum and minimum index void ratios.
Reference:
➢ ASTM D 4254 – Standard Test Methods for Minimum Index Density and Unit Weight of
Soils and Calculation of Relative Density.
➢ ASTM D 4253 – Standard Test Methods for Maximum Index Density and Unit Weight of
Soils Using a Vibratory Table.
116 | P a g e
Significance:
Relative density and percent compaction are commonly used for evaluating the state of
compactness of a given soil mass. The engineering properties, such as shear strength,
compressibility, and permeability, of a given soil depend on the level of compaction
Apparatus
The Apparatus used for this job is given as under

➢ Vibrating Table
➢ Mold Assembly (consisting of standard mold, guide sleeves, surcharge base-plate,
surcharge weights, surcharge base-plate handle, and dial-indicator gage)
➢ Balance
➢ Scoop
➢ Straightedge
Vibrating Table
117 | P a g e
Vibrating Table
Related Theory:
15.5.1 Void ratio
Void ratio, in materials science, is a quantity related to porosity and defined as the ratio
𝑽𝒗
𝒆=
𝑽𝒔
Or
𝑽𝒗
𝒆=
𝑽𝒕 − 𝑽𝒗
𝒏
𝒆=
𝟏−𝒏
118 | P a g e
Where,
e:void ratio
n:porosity
VV is the volume of void-space (such as fluids)
VS is the volume of solids
VT is the total or bulk volume.
15.5.2 Relative Density of Cohesion less Soils
This method of test is intended for determining the relative density of cohesion less free-draining
soils for which impact compaction will not produce a well-defined moisture density relationship
curve and the maximum density by impact methods will generally be less than by vibratory
methods.
Relative density is an arbitrary character of sandy deposit. In real sense, relative density expresses
the ratio of actual decrease in volume of voids in a sandy soil to the maximum possible decrease
in the volume of voids i.e how far the sand under investigation can be capable to the further
densification beyond its natural state. Determination of relative density is helpful in compaction
of coarse grained soils and in evaluating safe bearing capacity in case of sandy soils.
15.5.3 Relative density
Relative density is defined as

“The state of compactness of a soil with respect to the loosest and densest states at which it can be
placed by the laboratory procedures described in this method.”
It is expressed as the ratio of:
➢ The difference between the void ratio of a cohesion less soil in the loosest state and any
given void ratio, to
➢ The difference between its void ratios in the loosest and densest states.
Mathematically
𝑒 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝑒(𝑓)
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑒 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝑒 (𝑚𝑖𝑛)
119 | P a g e
For very dense gravelly sand, it is possible to obtain relative density greater the one. This means
that such natural dense packing could not be obtained in the laboratory.
Procedure:
➢ Fill the mold with the soil (approximately 0.5 inch to 1 inch above the top of the mold) as
loosely as possible by pouring the soil using a scoop or pouring device (funnel). Spiraling
motion should be just sufficient to minimize particle segregation.
➢ Trim off the excess soil level with the top by carefully trimming the soil surface with a
straightedge.
➢ Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil. Then empty the mold (M1).
➢ Again fill the mold with soil (do not use the same soil used in step 1) and level the surface of
the soil by using a scoop or pouring device (funnel) in order to minimize the soil segregation.
The sides of the mold may be struck a few times using a metal bar or rubber hammer to settle
the soil so that the surcharge base-plate can be easily placed into position and there is no surge
of air from the mold when vibration is initiated.
➢ Place the surcharge base plate on the surface of the soil and twist it slightly several times so
that it is placed firmly and uniformly in contact with the surface of the soil. Remove the
surcharge base-plate handle.
➢ Attach the mold to the vibrating table.
➢ Determine the initial dial reading by inserting the dial indicator gauge holder in each of the
guide brackets with the dial gauge stem in contact with the rim of the mold (at its center) on
the both sides of the guide brackets. Obtain six sets of dial indicator readings, three on each
side of each guide bracket. The average of these twelve readings is the initial dial gage reading.
➢ Firmly attach the guide sleeve to the mold and lower the appropriate surcharge weight onto the
surcharge base-plate.
➢ Vibrate the mold assembly and soil specimen for 8 min.
➢ Determine and record the dial indicator gage readings. The average of these readings is the
final dial gage reading.
➢ Remove the surcharge base-plate from the mold and detach the mold from the vibrating table.
➢ Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil.
➢ Empty the mold and determine the weight of the mold.
➢ Determine and record the dimensions of the mold (i.e., diameter and height) in order to
calculate the calibrated volume of the mold. Also, determine the thickness of the surcharge
base-plate.
Diameter of mould =15.3 cm Least count vernier caliper= 0.01 mm
120 | P a g e
Height of mould =15.75 cm Assumed Gs = 2.67

Thickness of plate = H2 =1.38 cm
Vol. of mould = 28.95.5 cc
Sampl Ini Fin Chang Differe H’= Vol. Vol. Wt Min Max Ma Mi
e no tial al e H1 nce H- V1 V2 of Ind. Inde x n
D/ D/ =(col3 ∆H= ∆H samp Dens x voi voi
R R - H 1 + H2 le ity dens d d
col2)* ¥d min ity ¥ rati rati
0.1 Ws d max o o
emax emin
units (cm) (cm) (cc) (cc) (cc) (g) g/cc g/cc
1 0 11. 1.11 2.492 13.28 2895.6 2441.5 3928 1.35 1.60 0.96 0.6
1 5
2 0 4.4 0.44 1.823 13.41 2895.6 2465.4 4018 1.38 1.62 0.92 0.6
3
Result:
The average of γd max is 1.61 g/cc

The average of γd min is 1.365 g/cc
The average of emax is 0.94
The average of emin is 0.64
Comments:
emax is that void ration corresponding to the loosest state of the soil. It can clearly be seen from
the above calculations that the value of void ratio is decreasing with the increase of the dry unit
weight of the given soil sample. It is necessary to make repeated determination and to average
them for the accurate results
121 | P a g e
Experiment No: 16
16 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by Direct Shear test
Objective:
To determine the shearing strength of the soil using the direct shear apparatus.
Significance:
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges, pipes,
sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil involved are
required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters quickly. The
laboratory report cover the laboratory procedures for determining these values for cohesion less
soils.
Apparatus
➢ Direct shear box apparatus

➢ Loading frame (motor attached).
➢ Dial gauge.
➢ Proving ring.
➢ Weight hanger
➢ Set of weights
➢ Spatula
122 | P a g e
Related Theory:
16.4.1 Shear strength
Shear strength of a soil can be defined as

“It is maximum resistance to the deformation along any plane in the soil mass”
Briefly explanation is as under
Shear strength is a term used in soil mechanics to describe the magnitude of the shear stress that
a soil can sustain. The shear resistance of soil is a result of friction and interlocking of particles,
and possibly cementation or bonding at particle contacts. Due to interlocking, particulate
material may expand or contract in volume as it is subject to shear strains.
If soil expands its volume, the density of particles will decrease and the strength will decrease; in
this case, the peak strength would be followed by a reduction of shear stress. The stress-strain
123 | P a g e
relationship levels off when the material stops expanding or contracting, and when interparticle
bonds are broken. The theoretical state at which the shear stress and density remain constant
while the shear strain increases may be called the critical state, steady state, or residual strength
16.4.2 Factors affecting shear strength
The angle of internal friction of cohesion less soils is affected by the following factors:
➢ Mineralogy:
Soil contains many different minerals. Some of the minerals slide more easily than others.
As for example, sands having pure quartz has φ value of 30-36°. Sands having significant
quantities of mica have a smaller φ value. Clay minerals like montmorillonite have 6 value
of 4°.
Organic materials:
Presence of organic materials in soil reduces the value.
➢ Shape:
Soils having angular particles have higher (t)-value than those having rounded particles.
Gradation:
The interlocking between the particles are more in well graded soils than that of poorly
grade soil and hence well graded soils have more φ value.
Void ratio:
Void ratio is perhaps the most important factor influencing the shear strength. Soils
having lower void ratio have higher value of φ
124 | P a g e
16.4.3 Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion

The shear strength, s, of a soil, in terms of effective stress, is
τ = c + σ tan ϕ
Where
σ= Normal stress on plane of shearing
c = cohesion
ϕ = angle of friction
Above Equation is referred to as the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria
Value of c for sands and normally consolidated clays is equal to zero.

For over consolidated clays, c > 0.
For most day-to-day work, the shear strength parameters of a soil (that is, c and ϕ) are
determined by two standard laboratory tests. They are
➢ The direct shear test
➢ The tri axial test
125 | P a g e
16.4.4 Direct Shear Test
Dry sand can be conveniently tested by direct shear tests. The sand is placed in a shear box that
is split into two halves. A normal load is first applied to the specimen. Then a shear force is
applied to the top half of the shear box to cause failure in the sand
Soil
S
Foundation material
Procedure:
➢ Check the inner dimension of the soil container.

➢ Put the parts of the soil container together.
➢ Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.
➢ Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 20 mm thick).
➢ Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of the soil. Calculate the
density of the soil.
➢ Make the surface of the soil plane.
➢ Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.
➢ Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
➢ Record the weight of the hanger.
➢ Apply the desired normal load.
➢ .Remove the shear pin.
➢ Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
➢ Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
126 | P a g e
➢ Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is no connection between two
parts except sand/soil.
➢ Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
➢ Take volume change readings till failure.
➢ .Add 10lb normal load and continue the experiment till failure
➢ Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the experiment for
next load.
Observation and Calculation
Oven dry Weight of sample =115g Dry unit weight =1.6g/cc

Shear box length = 6cm m.c. ≈ 0 %
Shear box breath = 6cm
Sample depth = 2cm
Ring factor = 0.82 lb/div
L.C. of Deflection dial gauge = 0.01 mm
Weight of hanger =8.9 lb
Weight placed on hangers =10lb
Specimen Maximum Corresponding

Shear Normal Stress
Stress
(lb/in2) (lb/in2)
1 1.94 3.44
2 2.69 5.27
3 4.05 7.11
127 | P a g e
Speci. Normal Normal Horizontal Horizontal Corrected area Load Shear Shear
# Force Stress D/R displacement Ring Force Stress
N D/R
H=COL4*0.001 A=A”- COL8*0.82

H*b
lb (lb/in2) (cm) Cm2 In2 (lb) (lb/in2)
1 18.9 3.39 0 0 36 5.58 0 0 0.00
18.9 3.40 20 0.02 35.88 5.56 10 8.2 1.47
18.9 3.41 40 0.04 35.76 5.54 12 9.84 1.78
18.9 3.42 60 0.06 35.64 5.52 13 10.66 1.93
18.9 3.43 80 0.08 35.52 5.51 13 10.66 1.94
18.9 3.44 100 0.1 35.4 5.49 13 10.66 1.94
2 28.9 3.39 0 0 36 5.58 0 0 0.00
28.9 5.20 20 0.02 35.88 5.56 11 9.02 1.62
28.9 5.21 40 0.04 35.76 5.54 14 11.48 2.07
28.9 5.23 60 0.06 35.64 5.52 17 13.94 2.52
28.9 5.25 80 0.08 35.52 5.51 18 14.76 2.68
28.9 5.27 100 0.1 35.4 5.49 18 14.76 2.69
3 38.9 5.18 0 0 36 5.58 0 0 0.00
38.9 6.99 20 0.02 35.88 5.56 17 13.94 2.51
38.9 7.02 40 0.04 35.76 5.54 22 18.04 3.25
38.9 7.04 60 0.06 35.64 5.52 24 19.68 3.56
38.9 7.07 80 0.08 35.52 5.51 26 21.32 3.87
38.9 7.09 100 0.1 35.4 5.49 27 22.14 4.03
38.9 7.11 120 0.12 35.28 5.47 27 22.14 4.05
128 | P a g e
Graphs
16.8.1 Mohr Failure Envelope from Direct Shear Test
Mohr Failure Envelope from Direct Shear Test

4.5
4.05
4 τ=4.05psi,σn=7.11psi
3.5
3 2.69
Shear stress (psi)
2.5 τ=1.94psi,σn=3.44psi
1.94
Equation of line
2 τ=2.69psi,σn=5.27psi
τ = 0.5506σn
1.5
0.5
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-0.5 Normal stress (psi)
129 | P a g e
16.8.2 Stress Strain Curve
Results:
For the given soil sample

y = mx + c
Here we have
τ = 0.5506σn
Where
τ: shear strength of the specimen φ
σn: Normal stress of the soil =
2
8
130 | P a g e .
8
º
m:slope of the failure envelope

c : Cohesion of the soil
φ =tan-1(0.5506)
φ :angle of friction
φ =28.8º
Precautions:
➢ Carefully remove the clamping screws from the shear box

➢ Dimensions should be measured very carefully.
➢ It should be confirmed the dial reading is set initially at zero.
➢ All the three specimens of the sand should be having same density
Comments:
In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest plane but along a predetermined
or induced failure plane i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves of the shear box. This is the
main drawback of this test. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of
compaction, coarseness of grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading. The
friction between sand particles is due to sliding and rolling friction and interlocking action.
131 | P a g e
Experiment No: 17
17 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by Triaxial Compression Test
Objective:
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the shear strength. This can be achieved by
finding first ᶲ and c values. For partial saturated condition use saturated porous materials and for
complete saturation allow water to enter. The test will be completed on three unsaturated soil
samples. The test results will be analyzed to determine the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope,
failure angle, and shearing resistance.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2850- Standard Test Method for shear Strength of Cohesive Soil.
Significance:
Triaxial compression test is the most complex but accurate shear test.in this test a cylindrical soil
sample of height to diameter ratio 2 to 3 is loaded in all three dimensions, although the analysis
is reduced to two dimensions as result of lateral stresses (cell pressure,ơ3) being equal in all
directions.
Apparatus
➢ Triaxial cell apparatus

➢ Remolding device
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➢ Proving ring
➢ Deformation dial gauge
Related Theory:
133 | P a g e
➢ Mineralogy:
of 4°.
Organic materials:
➢ Shape:
Gradation:
134 | P a g e
Void ratio:
.

τ = c + σ tan ϕ
Where
c = cohesion
135 | P a g e

17.5.4 Types of triaxial test
➢ Unconsolidated undrained test (U-U test)

➢ consolidated undrained test (C-U test)
➢ consolidated drained test (C-D test)
17.5.5 Principle of U-U test
This method can be used for determining the undrained shear strength of cohesive soil when it
is subjected to a constant confining pressure and to strain controlled axial loading, when no
change in total moisture content is allow.
A cylindrical soil specimen is subjected to three compressive stresses in mutually
perpendicular directions and one of these three stresses being increased until specimen fails in
shear. Initially, a confining pressure (σ3) is applied through water around the specimen in an
impermeable membrane. The vertical stress becomes major principal stress (σ1) while the
confining pressure σ3 acts in other two principal directions. The intermediate principal and
minor principal stresses are equal to each other. Deviator stress (σd) is the difference of σ1 and
σ3, acts on specimen while its shear deformation.
Tests on several similar specimen with varying confining pressures may be conducted to
determine the shear strength parameters. Figure below shows the total and effective stress
Mohr’s circles at failure obtained from consolidated –undrained triaxial test in sand and normal
consolidated clay. Noted that A and B are two total stress Mohr’s circles obtained from two
test. C and D are the effective stress Mohr’s circles corresponding to total stress circles A and
B, respectively. The diameters of circles A and C are the same, similarly, the diameter of circles
B and D are the same
.
136 | P a g e
Procedure:
➢ Check the inner dimension of the soil container.

➢ Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that the ratio (L/d)
is approximately between 2 and 3.
➢ Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen.
➢ Measure the exact length of the specimen.
➢ Weigh the sample and record the mass.
➢ Where L0 = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).
➢ Careful enclosed the soil sample in a rubber membrane and generally has porous platens on
each end, is placed in the water tight Perspex cell
➢ Water is pumped into the cell and its pressure is raised ơ3 (cell pressure) which acts in all
directions.
➢ A vertical load is then applied and recorded using proving ring, until shear failure occurs.
➢ Since pressure ơ3 was acting all around sample, and additional vertical stress (ơ1-ơ3) will
cause the failure of the sample and as such this additional stress is known as deviator stress.
➢ Vertical displacement of a sample can be record using strain gauges or dial gauges.
➢ Keep applying the load until any one condition of the following is achieved:
➢ The load (load dial) decreases on the specimen significantly,.
➢ The load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings,
➢ The deformation is significantly past the 15% strain that was determined in step 5 11) Remove
the sample from the triaxial cell apparatus.
➢ 12) Teat is carried out at different sell pressures and results plotted as Mohr`s circles .The
tangent drawn to the circles gives the values of c &ᶲ.
137 | P a g e
➢ γb = 120 lb/ ft3

➢ M.C. ≈ 10 % Area = 1.767 inches
➢ Sample diameter = 1.5 in. Volume = 5.3 in3
➢ Sample Height = 3 in.
➢ Ring factor = 9.03 N/div Weight for dry sample = 160 g
➢ L.C. of Deflection dial gauge = 0.01 mm
Table of observations and calculations
Sam Mino Defor Loa Samp Unit Area Correc Total Stress %stra Major
ple r matio d le strain C.F. ted Load in principle
princi n Defor Area on stress
ple matio sampl
stress n e
σ3 D/R D/R L.C. ϵ 1-ϵ A=(Ao COL Δσ % σ1
* =(ΔL/ /(1-ϵ) 3*
COL. L) L.C.
2
N/m2 mm mm2 N Kpa N/m2
1 3000 0 0 0 0.000 1.000 1140.1 0.0 0.0 0.00 30000.00
0
3000 20 11 0.2 0.003 0.997 1143.1 99.3 86.9 0.26 116895.2
0 6
3000 40 25 0.4 0.005 0.995 1146.1 225.8 197.0 0.52 226969.5
0 3
3000 60 31. 0.6 0.008 0.992 1149.1 284.4 247.5 0.79 277526.7
0 5 7
3000 80 38 0.8 0.010 0.990 1152.2 343.1 297.8 1.05 327813.7
0 7
3000 100 42 1 0.013 0.987 1155.3 379.3 328.3 1.31 358289.4
0 8
3000 120 45 1.2 0.016 0.984 1158.3 406.4 350.8 1.57 380803.2
0 5
3000 140 48 1.4 0.018 0.982 1161.4 433.4 373.2 1.84 403192.2
0 9
3000 160 49. 1.6 0.021 0.979 1164.6 447.0 383.8 2.10 413825.5
0 5 3
138 | P a g e
3000 180 50 1.8 0.024 0.976 1167.7 451.5 386.7 2.36 416663.1
0 4
3000 200 50 2 0.026 0.974 1170.8 451.5 385.6 2.62 415623.7
0 2
3000 220 50. 2.2 0.029 0.971 1174.0 456.0 388.4 2.89 418430.1
0 5 5
3000 240 50 2.4 0.031 0.969 1177.2 451.5 383.5 3.15 413544.8
0 9
3000 260 50 2.6 0.034 0.966 1180.4 451.5 382.5 3.41 412505.4
0 7
3000 280 49. 2.8 0.037 0.963 1183.6 447.0 377.7 3.67 407651.3
0 5 9
3000 300 49 3 0.039 0.961 1186.8 442.5 372.8 3.94 402818.1
0 0
2 6000 0 0 0 0.000 1.000 1140.1 0.0 0.0 0.00 60000.00
0
6000 20 13 0.2 0.003 0.997 1143.1 117.4 102.7 0.26 162694.4
0 0
6000 40 26 0.4 0.005 0.995 1146.1 234.8 204.8 0.52 264848.3
0 1
6000 60 40 0.6 0.008 0.992 1149.1 361.2 314.3 0.79 374319.7
0 1
6000 80 43 0.8 0.010 0.990 1152.2 388.3 337.0 1.05 396999.7
0 9
6000 100 50 1 0.013 0.987 1155.3 451.5 390.8 1.31 450820.8
0 1
6000 120 55 1.2 0.016 0.984 1158.3 496.7 428.8 1.57 488759.5
0 3
6000 140 59 1.4 0.018 0.982 1161.4 532.8 458.7 1.84 518715.5
0 3
6000 160 61 1.6 0.021 0.979 1164.6 550.8 473.0 2.10 532997.1
0 2
6000 180 63 1.8 0.024 0.976 1167.7 568.9 487.2 2.36 547195.5
0 6
6000 200 64 2 0.026 0.974 1170.8 577.9 493.6 2.62 553598.3
0 7
6000 220 64. 2.2 0.029 0.971 1174.0 582.4 496.1 2.89 556113.7
0 5 5
6000 240 65 2.4 0.031 0.969 1177.2 587.0 498.6 3.15 558608.3
0 6
6000 260 65 2.6 0.034 0.966 1180.4 587.0 497.3 3.41 557257.1
0 1
6000 280 64. 2.8 0.037 0.963 1183.6 582.4 492.1 3.67 552091.2
0 5 1
6000 300 64 3 0.039 0.961 1186.8 577.9 486.9 3.94 546946.1
0 0
139 | P a g e
6000 320 63. 3.2 0.042 0.958 1190.1 573.4 481.8 4.20 541821.7
0 5 7
3 9000 0 0 0 0.000 1.000 1140.1 0.0 0.0 0.00 90000.00
0
9000 20 15 0.2 0.003 0.997 1143.1 135.5 118.5 0.26 208493.5
0 4
9000 40 30 0.4 0.005 0.995 1146.1 270.9 236.4 0.52 326363.4
0 4
9000 60 37 0.6 0.008 0.992 1149.1 334.1 290.7 0.79 380745.7
0 4
9000 80 48 0.8 0.010 0.990 1152.2 433.4 376.2 1.05 466185.8
0 2
9000 100 54 1 0.013 0.987 1155.3 487.6 422.1 1.31 512086.4
0 7
9000 120 58 1.2 0.016 0.984 1158.3 523.7 452.1 1.57 542146.4
0 1
9000 140 62 1.4 0.018 0.982 1161.4 559.9 482.0 1.84 572040.0
0 5
9000 160 66 1.6 0.021 0.979 1164.6 596.0 511.8 2.10 601767.3
0 8
9000 180 69 1.8 0.024 0.976 1167.7 623.1 533.6 2.36 623595.1
0 3
9000 200 71 2 0.026 0.974 1170.8 641.1 547.6 2.62 637585.6
0 9
9000 220 73 2.2 0.029 0.971 1174.0 659.2 561.5 2.89 651493.0
0 9
9000 240 75 2.4 0.031 0.969 1177.2 677.3 575.3 3.15 665317.3
0 3
9000 260 78 2.6 0.034 0.966 1180.4 704.3 596.7 3.41 686708.5
0 4
9000 280 80 2.8 0.037 0.963 1183.6 722.4 610.3 3.67 700345.6
0 9
9000 300 82 3 0.039 0.961 1186.8 740.5 623.9 3.94 713899.6
0 9
9000 320 83 3.2 0.042 0.958 1190.1 749.5 629.8 4.20 719782.7
0 9
9000 340 83. 3.4 0.045 0.955 1193.3 754.0 631.8 4.46 721840.8
0 5 3
9000 360 84 3.6 0.047 0.953 1196.6 758.5 633.9 4.72 723878.0
0 9
9000 380 84. 3.8 0.050 0.950 1199.9 763.0 635.9 4.99 725894.5
0 5 6
9000 400 85 4 0.052 0.948 1203.3 767.6 637.9 5.25 727890.2
0 4
9000 420 85. 4.2 0.055 0.945 1206.6 772.1 639.9 5.51 729865.1
0 5 3
140 | P a g e
9000 440 86 4.4 0.058 0.942 1210.0 776.6 641.8 5.77 731819.2
0 4
9000 460 86 4.6 0.060 0.940 1213.3 776.6 640.0 6.04 730031.4
0 4
9000 460 85. 4.6 0.060 0.940 1213.3 772.1 636.3 6.04 726310.3
0 5 3
9000 460 85 4.6 0.060 0.940 1213.3 767.6 632.6 6.04 722589.2
0 1
Moisture content
Group Group#1 Group#2 Group#3

Container number 63 38 5 56 23 93
weight of (g) 15.4 13.3 15.7 14.9 13.8 16.4
can
weight of (g) 26.7 27.4 28.9 24.5 19.9 23.1

wet soil
+can
weight of (g) 25.7 26.1 27.6 23.5 19.3 22.4

dry soil
+can
M.C. (%) 10.4 10.8 10.7 11.5 11.4 11.4
141 | P a g e
Graphs
Stress Strain curve

700.0
600.0
Deviator stress (kpa)
500.0
400.0
σ3 =30 kpa
300.0
σ3 =60 kpa
200.0 σ3 =90 kpa
100.0
0.0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
Percentage strain (%)
Where
Δσ = 641 kpa
Group#1 Δσ = 388 kpa , σ1 = 30 kpa
Group#2 Δσ = 500 kpa , σ1 = 60 kpa For σ3 = 90
Δσ = 500 kpa kpa
For σ3 = 60
kpa
Δσ = 388 kpa For σ3 = 30

kpa
142 | P a g e
Group#3 Δσ = 641 kpa , σ1 = 90 kpa
400.0
MOHR CIRCLE
350.0 Shear Strength (kpa) y = 0.9429x + 56
300.0
250.0
200.0
σ3 =30 kpa
150.0
σ3 =60 kpa
100.0 σ3 =90 kpa
φ =43.31
50.0 o
Normal Stress (kpa)
0.0
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
-50.0
Δσ=388kpa (For
Group#1)
Δσ=500kpa (For Δσ=641kpa (For
Group#2) Group#3)
Results:
For the given soil sample

y = mx + c
Here we have
τ = 0.9429σn + 56
Where
τ: shear strength of the specimen
σn: Normal stress of the soil

m:slope of the failure envelope
c : Cohesion of the soil
143 | P a g e
φ =tan-1(0.9429) = 43.31 o
φ :angle of friction
c= 56 kN/m2
Precautions:
➢ Ensure that the moisture is uniformly mixed.

➢ Weigh balance must be zero set.
➢ Sample should be carefully trimmed.
➢ Care should be taken while increasing the pressure.
Comments:
In this test while plotting Mohr’s circle, Mohr’s failure envelope is not exactly tangent to second
circle which is for the deviator stress = 60 kpa. It is may be due to the personal error. Also from
the graph we observe that with the increase of the Normal, approximately, stress shear stress of
the soil is also increasing linearly.
144 | P a g e
Experiment No: 18
18 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by Unconfined Compression

test
Objective:
The purpose of this laboratory is to determine the unconfined compressive strength of a cohesive
soil sample. We will measure this with the unconfined compression test, which is an
unconsolidated undrained (UU or Q-type) test where the lateral confining pressure is equal to
zero (atmospheric pressure).
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2166 - Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil
Significance:
For soils, the undrained shear strength is necessary for the determination of the bearing capacity
of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength of clays is commonly determined from
an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength of a cohesive soil is equal to one-
half the unconfined compressive strength when the soil is under the (the angle of internal
friction) = 0 condition. The most critical condition for the soil usually occurs immediately after
construction, which represents undrained conditions, when the undrained shear strength is
basically equal to the cohesion (c). we have: c =qu/2
145 | P a g e
Apparatus
➢ Unconfined compression device (Strain controlled)

➢ Proving ring
Related Theory:
146 | P a g e
➢ Mineralogy:
of 4°.
Organic materials:
➢ Shape:
Gradation:
147 | P a g e
Void ratio:
.

τ = c + σ tan ϕ
Where
c = cohesion
148 | P a g e

18.5.4 Types of triaxial test
➢ Unconsolidated undrained test (U-U test)

➢ consolidated undrained test (C-U test)
➢ consolidated drained test (C-D test)
18.5.5 Brief Description about test:
The unconfined compression test is by far the most popular method of soil shear testing because it
is one of the fastest and cheapest methods of measuring shear strength. The method is used
primarily for saturated, cohesive soils recovered from thin-walled sampling tubes. The unconfined
compression test is inappropriate for dry sands or crumbly clays because the materials would fall
apart without some land of lateral confinement.
Preparation of the sample and performing test
To perform an unconfined compression test, the sample is extruded from the sampling tube. A
cylindrical sample of soil is trimmed such that the ends are reasonably smooth and the length-to-
diameter ratio is on the order of two. The soil sample is placed in a loading frame on a metal plate;
by turning a crank, the operator raises the level of the bottom plate. The top of the soil sample is
restrained by the top plate, which is attached to a calibrated proving ring. As the bottom plate is
raised, an axial load is applied to the sample. The operator turns the crank at a specified rate so
that there is constant strain rate. The load is gradually increased to shear the sample, and readings
are taken periodically of the force applied to the sample and the resulting deformation. The loading
is continued until the soil develops an obvious shearing plane or the deformations become
excessive. The measured data are used to determine the strength of the soil specimen and the stress-
strain characteristics. Finally, the sample is oven dried to determine its water content. The
maximum load per unit area is defined as the unconfined compressive strength, qu. In the
unconfined compression test, we assume that no pore water is lost from the sample during set-up
or during the shearing process. A saturated sample will thus remain saturated during the test with
no change in the sample volume, water content, or void ratio. More significantly, the sample is
149 | P a g e
held together by an effective confining stress that results from negative pore water pressures
(generated by menisci forming between particles on the sample surface). Pore pressures are not
measured in an unconfined compression test; consequently, the effective stress is unknown. Hence,
the undrained shear strength measured in an unconfined test is expressed in terms of the total stress.
Procedure:
➢ Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that the ratio
(L/d) is approximately between 2 and 3.
➢ Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen.
➢ Measure the exact length of the specimen.
➢ Weigh the sample and record the mass. (Where L0 = Original specimen length.)
➢ Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the bottom plate.
Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the specimen and set the
load and deformation dials to zero.
➢ Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain and then record the load and
deformation dial readings on the data sheet at every 20 to 50 divisions on deformation the
dial.
➢ Keep applying the load until
a) The load (load dial) decreases on the specimen significantly
b) The load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings.
➢ Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
➢ Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for water content
determination.
➢ Plot graph between stress and strain for the soil sample tested
γb = 120 lb/ ft3

M.C. ≈ 10 %
Sample diameter = 1.5 in.
Sample Height = 3in.
L.C. of Deflection dial gauge = 0.0005 inch

Dry unit Weight = 109 lb/ft3
150 | P a g e
Area of sample = 1.767 inches

Volume of sample = 5.3 in3
Weight for sample = 151.7 g
Table of Observations and calculations
Sampl Load Deformatio Sample Unit Area C. Total stre %

e n Deformatio Strain C.F. Area Load ss strain
n
D/R (D/R) col 3 * L.C. ϵ in2 col2 * Psi
Inches L.C.
lb
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.000
6 20 0.01 0.0033 0.9967 1.7729 4.92 2.7 0.333
8
9.5 40 0.02 0.0067 0.9933 1.7789 7.79 4.3 0.667
8
15.5 60 0.03 0.0100 0.9900 1.7848 12.71 7.1 1.000
2
23 80 0.04 0.0133 0.9867 1.7909 18.86 10. 1.333
5
33 100 0.05 0.0167 0.9833 1.7969 27.06 15. 1.667
1
44 120 0.06 0.0200 0.9800 1.8031 36.08 20. 2.000
0
52 140 0.07 0.0233 0.9767 1.8092 42.64 23. 2.333
6
54 160 0.08 0.0267 0.9733 1.8154 44.28 24. 2.667
4
52 180 0.09 0.0300 0.9700 1.8216 42.64 23. 3.000
4
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.000
6 10 0.005 0.0017 0.9983 1.7699 4.92 2.7 0.167
8
9.5 20 0.01 0.0033 0.9967 1.7729 7.79 4.3 0.333
9
25 40 0.02 0.0067 0.9933 1.7789 20.5 11. 0.667
5
40 60 0.03 0.0100 0.9900 1.7848 32.8 18. 1.000
4
151 | P a g e
50 80 0.04 0.0133 0.9867 1.7909 41 22. 1.333

9
57 100 0.05 0.0167 0.9833 1.7969 46.74 26. 1.667
0
60 120 0.06 0.0200 0.9800 1.8031 49.2 27. 2.000
3
58 130 0.065 0.0217 0.9783 1.8061 47.56 26. 2.167
3
58 140 0.07 0.0233 0.9767 1.8092 47.56 26. 2.333
3
Moisture Content
Group#1 Group#2
Container number 30 21 Container number 75 54
weight of (g) 15.1 16.0 weight of (g) 15.2 13.3
can can
wet soil wet soil
+can +can
dry soil dry soil
+can +can
M.C. (%) 11.0 14.4 M.C. (%) 11.5 9.1
152 | P a g e
Graphs
Stress Strain Curve
30 qu=27.5 psi
qu =
24.5psi
25
Axial Stress (lb/in2)
20
15
Group 2 Group 1
10
0
-0.500 0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500
Axial Strain (%)
Taking average of both the undrained compressive strength = 26 psi

qu
τ= 2
Hence qu is untrained compressive strength
Where
26
τ= 2
τ = 13 psi
153 | P a g e
Mohr Circle
Mohr Circle
14.000 Su = 13 psi = cu Φ=0
12.000
Shear Stress (psi)
10.000
8.000
6.000
4.000
2.000
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Normal Stress (psi)
Where
Su : Undrained shear strength of the soil

Φ : angle of the internal friction
Results:
Undrained shear strength of the soil: Su = 13 psi
Angle of the internal friction: Φ = 0
154 | P a g e
Precautions:
➢ Weigh balance must be zero set.

➢ Ensure that the moisture is uniformly mixed.
➢ Sample should be carefully trimmed.
Comments:
There are a number of sources of error in the unconfined compression test. One of the largest
sources is the use of an unrepresentative sample of soil. The soil may be unrepresentative because
it is not the same as, or perhaps even similar to the bulk of the soil found in the ground. The sample
can also be unrepresentative if it has been disturbed or changed from its original state. Another
source of error is that the soil is not confined during shear but will be confined in the field if the
soil is located at a depth of a few feet or more.
155 | P a g e
Experiment No: 19
19 To Perform the consolidation test on the given soil sample.
Objective:
This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally
confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the
measured data, the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted.
Standard Reference:
Significance:
The consolidation properties determined from the consolidation test are used to estimate the
magnitude and the rate of both primary and secondary consolidation settlement of a structure or
an earth fill. Estimates of this type are of key importance in the design of engineered structures
and the evaluation of their performance.
156 | P a g e
Apparatus:

➢ Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water reservoir, and load plate)
➢ Dial gauge (0.0001 inch = 1.0 on dial)
➢ Sample trimming device
➢ Glass plate
➢ Metal straight edge
➢ Clock, Moisture can
➢ Filter paper
157 | P a g e
Related Theory
19.5.1 Consolidation:
Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. According to Karlvon Terzaghi

“Consolidation is any process which involves a decrease in water content of saturated soil
without replacement of water by air."
In general it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of water under
long term static loads. It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to
pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume. When this occurs in a soil that is
saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil. The magnitude of consolidation can
be predicted by many different methods.
158 | P a g e
In the Classical Method, developed by Terzaghi, soils are tested with an odometer test to
determine their compression index. This can be used to predict the amount of consolidation.
When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining some of the
volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will consolidate
again along a recompression curve, defined by the recompression index. The soil which had its
load removed is considered to be over consolidated. This is the case for soils which have
previously had glaciers on them.
19.5.2 Over consolidation ratio or OCR
The over consolidation ratio or OCR is defined as the highest stress experienced divided by the
current stress. A soil which is currently experiencing its highest stress is said to be normally
consolidated and to have an OCR of one. A soil could be considered under consolidated
immediately after a new load is applied but before the excess pore water pressure has had time to
dissipate.
19.5.3 Primary consolidation
Primary consolidation is the settlement due to water being squeezed out of the soil caused by the
change in vertical stress being applied by a load. When all the water in the soil is squeezed out,
the primary consolidation has been achieved.
In reality, it would not be feasibility to wait for all the water to be squeezed out in clay. Usually
90% consolidation is taken as the end of the process. Primary consolidation in clay can take a
very long time, which is why for geotechnical engineering is usually the main concern for design
purposes.
19.5.4 Secondary consolidation
Secondary consolidation occurs during primary consolidation, but usually the practice is to
compute the secondary compression after the primary consolidation is complete. This
phenomenon is due to the fact that soil particles start to rearrange their orientation after the water
is removed into a more stable consolidated formation.
159 | P a g e
Secondary compression is the compression of soil that takes place after primary consolidation.
Even after the reduction of hydrostatic pressure some compression of soil takes place at slow
rate. This is known as secondary compression. Secondary compression is caused by creep,
viscous behavior of the clay-water system, compression of organic matter, and other processes.
In sand, settlement caused by secondary compression is negligible, but in peat, it is very
significant. Due to secondary compression some of the highly viscous water between the points
of contact is forced out.
19.5.5 Types of Consolidometer
There are commonly two methods used to perform the consolidation test, given as under
➢ Floating Ring Consolidometer
➢ Fixed Ring Consolidometer
19.5.5.1 Floating Ring Consolidometer
The Floating Ring Consolidometer is designed to eliminate the friction that occurs between the
soils specimens and ring in consolidation testing. The unit consists of a one-piece machined base,
porous stones, and specimen ring.
19.5.5.2 Fixed Ring Consolidometer
All Fixed Ring Consolidometer are manufactured from corrosion resistant materials and
incorporate an integral cutting ring for trimming specimens to size. The design also features an
integral water reservoir for specimen inundation. All Consolidometer are supplied complete with
upper and lower porous stones, pressure pad and specimen cutting ring.
160 | P a g e
Procedure:
➢ Weigh the empty consolidation ring together with glass plate.

➢ Measure the height (h) of the ring and it’s inside diameter (d).
➢ Extrude the soil sample from the sampler. Determine the initial moisture content and the
specific gravity of the soil.
➢ Cut approximately a three-inch long sample. Place the sample on the consolidation ring
and cut the sides of the sample to be approximately the same as the outside diameter of
the ring. Rotate the ring and pare off the excess soil by means of the cutting tool so that
the sample is reduced to the same inside diameter of the ring. It is important to keep the
cutting tool in the correct horizontal position during this process.
➢ As the trimming progresses, press the sample gently into the ring and continue until the
sample protrudes a short distance through the bottom of the ring. Be careful throughout
the trimming process to insure that there is no void space between the sample and the
ring.
➢ Turn the ring over carefully and remove the portion of the soil protruding above the ring.
Using the metal straight edge, cut the soil surface flush with the surface of the ring.
Remove the final portion with extreme care.
➢ Place the previously weighed Saran-covered glass plate on the freshly cut surface, turn
the ring over again, and carefully cut the other end in a similar manner.
➢ Weigh the specimen plus ring plus glass plate.
➢ Carefully remove the ring with specimen from the Saran-covered glass plate and peel the
Saran from the specimen surface. Center the porous stones that have been soaking, on
the top and bottom surfaces of the test specimen. Place the filter papers between porous
stones and soil specimen. Press very lightly to make sure that the stones adhere to the
sample. Lower the assembly carefully into the base of the water reservoir. Fill the water
reservoir with water until the specimen is completely covered and saturated.
➢ Being careful to prevent movement of the ring and porous stones, place the load plate
centrally on the upper porous stone and adjust the loading device.
➢ Adjust the dial gauge to a zero reading.
➢ With the toggle switch in the down (closed) position, set the pressure gauge dial (based
on calibration curve) to result in an applied pressure of 0.5 tsf (tons per square foot).
➢ Simultaneously, open the valve (by quickly lifting the toggle switch to the up (open)
position) and start the timing clock.
➢ Record the consolidation dial readings at the elapsed times.
➢ At the last elapsed time reading, record the final consolidation dial reading and time,
release the load, and quickly disassemble the consolidation device and remove the
specimen. Quickly but carefully blot the surfaces dry with paper toweling. (The
specimen will tend to absorb water after the load is released.)
➢ Place the specimen and ring on the Saran-covered glass plate and, once again, weigh
them together.
161 | P a g e
➢ Weigh an empty large moisture can and lid.

➢ Carefully remove the specimen from the consolidation ring, being sure not to lose too
much soil, and place the specimen in the previously weighed moisture can. Place the
moisture can containing the specimen in the oven and let it dry for 12 to 18 hours.
➢ Weigh the dry specimen in the moisture can.
Analysis:
➢ Calculate the initial water content and specific gravity of the soil.
➢ For each pressure increment, construct a semi log plot of the consolidation dial
readings versus the log time (in minutes). Determine D0, D50, D100, and the coefficient
of consolidation (CV) using Casagrande’s logarithm of time fitting method. Also
calculate the coefficient of secondary compression based on these plots.
➢ Calculate the void ratio at the end of primary consolidation for each pressure
increment .Plot log pressure versus void ratio. Based on this plot, calculate compression
index, recompression index and reconsolidation pressure (maximum past pressure).
Observations & Calculations
Wt. of the sample = 77.09 g

Wt. of ring = 58.8 g
Before test: Wt. of wet soil +Wt. of ring = 136.8 g
After test: Wt. of wet soil +Wt. of ring = 133.96 g
Wt. of container = 14.94g
Wt. of wet soil + Wt. of container = 63.18
Wt. of dry soil + Wt. of container = 55.42 g
Diameter of ring = 50 mm
Height of ring = 19 mm
Area of the ring = 196.29 mm2 = 0.00196 m2
Volume of ring = 37.30cc
Assumed Gs = 2.67
Moisture content = 19.16 %
eo = 0.54
162 | P a g e
γb = 20.26 KN/m3
γd = 17.01 KN/m3
γw = 9.81 KN/m3
Hs = 12.33 mm, Hv = 6.67 mm
Multiplication Factor for the apparatus (i.e. Lever arm) = 11
Loading Press Dial reading Cha Acc Heig Strain Void Cc av E=1/ mv
ure nge . ht of Rati mv
Cha samp o
nge le
Kg N kpa D/R *0.0 mm mm mm % e m2 / MN/ m2/M
1 MN m2 N
mm
0.0 0 0.0 1002 10.0 0.00 0.0 19.0 0.00 0.54
2 0
0.5 54 27.5 970 9.70 0.32 0.3 18.7 1.68 0.51
2 4
1.0 108 54.9 948 9.48 0.22 0.5 18.5 2.84 0.49 0.0 0.64 2.37 0.422
4 7 6 9
2.0 216 109.9 921 9.21 0.28 0.8 18.2 4.29 0.47 0.0 0.40 3.80 0.263
2 4 7 6
4.0 432 219.7 885 8.85 0.36 1.1 17.8 6.16 0.44 0.1 0.26 5.88 0.170
7 6 0 2
8.0 863 439.5 836 8.36 0.49 1.6 17.3 8.74 0.40 0.1 0.18 8.52 0.117
6 6 3 1
16. 1727 879.0 789 7.89 0.48 2.1 16.9 11.24 0.36 0.1 0.08 17.5 0.057
0 4 7 3 8 8
32. 3453 1758 735 7.35 0.53 2.6 16.3 14.05 0.32 0.1 0.04 31.2 0.032
0 7 4 4 9 2
8.0 863 439.5 746 7.46 -0.11 2.5 16.4 13.50 0.33
7 2
2.0 216 109.9 763 7.63 -0.18 2.3 16.6 12.58 0.34
9 7
0.5 54 27.5 775 7.75 -0.12 2.2 16.7 11.95 0.35
7 6
0.0 0 0.0 800 8.00 -0.25 2.0 17.0 10.63 0.37
2 7
163 | P a g e
Graphs
19.10.1 Void Ratio vs Pressure
19.10.2 Void Ratio vs Log P
164 | P a g e
Where
Cc: Compression index
av : Compressibility index
Cr : Recompression index or swelling index
Equation on the graph is in the form of y =mx + c
Here m: slope of the line
Results:
In this experiment
Analytically, taking average for all the values we have,.
av = .27 (Mpa)-1
Cc = .105
mv = .17 (Mpa)-1
We graphically we observe the following parameters,
Slope of the graph b/w e and P: av =0.13 (Mpa)-1
Slope of the graph b/w e and Log P: Cc = .105
mv = .09 (Mpa)-1
Precautions:
➢ While preparing the specimen, attempts has to be made to have the soil strata
orientated in the same direction in the consolidation apparatus.
➢ During trimming care should be taken in handling the soil specimen with least
pressure.
➢ Smaller increments of sequential loading have to be adopted for soft soils.
Comments:
Based on the experiment, that we have done, we have determined the consolidation
properties of the soil sample. When it occurs in the soil saturated with water then water
will be squeezed out. When large loads such as embankment are applied to the surface,
165 | P a g e
cohesive sub soils will be consolidate, such a settle over time, through combination of the
rearrangement of the individual particles and squeezing out of the water.
166 | P a g e
Experiment No: 20
20 To perform the standard penetration test
Objective:
This experiment is performed to obtain representative samples of the soil for the identification
purposes and other laboratory tests and to obtain the measure of the sample resistance of the soil
to penetration of the sampler.
Standard Reference:
Significance:
This test is performed to determine the bearing capacity of the soil, mostly where it is difficult to
recover the soil specimen by other means. This test can also be used for the soil samples below the
ground water table.
Apparatus:

Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water reservoir, and load plate)
➢ SPT sampler i.e. barrel sampler.
➢ Drive-weight assembly
➢ Drive-weight assembly (140 lb weight)
➢ SPT arrangement
➢ Unconfined compression device (Strain controlled)
167 | P a g e
➢ Proving ring
Related Theory
20.5.1 Standard Penetration Test
This method describes the standard penetration test using the split-barrel sampler to obtain the
resistance of soil to penetration (N-value), using a 63.5 kg hammer falling 76 cm, and to obtain
representative samples for identification and laboratory tests.
The method is applicable to all soil types. It is most often used in granular materials but also in
other materials when simple in-place bearing strengths are required. It is also used when samples
cannot easily be recovered by other means.
The main purpose of the test is to provide an indication of the relative density of granular deposits,
such as sands and gravels from which it is virtually impossible to obtain undisturbed samples.
168 | P a g e
20.5.2 Standard Penetration Number
It is defined as
“The penetration resistance of the soil and can be defined as No. of blows with a 140 lbs,
weight falling freely through a given standard distance of 30 in required to penetrate the assembly
to a depth of 12 in when properly seated on the ground”.
The sum of the number of blows required for the second and third 6 in. of penetration is termed
the "standard penetration resistance" or the "N-value"
We may terminate test if
➢ If no penetration for consecutive 10 blows

➢ If no of blows for any 6 inches are more than 10.
➢ If for 12 inches penetration is more than 100 blows.
169 | P a g e
20.5.3 Limitations to SSPT test
The Standard Penetration Test recovers a highly disturbed sample, which is generally not
suitable for tests which measure properties of the in-situ soil structure, such as density, strength,
and consolidation characteristics. To overcome this limitation, the test is often run with a larger
sampler with a slightly different tip shape, so the disturbance of the sample is minimized, and
testing of structural properties is meaningful for all but soft soils. Additionally, the method
cannot collect accurate data for weak soil layers for several reasons:
o The results are limited to whole numbers for a specific driving interval, but with very
low blow counts, the granularity of the results, and the possibility of a zero result, makes
handling the data cumbersome.
o In loose sands and very soft clays, the act of driving the sampler will significantly disturb
the soil, including by soil liquefaction of loose sands, giving results based on the
disturbed soil properties rather than the intact soil properties.
A variety of techniques have been proposed to compensate for the deficiencies of the standard
penetration test, including the Cone penetration test, in-situ vane shear tests, and shear
wave velocity measurements.
Samples Obtained
20.5.4 Undisturbed soil sample (UDS)
It is the soil sample that resembles the actual field conditions in composition.
20.5.5 Disturbed soil sample
It is the soil sample that doesn’t resemble the actual field conditions in composition. To check
whether the device gives sample as UDS or not, we use Area Ratio formula:
(Do2 )−(Di2 )
Ar = × 100
(Do2 )
Where
Do: outer diameter of the shoe
Di: inner diameter of the shoe.
Ar: is called as Area Ratio.
170 | P a g e
Also we have
Procedure:
➢ Attach the split-barrel sampler to the A-rod and lower into the hole until it is sitting on the
base material.
➢ Attach the drive weight assembly.
➢ Lift the 140 lbs hammer approximately 30 inches and allow it to fall on the anvil delivering
one seating blow.
➢ Mark the drill rod in 3 successive 30 inches increments to observe penetration.
➢ Mark the drive weight assembly to indicate a 30 inches hammer lift.
➢ Raise and drop the hammer 30 inches successively by means of the rope and cathead. The
hammer should be operated between 40 and 60 blows per minute and should drop freely.
Continue the driving until either 6 inches has been penetrated or 50 blows has been applied.
➢ Record the number of blows for each 6 inches of the penetration. The first 0.15 m
increment is the "seating" drive. The sum of the blows for second and third increment of
6 inches penetration is termed "penetration resistance or "N value".
➢ If the blow count exceeds 100 in total for 12 inches, terminate the test and record the
number of blows for the last 0.30 m of penetration as the N-value.
➢ If the sampler advances below the bottom of the hole under its own weight, note this
condition on the log.
171 | P a g e
➢ Bring the sampler to the surface and open it. Remove any obvious contamination from the
ends or sides and drain excess water. Carefully scrape or slice along one side to expose
fresh material and any stratification.
➢ Record the length, composition, color, stratification and condition of sample.
➢ Remove sample and wrap it or seal in a plastic bag to retain moisture. If the sample can be
removed relatively intact, wrap it in several layers of plastic to strengthen it and seal ends
with tape. Mark the sample "top" and "bottom" if applicable and label it with an
identification number.
No. of blows for first 6-in = 3 blow

No. of blows for second 6-in = 4 blow
No. of blows for third 6-in = 8 blow
SPT value = 12 blows
Length of sample = 14 in
Weight in SPT = 140 lbs.
We performed undrained shear strength on the soil sample that was recovered from the SPT
sampler and get the following results
γb = 2.04 g/cc
Sample diameter = 1.5 in.
Sample Height = 3in.
L.C. of Deflection dial gauge = 0.0005 inch
Dry unit Weight =
Area of sample = 1.767 inches
Volume of sample = 5.3 in3
= 86.85 cc
Weight for sample (Wet) = 178 g
172 | P a g e
Table of Observations & Calculations:
Sample Load Deformation Sample Unit Area C. Total stress %

Deformation Strain C.F. Area Load strain
D/R (D/R) col 3 * L.C. ϵ in2 col2 * psi %
Inches L.C.
lb
1 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.77 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.0 20.0 0.01 0.00 1.00 1.77 1.64 0.93 0.33
6.0 40.0 0.02 0.01 0.99 1.78 4.92 2.77 0.67
11.0 60.0 0.03 0.01 0.99 1.78 9.02 5.05 1.00
14.5 80.0 0.04 0.01 0.99 1.79 11.89 6.64 1.33
17.5 100.0 0.05 0.02 0.98 1.80 14.35 7.99 1.67
20.5 120.0 0.06 0.02 0.98 1.80 16.81 9.32 2.00
22.0 140.0 0.07 0.02 0.98 1.81 18.04 9.97 2.33
25.0 160.0 0.08 0.03 0.97 1.82 20.50 11.29 2.67
28.0 180.0 0.09 0.03 0.97 1.82 22.96 12.60 3.00
31.5 200.0 0.10 0.03 0.97 1.83 25.83 14.13 3.33
35.0 220.0 0.11 0.04 0.96 1.83 28.70 15.65 3.67
37.0 240.0 0.12 0.04 0.96 1.84 30.34 16.48 4.00
39.0 260.0 0.13 0.04 0.96 1.85 31.98 17.31 4.33
40.5 280.0 0.14 0.05 0.95 1.85 33.21 17.92 4.67
41.0 300.0 0.15 0.05 0.95 1.86 33.62 18.08 5.00
41.0 320.0 0.16 0.05 0.95 1.87 33.62 18.01 5.33
40.0 340.0 0.17 0.06 0.94 1.87 32.80 17.51 5.67
173 | P a g e
Graphs
We know that
qu
τ= 2
Where
qu: Undrained compressive strength
Su: Undrained shear strength

18
τ= 2
τ = 9 psi
174 | P a g e
20.9.2 Mohr Circle
Where
Su : Undrained shear strength of the soil
Φ : angle of the internal friction
Results:
From the graph we can clearly see the values of Cu for both the group
Su = Cu = 9psi
We know that
qun = CNc
For Nc = 5.7 or approximately 6
qun = 6C
for FS=3
qns = 2C = qu
175 | P a g e
Putting the value of C we have

qns = 2 x 9
qns = 18 psi
From the N value we can see from the table that
For an N value of 12 qu varies between 1tsf - 2tsf
i.e.
Varies between 6.94psi-13.89psi
So the soil is “stiff”
Precautions:
➢ Make it sure that Weight must be lifted up to the height of 30 inches approximately.
➢ Care should be taken while bringing out the sampler.
➢ Try to approximate the 6 inches corresponding to nearer whole number.
Comments:
This is an important test that is performed in order to recover the sample under the ground even up
to hundred meters below the ground surface. We can directly observe the different perimeters of
soil corresponding to different values of SPT N value. In this method there are chances of error
because we cannot penetrate the barrel sample exactly 6 inches in the ground instead we
approximate the 6 inches corresponding to the whole number. Also there are chances of error
because of the variable height of the allied weight. Since each time we cannot lift the weight
exactly 30 inches. Change in height causes the change in the applied force.
176 | P a g e
Experiment No: 21
21 Determination of soil stabilization using cement
Objective:
To study the effect of mixing various percentages of commercially available cement of

unconfined strength of a soil sample
Apparatus:
➢ Unconfined compression device

➢ Oven with M.C containers
➢ Dial gauge and proving ring
Related theory:
21.3.1 Ground improving techniques.
The geotechnical process of improving the required characteristics of the soil is known as ground
improving techniques.
177 | P a g e
21.3.2 Major uses of soil:
➢ Soil as a constructional material is used in the construction of earth structures such as

dams, levees, embankments, roads and dams.
➢ Soil as supporting material is used underneath the foundation of all civil engineering
structures
Due to these important uses of soil we need to improve its strength
Soil improvements methods:
➢ Mechanical stabilization
➢ Physical stabilization
➢ Chemical stabilization
➢ Physio-chemical stabilization
21.3.3 Cement Stabilization
This quit used in road construction to improve the stability of the sub grade. Any soil which can
be economically pulverized can be stabilized with cement. Heavy clays are difficult to stabilize
with cement
The best soil which can be stabilize well with cement are well graded sand gravel mixtures with
at least 10% of the material passing #200 sieve and uniformity coefficient of ≤5.
In this test we simply performed unconfined compression test
21.3.4 Unconfined Compression Strength
It is the load per unit area at which an unconfined, prismatic and cylindrical soil specimen fails in
a simple comp
178 | P a g e
21.3.5 Requirement for specimen:
Length to diameter ratio should be according to this specification

2 L/d 3
This ratio is used to avoid column failure of soil specimen.
21.3.6 Types of failure:
Following types of failure may occur in the soil

➢ Cylindrical column failure
➢ Short column failure
➢ Buckling failure
Procedure:
1. Prepare a sample of soil 115lb/ft3@ 10%, 13% and 16% moisture contents and 3%, 6%,
9% cement ratio.
2. Weight of sample is 160gm according to above specification.
3. Place this sample in unconfined compression test machine.
4. Apply the normal load and check the shear failure in sample.
5. Finely compute the shear strength values of different samples.
179 | P a g e
deflectio load dial normal

∆L(in ᵋ=(∆L/L)*10 correcte load(lb
group# n gauge ∆L/L stress(psi remarks
) 0 d area )
reading reading )
0 0 0 0 0 1.767 0 0
0.00 0.00 1.389869
10 3 0.16667 1.76995 2.46
5 2 8
0.00
20 6 0.01 0.33333 1.77291 4.92 2.775099
3
0.01 0.00 1.77587 5.079173
30 11 0.5 9.02
5 5 9 7
0.00 1.77885 6.453574
40 14 0.02 0.66667 11.48
7 9 8
cement
0.02 0.00 1.78184 7.823335
50 17 0.83333 13.94 is 3%
5 8 9 2
and
1.78484 9.647877
60 21 0.03 0.01 1 17.22 moistur
1 8 8
e
0.03 0.01 1.78785 11.92488 content
70 26 1.16667 21.32
5 2 8 2 s are
0.01 1.79087 14.19415 10%
80 31 0.04 1.33333 25.42
3 8 2
0.04 0.01 1.79390
90 37 1.5 30.34 16.91279
5 5 9
0.01 1.79694 19.16581
100 42 0.05 1.66667 34.44
7 9 8
0.05 0.01 21.86666
110 48 1.83333 1.8 39.36
5 8 7
1.80306 20.91997
120 46 0.06 0.02 2 37.72
1 7
0 0 0 0 0 1.767 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.926579
10 2 0.16667 1.76995 1.64
5 2 9
cement
0.00
20 4 0.01 0.33333 1.77291 3.28 1.850066 is 6%
3
and
0.01 0.00 1.77587 2.308715
30 5 0.5 4.1 moistur
2 5 5 9 3
e
0.00 1.77885
40 5.5 0.02 0.66667 4.51 2.535333 content
7 9 s are
0.02 0.00 1.78184 4.371863 13%
50 9.5 0.83333 7.79
5 8 9 8
1.78484 4.823938
60 10.5 0.03 0.01 1 8.61
8 9
180 | P a g e
0.03 0.01 1.78785 5.045142

70 11 1.16667 9.02
5 2 8 4
0.01 1.79087 6.410262
80 14 0.04 1.33333 11.48
3 8 2
0.04 0.01 1.79390 7.313638
90 16 1.5 13.12
5 5 9 9
0.01 1.79694 7.985757
100 17.5 0.05 1.66667 14.35
7 9 4
0.05 0.01 9.111111
110 20 1.83333 1.8 16.4
5 8 1
1.80306 10.00520
120 22 0.06 0.02 2 18.04
1 7
0.06 0.02 1.80613 11.12321
130 24.5 2.16667 20.09
5 2 3 3
0.02 1.80921 12.23735
140 27 0.07 2.33333 22.14
3 5 1
0.07 0.02 1.81230 13.12139
150 29 2.5 23.78
5 5 8 2
0.02 1.81541 13.77649
160 30.5 0.08 2.66667 25.01
7 1 5
0.08 0.02 1.81852
170 31.5 2.83333 25.83 14.20382
5 8 5
1.82164 14.40452
180 32 0.09 0.03 3 26.24
9 7
0 0 0 0 0 1.767 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.926579
10 2 0.16667 1.76995 1.64
5 2 9
0.00 1.387549
20 3 0.01 0.33333 1.77291 2.46
3 5
0.01 0.00 1.77587 2.308715
30 5 0.5 4.1
5 5 9 3
0.00 1.77885 3.226787
40 7 0.02 0.66667 5.74 cement
7 9 4
is 9%
0.02 0.00 1.78184 5.752452
50 12.5 0.83333 10.25 and
5 8 9 4
moistur
3 1.78484 6.661629
60 14.5 0.03 0.01 1 11.89 e
8 9
content
0.03 0.01 1.78785 s are
70 16 1.16667 13.12 7.338389
5 2 8 16%
0.01 1.79087 8.012827
80 17.5 0.04 1.33333 14.35
3 8 8
0.04 0.01 1.79390 8.684946
90 19 1.5 15.58
5 5 9 2
0.01 1.79694 17.01 9.468826
100 20.75 0.05 1.66667
7 9 5 6
0.05 0.01 10.02222
110 22 1.83333 1.8 18.04
5 8 2
181 | P a g e
1.80306 18.65 10.34629

120 22.75 0.06 0.02 2
1 5 3
0.06 0.02 1.80613 19.06 10.55570
130 23.25 2.16667
5 2 3 5 2
0.02 1.80921 19.47 10.76433
140 23.75 0.07 2.33333
3 5 5 7
Graphs
strain vs stress
25
20
normal stress(psi)
15
Series1
10 Series2
5 Series3
0
0 1 2 3 4
deflection(%)
Comments:
Normal Strength of Soil increase with increase in the cement content. The graph of stress vs
strain show that the percentage deflection is high for the sample which have low cement content
182 | P a g e
22 To Find the Shear Strength of Soil by CPT
183 | P a g e
184 | P a g e
23
185 | P a g e

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Geo-Technical Engineering Lab Manual

GEO TECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Salik Haroon Abbasi

Department of Civil Engineering University of Engineering and

5 To Carry Out Hydrometer Analysis of a Given Soil Sample ............................................... 41

7 To Perform Standard Compaction Test on the Given Soil Sample ...................................... 60

Table of Calculations .................................................................................................. 74

Standard Reference: .................................................................................................... 88

Related Theory.......................................................................................................... 104

15.5.2 Relative Density of Cohesion less Soils.............................................................. 119

17.5.2 Factors affecting shear strength .......................................................................... 134

Precautions: ........................................................................................................... 155

20.5.4 Undisturbed soil sample (UDS) .......................................................................... 170

To Determine the Moisture Content of the Given Soil Sample

➢ To find out moisture content in the given sample of the soil.

ASTM D2216-66 (ASTM STANDARD PART-II).

➢ Containers with lids

➢ Electric Oven ( accurate temperature control at 110±5 ºC)

Figure 1.1Containers with lids

Figure 1.2 Electric Oven

Figure 1.1 Weighing Balance

The theory related to this experiment is given is as under

1.5.1 Moisture Content

Moisture content in a soil can be defined as under:

We can represent the Moisture content in a soil sample mathematically as under

1.5.2 Representative quantity of Moist Soil:

Maximum size of the soil Recommended minimum Weighing balance accuracy

Observations for the group 1 are as under.

Weight of empty Container = W1 = 43.42 g

Table of Observation and Calculations

Depth (meters) 0.25 0.5 0.75

Moisture can number D-1 D-2 D-3

W1 = Mass of empty, clean can + lid (grams) 43.42 50.38 45.93

Moisture Content (%)

0.5 (19.6, 0.50)

Graph between Moisture content (%) and Depth (m)

2 To determine the moisture content of the given soil sample by

The apparatus being used in this experiment is given as follows:

➢ Speedy moisture meter (calcium carbide pressure moisture tester)

➢ Calcium carbide reagent

Figure 2:1 Apparatus

The theory related to this experiment is given is as under

2.4.1 Moisture Content

Moisture content in a soil can be defined as under:

2.4.2 Calcium carbide gas moisture tester:

Also from the Oven dry method

Container No. #10 #72 #2

During the performance we must keep aware of these things

3 To determine the specific gravity of the soil solids in a

Figure 3.1 Wash Bottle

Figure 3.2 Weighing Balance

Figure 3.3 Thermometer

The theory related to this experiment is as follow.

3.4.1 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity of a soil can be defined as under

Gs : Specifc gravity of the material

3.4.2 Determination of specific gravity in the LAB