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Hotel employees’ organizational behaviors from cross-national perspectives

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DOI: 10.1108/IJCHM-05-2016-0280

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 International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management
Hotel employees’ organizational behaviors from cross-national perspectives
MiRan Kim, Laee Choi, Bonnie J. Knutson, Carl P. Borchgrevink,
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MiRan Kim, Laee Choi, Bonnie J. Knutson, Carl P. Borchgrevink, (2017) "Hotel employees’
organizational behaviors from cross-national perspectives", International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 29 Issue: 12, pp.3082-3100, https://doi.org/10.1108/
IJCHM-05-2016-0280
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IJCHM
29,12 Hotel employees’ organizational
behaviors from cross-national
perspectives
3082 MiRan Kim
The School of Hospitality Business, Michigan State University,
Received 16 May 2016 East Lansing, Michigan, USA
Revised 28 August 2016
6 November 2016
1 February 2017
Laee Choi
Accepted 11 March 2017 Hasan School of Business, Colorado State University, Pueblo, Colorado, USA, and
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Bonnie J. Knutson and Carl P. Borchgrevink

The School of Hospitality Business, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Abstract
Purpose – This study aims to examine the relationships among leader–member exchange (LMX), employee
voice, team–member exchange (TMX), employee job satisfaction and employee commitment to customer
service (ECCS) across the USA and Chinese cultures within the hotel context.
Design/methodology/approach – An online survey was completed by hotel employees across the USA
(n = 315) and China (n = 363). The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling.
Findings – The findings of this study imply that the relationships among constructs between two nations
are very similar, with a few significant differences. Specifically, this study shows that there are significant
differences between the USA and China regarding the effects of LMX on employee voice, TMX, job
satisfaction and ECCS.
Research limitations/implications – The research should be extended with more than two national
cultures to increase the generalizability of the research findings. Primary implication is that leader in China,
and the USA should seek to build LMX quality to reap organizational benefits.
Practical implications – This study can help global hospitality firms develop management strategies
effectively.
Originality/value – The study’s findings provide researchers with a better understanding of the LMX
framework across USA and Chinese cultures. It also verifies the underlying relational effects among LMX and
its outcomes across different nations, thus offering global hospitality organizations best management
practices across cultures. Further, this study seeks to fill gaps in previous LMX and employee voice studies
by providing robust explanations of the cultural influences on LMX framework across nations.
Keywords LMX, Employee behavior, Job satisfaction, Employee voice, Cross-culture,
Hotel employee
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
International Journal of As a major force of globalization, the hospitality industry is expanding its operations in
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
international businesses. Given the rapid development of global business, cultural issues
Vol. 29 No. 12, 2017
pp. 3082-3100
increasingly challenge management. There has been a surge in interest in research on cross-
© Emerald Publishing Limited national and cross-cultural issues to provide more applicable management theories in a
0959-6119
DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-05-2016-0280 global context and best management practices from one country to another.
 Employees’ attitudes and behaviors relate to leadership style and national culture Hotel
(Hofstede, 1993; Magnini et al., 2013). Research suggests that the leader–member exchange employees’
(LMX) influences organizational behaviors, such as employee satisfaction, turnover
intention and organizational commitment (Liao et al., 2009). However, most LMX studies in
organizational
hospitality used a single-nation context and few studies explored how national cultures may behaviors
influence LMX (Magnini et al., 2013; Scandura and Pellegrini, 2008). Lok and Crawford
(2004) reported on a variety of organizational variables embedded in different national
cultures, some of which were obviated when controlling for culture and leadership style. 3083
Therefore, it is important to see whether the differences reported by Lok and Crawford
persist across nations and hospitality companies when considering LMX.
Research suggests that leadership plays a significant role in employee voice (Botero and
Van Dyne, 2009). Employee voice is particularly vital in the hospitality industry as an
employee deliver feedback received from consumers to the organization. However, very little
research has addressed LMX’s impact on employee voice within hospitality; this has given
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rise to a need for additional research that might shed light on the relationship (Barling et al.,
2010).
Therefore, this study examines the relationships among LMX, employee voice, team–
member exchange (TMX), job satisfaction and employee commitment to customer service
(ECCS). In particular, this study compares the relationships between US and Chinese hotel
employees. The US hotel business has been robust as one of the most leading and mature
markets, and recently, China’s hotel market has experienced dramatic growth, resulting in a
$44bn business with 2.5 million hotel rooms. Therefore, it is meaningful to have a better
understanding of how these two countries differ regarding hotel employees’ attitude and
behaviors in developing global business strategies.
This study can provide researchers with a better understanding of the LMX framework
by explaining similarities or differences in relationships across US and Chinese cultures.
The study also verifies the underlying relational effects among LMX and its outcomes
across different nations, offering global hospitality organizations implications regarding
best management practices. Further, this study seeks to fill gaps in previous LMX and
employee voice studies by providing better explanations of the cultural influences on LMX
framework. This study will be useful for hospitality managers applying its findings as they
develop their management strategies.

Review of literature
Cultural influences on organizational behavior: the USA and China
Employees in Eastern countries differ significantly in cultural characteristics from their
counterparts in Western countries (El-Kahal, 2001; Hofstede, 1980, 1993). For instance,
American employees are often characterized as valuing individual achievement, self-worth
and personal freedom. In contrast, individualistic societies value personal freedom,
independent decision-making and individual achievement (Hofstede, 1980).
Collectivistic societies like China value the betterment of society, cooperativeness, team
efforts and harmony and humility (Yau, 1988) because collectivistic societies stress
interdependence, in-group obligations, preserving the welfare of others and adherence to
societal norms (Gudykunst, 1998).
High power-distance societies like China emphasize authority, designated power and
social status, whereas low power-distance societies like the USA emphasize balanced rights,
democratic power, and little hierarchical structure (Hofstede, 1980). In high power-distance
societies, it is common to find respect for and obedience to elders or authority figures and
avoidance of upward face-to-face contact (Ji and McNeal, 2001).
 IJCHM In addition to the aspect of power distance and collectivism/individualism, leader–
29,12 employee relationships in China are unique because the relationships are largely
influenced by guanxi. Guanxi refers to the connection between two individuals based
on particular social ties, such as a former classmate, relative, the same natal origin,
school, company and workplace (Farh et al., 1998). It affects Chinese leaders’
classification of who is an insider or an outsider and how they treat that person. An
3084 employee with guanxi is considered an insider (zijiren), whereas a subordinate without
guanxi is considered an outsider (wairen) (Lam, 2003). Therefore, the employee with
guanxi is more likely to have more support and resources from a leader than an
employee without guanxi.
Despite the cultural differences between the USA and China, some studies have found
that China has experienced organizational cultural changes partly as a result of a large
influx of western practices and principles over the decades. (Yang and Yu, 2015; Zhang,
2015). However, there remains a paucity of evidence to prove the existence of such changes
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or evidence that compares the organizational behaviors between the two countries within
the hospitality industry. Therefore, a proposed model is developed based on the following
discussions.

Leader–member exchange, employee voice, team–member exchange and employee

satisfaction
LMX is defined as the dyadic relationship between leaders and immediate subordinates
based on competence, interpersonal skills and trust (Cashman et al.1976). LMX is also
defined as a system of components and their relationships within the leader-employee dyad,
which shares mutual outcome instrumentalities and produces conceptions of the
environment, cause maps and value (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995).
High-quality LMX is positively associated with a sense of belonging, trust, respect,
loyalty, honesty and supervisory support (Borchgrevink and Boster, 1994). In the hospitality
literature, numerous studies have emphasized the importance of LMX as it relates to
employees’ work motivation, job satisfaction and performance. For example, Chan and
Jepsen (2011), utilizing club data in Australia, found LMX had a significant effect on
employee job satisfaction. Ma and Qu (2011) found that LMX was regarded as an important
antecedent of TMX and CEEX. Li et al.’s (2012) study showed that high human resource
management consistency enhances the positive relationship between LMX and employee
job performance. Magnini et al. (2013), utilizing a cross-cultural setting, found that
hospitality employees in a collectivistic nation (Korea) tend to have stronger LMX than
those in an individualistic one (USA).
LMX is associated with employee voice, being enhanced by good superior-subordinate
relationships (Botero and Van Dyne 2009). When organizations acknowledge employee
voice, and suggestions, employees feel valued and satisfied with their job and are more
likely to internalize organizational goals (Patah et al., 2009). Employee voice is defined as
employees’ extra-role expression of constructive ideas, information and opinions (Van Dyne
et al., 2003). Openness to employee voice can increase an employee’s sense of duty toward
the organization (Varey and Lewis, 1999). Employees with positive leader–employee
relationships express voice more frequently and show motivation to making constructive
suggestions (Hsiung, 2012). Raub and Robert (2013) found high-quality LMX associated
with employee voice.
The LMX–employee voice association is particularly important in collectivistic cultures
with high power distance (Hofstede, 1993). Leaders in China are distinctly more
authoritarian and autocratic than their Western counterparts and resist sharing of
 information with employees and allowing them to participate in decision-making. Leaders in Hotel
Asian countries keep their emotional distance from subordinates (Liden, 2012), and people employees’
perceive autonomous decision-making as desirable and effective, and empowering leaders
are seen as less credible and respect-worthy than others (Carl et al., 2004). High power-
organizational
distance employees expect to make few autonomous decisions and to have little direct behaviors
impact on their work environment. Business leaders in individualistic cultures like the USA
typically encourage their employees to make their views known (De Mooij, 2004), and such
employees are more likely to desire decision-making powers than their counterparts in
3085
Eastern cultures (Magnini et al., 2013).
Individualistic cultures with low power distance, high-quality LMX and a friendly work
climate encourage employee voice (Aryee and Chen, 2006). Such employees are likely to feel
comfortable in making suggestions and taking active roles for change (Bhal and Ansari,
2007).
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Based on the discussion, the following hypotheses are suggested:

H1a. The relationship between LMX and employee voice will be positive for hotel
employees in both the USA and China.
H1b. The positive relationship between LMX and employee voice will be greater for
hotel employees in the USA than for those in China.
Encouraging employees to suggest improvements leads to higher job satisfaction (Holland
et al., 2011). Valuing employee opinions is associated with job satisfaction, commitment and
a heightened sense of accountability (Varey and Lewis, 1999). This can improve customer-
orientation, greater profits and product efficiencies (Patah et al., 2009).
Kim et al. (2015) found significant influences of employee voice and delight on job
satisfaction in the hospitality setting. Raub and Blunschi (2014) examined the impact of
employees’ awareness of corporate social responsibility activities on job satisfaction, voice
behavior, helping behavior, emotional exhaustion and personal initiative. Their study
demonstrated a positive employee voice–job satisfaction association.
By definition, collectivism is a societal concept that puts the group before the individual;
in other words, decisions should be based on the good of society rather than on the welfare
of individuals. In such a culture, employees would be expected to voice their opinions or
offer suggestions that have not been vetted or approved by the collective group. (Magnini
et al., 2013). It is just the opposite in cultures based on individualism or low-power distance
where people view themselves as unique and different from their fellow employees (Bochner,
1994), and in such ethos, they are usually encouraged to express their views and comfortable
using their employee voice. (De Mooij, 2004).
Therefore, in collectivistic and high power-distance cultures, engaging in voice behavior
may be more important and impactful than in individualistic and low power-distance
cultures in that employee empowerment, autonomy and belongingness may be enhanced
more. In a strong collectivist culture, encouragement to express voice may lead to greater
sense of belonging and recognition and the perception that their work is important to their
organization (Brown et al., 2005). Such perceptions should result in higher job satisfaction.
Therefore, the following hypotheses are suggested:
H2a. The relationship between employee voice and job satisfaction will be positive for
hotel employees in both the USA and China.
H2b. The positive relationship between employee voice and job satisfaction will be
greater for hotel employees in China than for hotel employees in the USA.
 IJCHM In-group interdependency and reciprocity are defined as TMX (Seers, 1989). The essence of
29,12 TMX is a team member’s willingness to assist other members and share ideas and feedback
with them and that such behaviors are reciprocated (Seers et al.1995).
Previous studies support an association between LMX and TMX. Kamdar and Van Dyne
(2007) showed positive relationships between LMX and TMX and coworker citizenship
behavior, suggesting LMX plays a role in strengthening employee relationships and
3086 enhancing team performance. Lam (2003) reported positive associations between LMX and
new employees’ socialization outcomes, moderated by TMX. Ma and Qu (2011) report LMX
as positively correlated with TMX and citizenship behavior toward coworkers. Hu et al.
(2012) found positive associations between LMX, TMX, knowledge sharing and service
innovation performance.
Individualists think of themselves as separate, more differentiated and therefore focus
more on their individuality rather than the collective (Bochner, 1994). On the other hand,
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collectivists see the needs and interest of the group as outweighing personal needs (Magnini
et al., 2013), and they are guided by the what the group needs, wants, thinks and does
(Laroche et al., 2005). In China, there is an emphasis on harmonious relationships and group-
oriented cooperation. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H3a. The relationship between LMX and TMX will be positive for hotel employees in
both nations.
H3b. The positive relationship between LMX and TMX will be greater for hotel
employees in China than for hotel employees in the USA.
H4a. The relationship between TMX and employee satisfaction will be positive for hotel
employees in both nations.
H4b. The positive relationship between TMX and employee satisfaction will be greater
for hotel employees in China than for those in the USA.
Employee job satisfaction is defined as the emotional state and affective response of an
employee to his or her job (Back et al., 2011). Employees with high-quality LMX perceive
their jobs as important and meaningful and feel a higher level of job satisfaction than those
with low-quality LMX. The relationship between LMX and employee job satisfaction is well-
supported in hospitality literature. For example, Borchgrevink and Boster (1994)
investigated the effects of LMX on employee job satisfaction, occupational commitment,
tenure, social support and communication responsiveness and found LMX as positively
associated with job satisfaction. Liao et al. (2009) also investigated the relationships among
LMX, job satisfaction and organizational commitment and provided supporting evidence
among hospitality employees that high-quality LMX leads to high job satisfaction.
In individualistic societies, loyalty and respect toward leaders are less general because
ties between individuals are loose. In collectivistic societies, personal relationships prevail
over the job task at hand and should be established first (Hofstede, 1993). Interestingly, Chen
et al. (1998) also discovered that people in an individualistic organization would focus on
character-building trust whereas those in a more collective-based organization will more
likely focus on affect-base trust. In a collectivist context, in-group belonging, characterized
by a high degree of interpersonal relationship leads to job satisfaction (Graen and Uhl-Bien,
1995). The following hypotheses are proposed:
H5a. The relationship between LMX and employee job satisfaction will be positive for
hotel employees in both nations.
 H5b. The positive relationship between LMX and employee job satisfaction will be Hotel
greater for hotel employees in China than for those in the USA. employees’
organizational
Employee satisfaction and employee commitment to customer service behaviors
ECCS is defined as the tendency to continually improve service and put forth an effort to
benefit customers (Peccei and Rosenthal, 1997). Such employee commitment is critical in the
hospitality industry because it results in greater customer satisfaction and loyalty and 3087
better service quality (Nadiri and Tanova, 2010).
Satisfied employees are more involved in the company inspiring them to deliver better
customer service. These traits often result in more constructive outcomes for the firm (Blau,
1964). When employees are favorably treated by the organization, they tend to have guest-
oriented beliefs and attitudes and a sense of organizational commitment (Peccei and
Rosenthal, 1997).
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Hofstede (1980) points out that collective societies place a high value on people
developing close long-term commitments to their groups, such as family, social or work. As
such, the employer–employee relationship is observed in moral terms, not unlike a family,
where a mutual agreement of protection and loyalty exists. This is not the case in
individualistic societies where relationships are loosely built (Hofstede, 1993). The following
hypotheses are proposed:
H6a. The relationship between employee job satisfaction and ECCS will be positive for
hotel employees in both nations.
H6b. The positive relationship between employee job satisfaction and ECCS will be
greater for hotel employees in China than for those in the USA.

Research methodology
Sampling and measurement development
This study used a self-administered online survey using a Qualtrics panel. Subjects were
full-time hotel employees across the USA and China and represented the various employee
and hotel demographic characteristics in terms of location, department of employment and
working experience at the hotel where currently employed. Online panels were used in this
study as online panels are becoming the method of choice for conducting online research as
the method holds several advantages – fast data collection, a relatively low cost, easy access
to a large group (Bandilla et al., 2003).
Once the panelists were recruited, Qualtrics verified and confirmed their information and
then invited 1,862 potential panelists to participate in this study. Upon receiving the panel
invitation, panelists saw two screen questions intended to confirm that the panel of
participants met the selectable criteria of minimum age and current employment in the
lodging industry.
Sample equivalence between the USA and China was confirmed by comparing the
demographic characteristics of the two sets of data as discussed in the result section. In line
with the work of many scholars, who focus on the cross-national studies (Schaffer and
Riordan, 2003), this study also followed several processes to ensure construct and
measurement validity and equivalence. First, to increase the measurement validity, this
study adapted existing survey instruments, which have often been used with diverse
samples across nations (Table I). For example, LMX was measured using Liden and
Maslyn’s (1998) scales because they have been used in the literature to measure from the
 IJCHM Factor Cronbach’s Construct
29,12 Items loading alpha reliability

LMX (Liden and Maslyn, 1998) 0.935 0.934

I like my supervisor very much as a person 0.807
I respect my supervisor’s knowledge of and competence on the job 0.817
I am impressed with my supervisor’s knowledge of his/her job 0.795
3088 My supervisor is the kind of person one would like to have as a friend 0.768
My supervisor is a lot of fun to work with 0.783
I do not mind working my hardest for my supervisor 0.750
I admire my supervisor’s professional skills 0.830
My supervisor would come to my defense if I were “attacked” by others 0.675
I am willing to apply extra effort, beyond that which is normally required
to meet my supervisor’s work goals 0.743
My supervisor defends my work actions to a superior, even without
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complete knowledge of the issue in question 0.669

Employee voice (Van Dyne and LePine, 1998) 0.874 0.818
I speak up and encourage others in my department to get involved in
issues that affect our work 0.729
I communicate my opinions about work issues to others in my
department, even if their opinions are different and they disagree with me 0.761
I keep well informed about issues at work where my opinion can be useful 0.770
I get involved in issues that affect the quality of life in my department 0.771
I am encouraged to and do speak up to my supervisor with ideas for new
projects or changes in procedures at work 0.783
TMX (Seers, 1989; Seers et al., 1995) 0.873 0.766
I am willing to help finish work that has been assigned to others 0.772
Other members of my team are willing to help finish work that is
assigned to me 0.697
I often make suggestions about better work methods to other team
members 0.743
Other members of my team recognize well my potential 0.653
In busy situations, I often volunteer my efforts to help others on my team 0.754
I am flexible about switching job responsibilities to make things easier for
other members of my team 0.758
Employee job satisfaction (Brayfield and Rothe, 1951; Valentine et al.,
2002) 0.921 0.919
Overall I am satisfied with my present job 0.804
I am proud to tell people that I am part of this company 0.816
I am happy working with this company 0.840
I like my job at this company 0.828
I consider my job to be rather pleasant 0.782
I find real enjoyment in my work 0.785
ECCS (Peccei and Rosenthal, 1997) 0.907 0.768
I try to be friendly, personable and enthusiastic when serving customers 0.763
I am always working to be responsive to the individual needs of
customers 0.812
Table I. No matter how I feel, I always put myself out for every customer I serve 0.855
Measurement items, I am always working to improve the quality of service I give to customers 0.817
I put a lot of effort into my job to try to satisfy customers 0.762
factor loading and
construct reliability Note: Five-point Likert type scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree
 employee’ aspects of LMX. To measure employee voice, this study used Van Dyne and Hotel
LePine’s (1998) scale. These scales have been used in different nation settings, including employees’
Chinese samples and have shown sound psychometric properties (Gao et al., 2011).
Second, a team-translation method was applied to ensure valid, reliable and equivalent
organizational
measurement across countries (Forsyth et al., 2006; Harkness et al., 2003). A team approach behaviors
provides a sounder and less idiosyncratic translation review and evaluation and is useful in
achieving semantic equivalence and minimizing measurement error (Schaffer and Riordan,
2003). Three people were recruited to develop the Chinese version of the survey 3089
questionnaire – a translator, a translation reviewer and a translation adjudicator. They were
fluent in both English and Chinese. The translator first developed a draft translation by
concerning the similarity and difference in the meaning of measurement items across
nations (Tsui et al., 2007). The translation reviewer reviewed the translations with the
translators. The adjudicator decided when the translation was final (Harkness et al., 2003).
Lastly, before testing the proposed model, configural and metric equivalence were
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conducted between the two groups and the results were discussed in detail in the results
section.
A pilot study was conducted, in December 2014, to test the questionnaire instrument
using 30 online panel members (USA = 15; China = 15). According to the pilot study, the
survey questionnaire was modified to clarify wording and enable easier reading. The main
data gathering was conducted through an online survey. Of the 1,862 survey responses, 678
responses (36.4 per cent of response rate; USA: 315; China: 363) were used for data analysis.

Data analysis
By using SPSS 17.0 and AMOS, survey data were analyzed. Structural equation modeling
(SEM) was used to test the measurement model and the structural model.

Results
Profile of survey respondents
The sample of this study represented a hotel employees population moderately well as it
showed that there were younger and female employees and similar ethnicity groups from
the population (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012).
As shown in Table II, demographic characteristics of participants in the two countries
(USA vs China) were also compared to determine any significant differences between the
two nations from a demographic perspective. Similarly, the majority of respondents

Demographic characteristics USA (n = 315) China (n = 363)

Gender 63% (female)/37% (male) 56% (female)/44% (male)

Average age 38 years old 32 years old
Average tenure 5.6 years 4.1 years
Level of education College degree: 73% College degree: 77%
High school graduate: 16% High school graduate:14%
Others: 11% Others: 9%
Working department Front office: 32% Front office: 34%
Housekeeping: 17% Housekeeping: 21%
Administration and HR: 15% Administration and HR: 13% Table II.
Food and beverage: 11% Food and beverage: 12% Profile of survey
Accounting: 7% Accounting: 7% respondents between
Others: 18% Others: 13% the USA and China
 IJCHM (USA: 73 per cent, China: 77 per cent) had a college degree. The majority were working in the
29,12 front office department (USA: 32 per cent; China: 34 per cent) followed by the housekeeping
department (USA: 17 per cent; China: 21 per cent). However, some demographic variables
such as gender (USAfemale: 63 per cent, China female: 56 per cent,), age (USAaverage age: 38 years
old, China average age: 32 years old) and tenure (USAaverage tenure: 5.6 years, China average tenure:
4.1 years) were statistically different between Chinese and the US hotel employees (p < 0.01).
3090 Thus, gender, age and work-length were included as control variables in the structural
model testing.

Testing of reliability and validity

Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess internal consistency, convergent
validity and discriminant validity. The results showed the reliability of each item (0.502 to
0.731) and each construct (0.766 to 0.934) to be confirmed with the acceptable model fit
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( x 2(447) = 1,385.051, CFI = 0.940, TLI = 0.933, RMSEA = 0.056). Because the average
variance extracted (AVE) for all constructs was between 0.534 and 0.655, an convergent
validity was accepted (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Discriminant validity was satisfactory
except between LMX and TMX (Table III). To confirm discriminant validity between LMX
and TMX, a chi-square difference test was conducted comparing the unconstrained model to
the constrained model. After constraining the correlation between two constructs, the
measurement model was re-estimated and compared with the unconstrained model. Because
the comparison of the two models showed a significant increase (D x 2 = 6.02, Ddf = 1, p <
0.05), discriminant validity between LMX and TMX was confirmed.

Testing of measurement model

The study also tested the invariance of model structure between the two groups. First, the
configural invariance model was supported (x 2(894) = 2,129.767; p < 0.000; CFI = 0.923; TLI =
0.915; RMSEA = 0.045) (Hu and Bentler, 1995). Then, the comparison of this configural
invariance model and the full metric invariance model confirmed that the same constructs were
measured in two groups as the fit difference between the two models was insignificant (D x 2 =
38.899, Ddf = 27, p = 0.079) (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1998). However, the comparison
between the two models showed that there was the significant difference between them (D x 2 =
193.690, Ddf = 32, p < 0.001). According to Chen et al.(2005), if a difference in the CFI is larger
than 0.01, there is a significant difference in the model fit. Because the difference of model fit
between the two models was insignificant (DCFI = 0.010, DTLI = 0.007, DRMSEA =
0.002), the two groups can be measured with the same constructs. In addition, RMSEAs of the
two models overlapped in 90 per cent confidence intervals. Thus, the similarity of the model
between two groups was confirmed (Table IV).

Construct 1 2 3 4 5

1. LMX 0.586 0.540 0.415 0.484 0.318

2. TMX 0.534 0.463 0.471 0.471
3. Employee voice 0.582 0.567 0.477
4. Employee job satisfaction 0.655 0.479
5. ECCS 0.644
Table III.
Convergent and Notes: The numbers in diagonal line are the AVE by each construct. The numbers above the diagonal are
discriminant validity the squared intercorrelation coefficients between the constructs
 Structural model testing Hotel
The proposed hypotheses were tested and showed an acceptable level ( x 2(1,109) = 2,676.522, employees’
CFI = 0.903, TLI = 0.901, RMSEA = 0.046). As shown in Table V, the impact of LMX on
employee voice was strongly positive for both groups, supporting H1a ( g China = 0.719, p <
organizational
0.001; g USA = 0.605, p < 0.001). The group comparison analysis confirmed that the positive behaviors
impact of LMX on employee voice was greater among hotel employees in China than among
hotel employees in the USA (D x 2 = 55.424; p < 0.001). Therefore, H1b was not supported.
H2a was to test the relationship between employee voice, and job satisfaction would be 3091
positive for employees in the two countries, and the result supported H2a ( b China = 0.687,
p < 0.001; b USA = 0.246, p < 0.001). The result of the group comparison revealed that the
positive relationship between employee voice and employee job satisfaction was
significantly greater for employees in China compare to hotel employees in the USA (D x 2 =
16.542; p < 0.001). Thus, H2b was supported. H3a proposed that there would be a positive
association between LMX and TMX with employees in both China and the USA.
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Invariance model x2 df Dx 2 Ddf CFI DCFI TLI DTLI RMSEA

Table IV.
Configural invariance model 2,129.767 894 – – 0.923 – 0.915 – 0.045 (0.0380.057) Result of
Full metric invariance model 2,167.666 921 37.899 27 0.922 0.001 0.916 0.001 0.045 (0.0360.058) measurement model
Intercept invariance model 2,361.356 953 193.690 32 0.912 0.010 0.909 0.007 0.047 (0.0490.065) testing

Path x2 df Dx 2 p-value

Unconstrained baseline model 2,544.171 1,091

Constrained paths
Employee voice / LMX 2,599.595 1,092 55.424 0.000
Employee job satisfaction / Employee Voice 2,560.713 1,092 16.542 0.000
TMX / LMX 2,552.923 1,092 8.752 0.000
Employee job satisfaction / TMX 2,545.431 1,092 1.260 0.262
Employee job satisfaction / LMX 2,561.397 1,092 17.226 0.003
ECCS / Employee job satisfaction 2,561.918 1,092 17.747 0.000
All path constraints 2,676.522 1,109 132.351 0.000

Path China USA Hypotheses testing

Standard p-value Standard p-value
estimates estimates
Employee voice / LMX 0.719 0.000 0.605 0.000 H1a Support
H1b Not support
Employee job satisfaction / 0.687 0.000 0.246 0.000 H2a Support
Employee voice H2b Support
TMX / LMX 0.874 0.000 0.657 0.000 H3a Support
H3b Support
Employee job satisfaction / 0.225 0.009 0.291 0.000 H4a Support
Table V.
TMX H4b Not support
Employee Job Satisfaction / 0.027 0.787 0.386 0.000 H5a Not support Results of structural
LMX H5b Not support measure testing:
ECCS / Employee job 0.845 0.000 0.609 0.000 H6a Support Multiple group
satisfaction H6b Support comparison
 IJCHM Additionally, the present study hypothesized that the positive impact of LMX on TMX
29,12 would be greater with employees in China than with those in the USA The results supported
H3a and H3b ( g China = 0.874, p < 0.001; g USA = 0.657, p < 0.001; D x 2 = 8.752; p < 0.001).
The present study hypothesized that TMX would relate positively with employee job
satisfaction in China as well as in the USA. The result of data analysis supported this H4a
( b China = 0.225, p < 0.01; b USA = 0.291, p < 0.001). H4b specifically proposed that the
3092 relationship between TMX and employee job satisfaction would be significantly greater for
employees in China than for those in the USA. However, even though the positive impact of
TMX on employee job satisfaction was found in both countries, the result did not show
differences between the two countries (D x 2 = 1.260; p = 0.262), not supporting H4b. In
addition, this study tested whether there would be a positive influence of LMX on job
satisfaction in the two countries. Although LMX positively influenced employee job
satisfaction with employees in the USA ( g = 0.386; p < 0.001), this was not the case in China
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( g = 0.027; p = 0.787). Having to reject H5a, it was meaningless to test H5b. Lastly, H6a was
supported, as it was shown that employee job satisfaction had a strong positive impact on
ECCSs in China ( b = 0.845; p < 0.001) and the USA ( b = 0.609; p < 0.001). The result of
group comparison also showed that the positive effect of employee job satisfaction on
employee’s commitment to customer service was greater in Chinese hotel employees
compared to US employees (D x 2 = 17.747; p < 0.001). Thus, H6b was supported (Figure 1).

Figure 1.
Results of structural
measure testing:
multiple group
comparison
 Test of the mediating role of employee voice and team–member exchange between leader– Hotel
member exchange and employee satisfaction with employees in China employees’
With employees in China, contrary to the prediction based on previous research, LMX did
not positively influence employee job satisfaction with employees in China. However,
organizational
even though the impact of LMX on employee job satisfaction in China was insignificant, behaviors
the relationship may be mediated through TMX and employee voice. Thus,
bootstrapping using SEM was conducted to confirm the mediation effect of employee
voice and TMX with the relation between LMX and employee satisfaction in China group 3093
(Cheung and Lau, 2007). The significance of predictor (LMX)–mediator (employee voice
and TMX)–outcome (employee satisfaction) was compared with the direct path between
predictor (LMX) and outcome (employee satisfaction) to test for the mediated effect
(Frazier et al., 2004). A mediational model was supported because the model with the
mediators was significant ( x 2(451) = 1,027.14, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.059,
b China = 0.68, p = 0.01), whereas a model with the direct path between the predictor and
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outcome was not significant ( b China = 0.05, p = 0.818).

Discussion and conclusions

Conclusions
This study provided empirical evidence for the importance of LMX across different
nations in the hotel industry. The discussion presents the theoretical contributions of this
study to existing hospitality literature and its practical implications for hospitality
managers.

Theoretical implications
The present study extends previous organizational behavior research in the hospitality
industry in several ways. First, it is one of a few cross-national empirical studies on hotel
employees. In general industry domains, the body of research on cross-cultural
organizational behavior has grown over the years. However, few efforts exist in the
hospitality management literature, despite the call for research to provide a
comprehensive understanding of cross-cultural management perspectives (Magnini et al.,
2013). This study responds to this need by examining organizational behavior theories by
capturing the complexity and dynamism occurring in cross-national organizational
contexts and providing knowledge of the transportability of organizational behavior
models from one country to another (Tsui, 2004). Specifically, the findings of this study
imply that there are mostly positive relationships among the study constructs in both
nations. However, the relational effects of some constructs are significantly different.
Specifically, this study shows there are significant differences between the USA and
China regarding the effects of LMX on employee voice, TMX, job satisfaction and
commitment to customer service. The LMX appears to be more critical in China by
showing that the effects of LMX on employee voice and TMX for employees in China
were stronger than such effects in the USA. This suggests that LMX is more important in
collectivistic and high power-distance cultures like China than in an individualistic and
low power-distance culture such as the USA. One possible explanation is that in high
power-distance cultures, the relationship that employees develop with immediate
supervisors take on greater importance than in low-power distance cultures in that it
speaks to inclusiveness and a decreasing of distance. Such power-distance reduction
leads to an increased sense of belonging to the same organizational in-group collective as
the supervisor, further enhancing the employee’s desire and willingness to engage in
behaviors that support the group/collective. In this instance, expressed as TMX and
 IJCHM employee voice. In low power-distance cultures, the LMX speaks much less to
29,12 inclusiveness and in-groupness, as it does to individual value and the outcome of their
individual performance. That is, employees in low-power distance and individualistic
cultures see LMX as an expression of their individual value in the eyes of the supervisor.
In individualistic and low power-distance cultures, employees are expected to voice
opinions, and the belief that they are valued employees leads to an increase willingness to
3094 use employee voice. The increase in TMX in the US sample can be explained by the norm
of reciprocity. That is because the supervisor helps the employee, the employee
reciprocates by increasing TMX which assists the supervisor by requiring less
supervisor input to the team. Therefore, when employees in China experienced affection,
close leader–employee relationship, and social ties with their leaders, they were more
likely than American employees to feel comfortable about expressing ideas and
suggestions for an organization as they try to help build a healthy organization and
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develop friendships at work.

Second, this study extends LMX literature as the first to empirically support the
relationship between LMX and employee voice in the hospitality context using cross-
national setting. While the research on employee voice has grown in recent years and have
provided support for a positive association with employee job satisfaction, most of the
studies were conducted in the general business settings of the USA. The existing hospitality
literature shows that little research has been conducted on employee voice, especially
concerning the cultural effects. This study addresses that by including two distinct national
cultures and contributes to the understanding of employee voice in that it demonstrates that
when employees have good relationships with their leaders, they tend to speak up for
organizational improvement and engage in behaviors supportive of the broader work unit.
Consistent with the findings of Botero and Van Dyne (2009), the findings of this study
suggest that high-quality LMX fosters employees’ participation in decision-making
processes and opportunities for contribution to the team. Therefore, this result implies that
employee voice is positively associated with LMX across cultures. This can lead to
employees’ job satisfaction and customer-oriented attitudes such that they can create higher
quality service (Raub and Robert, 2013).
Third, this study reinforces the notion that in both the USA and China, employee job
satisfaction is a consequence of LMX although the route by which job satisfaction is
influenced differs. In the collectivist and high power-distance culture, the relationship with
the supervisor, as measured by LMX, does not directly impact job satisfaction. Rather, the
LMX provides the impetus for engaging in organizational behaviors that support the
collective/in-group. The opportunity to engage in behaviors supportive of the collective
provides job satisfaction (78 per cent). On the other hand, in the individualistic and low
power-distance culture, the individual relationship with the supervisor directly impacts
individual job satisfaction. However, elements of work, such as supportive co-workers and
the opportunity to express voice are still important, proportionally less important than in the
Chinese model. These results are consistent with those of past research conducted within the
hospitality business context (Hu et al., 2012) in that LMX has a significant effect on TMX
and employee job satisfaction. While LMX has a direct effect on employee job satisfaction in
the USA setting, in China LMX has an indirect effect on employee job satisfaction through
employee voice and TMX. With the employee data in China, considering that LMX
positively influences employee voice and TMX, LMX influences employee job satisfaction
through employees’ behaviors or performances that are supported by their organizations or
leaders. This implies that, in China, when employees’ perception regarding high LMX is
 confirmed through their discretionary behaviors (i.e. voice), employees are likely to be Hotel
satisfied with their job. employees’
organizational
Practical implications
As the hospitality business has become more globalized, this study holds practical
behaviors
implications for hospitality managers. This study looked at LMX from the perspective of
two cultures – the USA and China – and confirmed that LMX is a significant construct in 3095
both countries in hospitality business organizations. Understanding how relationships
between leaders and other members influence employees’ attitude and behaviors help global
hospitality firms develop management strategies. In this study, the impact of LMX on voice
and TMX is more significant for employees in China than those in the USA. Work
environments in China are rapidly changing: more westernized, globalized and
individualized. However, China is still a hierarchical and collectivistic culture, where the
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employees are hesitant to speak up and offer their opinions and ideas, due to an unequal
leader–member relationship (Hofstede and Bond, 1988). Therefore, leaders in China need to
communicate with their employees in a more effective way to build high-quality LMX. For
example, frequent recognition can be a great communication tool for leaders as recognition
is one of the most influential motivation factors to Chinese employees (Jacobsen, 2014).
Recognition can increase employees’ mianzi (face) toward their co-workers, and it is also a
great way for leaders to demonstrate positive feedback along with clear organization values
to their employees.
The impact of TMX on employee job satisfaction was slightly greater than that for
Chinese employees. It implies that in an individualistic culture like the USA, employees
may have less expectation of social exchange, support or help from their team members
compared to those in a collectivistic culture like China. Therefore, employees in the
USA who experience high-quality TMX are more likely to have greater job satisfaction
than they would in China. Thus, the firms in the USA need to encourage their
employees to build a strong team environment. For example, arranging team building
trips can be a good way to develop those relationships. Others events such as a charity
planned and organized by team members can build a better relationship with co-
workers as well.

Limitations and future research

This study suggests that this LMX model is relevant across national cultures albeit with
a significant difference in effect sizes; it is only one cross-national sample. The findings
may be different with different cross-national comparisons, and the addition of variables
to the model may yield different results. As such, the research should be extended, by
testing the model in other cross-national settings, perhaps with more than two national
cultures. It helps the current research establish the generalizability. Future research can
focus on an individual-level approach to cross-cultural difference rather than by
comparing nations. Research based on cultural dimensions may provide greater
explanatory power because they not only describe differences in cultural norms and
individual traits but also explain characteristics beyond the nations (Patterson et al.,
2006). Thus, given that LMX and TMX are essentially based on social exchange, it is
possible that employees’ perceptions and attitudes regarding their job can be influenced
by individual’s cultural orientation.
This study did not consider organizational or occupational tenure. Tenure should be
considered in future models to examine if LMX is equally as important at various levels of
 IJCHM tenure. Also, antecedents of LMX (e.g. social power) could be considered to the model to
29,12 explore whether the antecedents of LMX have the same impacts across national cultures.
Lastly, the reported education level of respondents might have been affected by the use
of an online survey because people with less education are less likely to have internet access
or to respond to an online survey (PewResearchCenter, 2016). Thus, a paper survey could
also be used to ensure the generalizability. More information on the general population
3096 would help this research establish a greater degree of the generalization of the sample.

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 IJCHM About the authors
29,12 MiRan Kim is an Assistant Professor in The School of Hospitality Business at Michigan State
University. She studies consumer behavior in the context of the hospitality and tourism industry.
Specifically, she is interested in customer satisfaction and loyalty, service and relationship marketing
and service leadership hospitality and tourism management including human resource management
and leadership development. MiRan Kim is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
kimmi8@msu.edu
3100 Laee Choi is an Assistant Professor of Hasan School of Business at Colorado State University-
Pueblo. Her primary research interests lie within customer-service provider relationship management
and customer citizenship behaviors focused on customer value co-creation. She is also interested in
research regarding marketing/retailing strategies.
Dr Bonnie J. Knutson, a Professor in The School of Hospitality Business, Michigan State
University, is an Authority on emerging lifestyle trends, the customer brand experience and
innovative positioning strategies. She has had numerous articles appear in industry and academic
publications, authored M3: Membership Marketing in the Millennium and is editor-emeritus of the
Downloaded by Michigan State University At 08:09 29 March 2018 (PT)

Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing. Knutson has been named a MSU Distinguished Faculty
and a MSU Distinguished Alumni.
Carl P. Borchgrevink has a PhD in Communication from Michigan State University, an MS in
Hotel, Restaurant and Travel Administration from the University of Massachusetts, a Norwegian
undergraduate degree from the Norwegian Hotel School, a culinary degree from Oslo Vocational
School and has a Norwegian Chef’s Certificate (Kokkefagbrev). He is highly involved in The School’s
international activities and has arranged for an exchange program with BI-The Norwegian School of
Business in Oslo, Norway, and functions as college faculty advisor for this program.

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