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Pitched battle

A pitched battle or set-piece battle is a battle in which opposing forces each anticipate the
setting of the battle, and each choose to commit to it. Either side may have the option to disengage
before the battle starts or shortly thereafter.[1][2] A pitched battle is not a chance encounter such
as a meeting engagement, or where one side is forced to fight at a time not of their choosing such
as happens in a siege or an ambush. Pitched battles are usually carefully planned, to maximize
one's strengths against an opponent's weaknesses, and use a full range of deceptions, feints, and
other manoeuvres. They are also planned to take advantage of terrain favourable to one's force.
Forces strong in cavalry for example will not select swamp, forest, or mountain terrain for the
planned struggle. For example, Carthaginian general Hannibal selected relatively flat ground near
the village of Cannae for his great confrontation with the Romans, not the rocky terrain of the high
Apennines.[3] Likewise, Zulu commander Shaka avoided forested areas or swamps, in favour of
rolling grassland (flat or on mountain slopes), where the encircling horns of the Zulu Impi could
manoeuvre to effect.[4] Pitched battles continued to evolve throughout history as armies
implemented new technology and tactics. Battle of Cannae, 215 BC – Initial Roman attack

During the Prehistorical period, pitched battles were established as the primary method for
organised conflict and placed an emphasis on the implementation of rudimentary hand and missile weapons in loose formations. This developed
into the Classical period as weapons and armour became more sophisticated and increased the efficacy of heavy infantry. Pitched battles
decreased in size and frequency during the Middle Ages and saw the implementation of heavy cavalry and new counter cavalry formations. The
early Modern period saw the introduction of rudimentary firearms and artillery developing new tactics to respond to the rapidly changing state of
gunpowder warfare. The late Modern period saw improvements to firearms technology which saw the standardisation of rifle infantry, cavalry
and artillery during battles. Pitched battles declined towards the late 19th century and had ceased by the First world War due to technological
developments establishing trench warfare. Whilst there are a few examples of pitched battles that occurred on a large scale during the Second
World War, during the Post-war period, pitched battles effectively ceased to exist due to the prevalence of irregular warfare.

Contents
Prehistorical period
Tollense valley battlefield
Battle of Kadesh
Classical period
Battle of Cannae
Middle Ages
Battle of Hastings
Early Modern era
Battle of Nagashino
Late Modern era
Battle of Isandlwana
World Wars
Battle of Caen
Post war
See also
References
Bibliography
External links

Prehistorical period
Pitched battles were first recorded during the prehistorical period as massed organised conflict became the primary method for the expansion of
territory for early states. During the Neolithic period, from 10,000 BCE to 3000 BCE, violence was experienced endemically rather than in
concentrated large-scale events.[5] Later during the prehistorical period, after 3000 BCE, battles became increasingly organised and were typified
by the implementation of bronze weaponry and rudimentary missile weapons.[6]

Tollense valley battlefield

One of the earliest battles in Europe occurred in the Tollense Valley where a pitched battle was fought during the 13th century BCE, consisting of
at least several hundred combatants.[7] Evidence of bronze weaponry and flint and bronze arrow heads indicates that archers were used alongside
infantry during the battle.[8] A possible reason for the battle was the attempted crossing of a river by a large group of armed men who were
confronted at a ford.[9] Archers may have been positioned at either side of the river in the attempt to cause casualties before a series of close
quarter engagements.[10] The battle at Tollense Valley demonstrates that early pitched battles in the European prehistorical period were
characterised by large semi-organised groups of combatants and the implementation of simple hand and missile weapons such as bows.[11]
Battle of Kadesh

Elsewhere, pitched battles had grown in frequency and size due to developments in technology and logistics
during the later prehistorical period.[8] Technological improvements included the addition of Iron weaponry,
shields, and cavalry which were deployed in organised formations.[7] An example of a pitched battle that
demonstrated these developments was the battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE between New Kingdom Egypt under
Ramses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II. Evidence from reliefs at the temple of Ramesses II
depict the implementation of chariots and larger infantry formations that used spears and swords for close-
quarter fighting.[12] The battle itself occurred in three stages. Initially, Hittite chariots were deployed and
charged an Egyptian division that was en-route to the main Egyptian camp on the North-West side of the
Relief depicting Egyptian chariots in
fortress of Kadesh.[13] In the second phase of the battle, Ramesses II launched a chariot counterattack on the the Battle of Kadesh
Hittite chariots which were plundering the Egyptian camp and pushed them back towards the Orontes River
and main force of the Hittite army.[14] The third stage was a dedicated series of charges launched by both
sides as the Hittite reserve was positioned and refused to retreat over the river.[15] The pitched battle resulted in an Egyptian tactical victory but a
strategic stalemate for both sides.[16]

Classical period
Pitched battles continued to evolve into the Classical period as weapons technology and battlefield tactics became more complex. The widespread
introduction of iron weapons increased emphasis on close quarter infantry combat as improvements in armour and larger infantry block
formations made missiles less effective.[8] The Classical Greeks implemented a new and highly effective formation of spear infantry called a
phalanx. By 550 BCE the Greeks had perfected the formation, which consisted of individual soldiers called hoplites forming rows of spears and
shields.[17] These units would engage in pitched battles against enemies in tight formations that would press against the enemy. Only if one side
faltered was the formation able to break and the pursuing side engage in individual arms.[17] The success of the phalanx was demonstrated
against the Persians at Marathon in 490BCE and then at Plataea in 479BCE.[18] The Macedonians under Phillip II and Alexander the Great would
develop this formation further to be deeper and wield longer spears called a sarrisa. The Macedonian phalanx was extremely successful against
the Persian Empire and dominated Mediterranean warfare during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE.[18] The effective nature of these heavy infantry
formations would be further developed by the Romans who established a large professional army consisting of heavily armoured infantry units
and units of auxiliaries.[8]

Battle of Cannae

An example of a pitched battle that occurred during the Classical period was the battle of Cannae fought between the Roman Republic under
Lucius Aemllius Paullus Gaius Tarrentius Varo and the Carthaginians under Hannibal. The pitched battle occurred on 2 August in 216 BCE near
the village of Cannae in Italy. The Romans had some 80,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry, whilst Hannibal controlled around 40,000 infantry and
auxiliaries and 10,000 cavalry.[19] The battle site was mutually decided as the flat river plain running along
the river Aufidus and near the ancient village of Cannae.[19] The Carthaginians favoured the level ground to
ensure the effective deployment of cavalry and the Romans the narrow field between the river Aufidus and
the village of Cannae to make full effect of their powerful infantry.[20] Both sides carefully deployed their
troops ensuring to make full advantage of their respective strategies.

The Romans had deployed their heavy infantry in a deep formation with the intention of breaking through
the Carthaginian centre whilst their 6000 cavalry had been deployed on each flank positioned to defend
against the superior Carthaginian cavalry.[20] Hannibal had deployed his troops with a weak centre and
reinforced flanks with the intention of letting the centre break.[21] Behind his main line he positioned 8000 Roman heavy infantry from the 2nd
auxiliary infantry with the purpose of surprising the roman infantry as they pursued the faltering century BC depicted on the
Carthaginian centre.[20] Hannibal was aware of the superior power of the Roman infantry and elected to out Ahenobarbus relief
manoeuvre and trap the Romans in an encirclement. Hannibal's deployment tactic worked and although
precise numbers of casualties are disputed, eight Roman legions or roughly 45,500-70,000 Roman infantry
were slain.[21] The battle resulted in a decisive victory for Hannibal and illustrates the importance of heavy infantry and advanced deployment
strategies for pitched battles during the period.

Middle Ages
Pitched battles during the Middle Ages decreased in overall size and frequency due to inability for
states to field armies as large as those during the Classical period.[22] The potential decisiveness
and possibility of the death of the leader also decreased the number of pitched battles fought.[23]
Battlefield strategy also began to favour control through sieges and garrisons in fortifications such
as castles.[22] However, the few examples of pitched battles during the period demonstrate
developments in arms and armour and their effect upon tactics and deployment. Technological
improvements in metalworking permitted the increased introduction of plate armour which Mounted Norman knights and archers at the
provided superior protection in combat. Wealthy soldiers, often called knights, would combine battle of Hastings
heavy plate armour and a mount. [22] These would be deployed in devastatingly effective charges
or dismounted to fight on foot dominating battlefields throughout the Middle Ages.[22]
Consequently, infantry tactics during pitched battles would evolve towards the late Middle Ages to emphasise the use of polearms such as pikes
and halberds. Furthermore, pitched battles during this period saw the widespread introduction of the crossbow, as evidenced at the battle of
Hastings, provided a powerful alternative to bows and were effective against most forms of armour.[24]

Battle of Hastings
An important pitched battle that demonstrated the evolution of tactics and technology during the
Middle Ages was the battle of Hastings fought on the 10 October 1066. This battle was fought
between the Norman-French Army under William the Conqueror and the English army under
Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson. This pitched battle was fought as William engaged
Godwinson who deployed his army of infantry in a small dense formation at the top of a steep
slope. The English formation held heavy infantry, referred to as housecarls, at the centre and light
infantry on the flanks.[25] Across the front of Godwinson’s battle line was a shield wall made from
soldiers interlocking their shields holding spears and missile troops behind. The Normans under
William deployed in three groups which consisted of their origins, Bretons on the left flank,
Normans in the centre and Franco-Flemings on the right flank.[26] William deployed his missile
troops which included crossbowmen, at the front of his lines with his heavy infantry and cavalry
behind.[25] William’s heavily armoured Norman knights were essential in the battle as they were
deployed in cavalry feints which thinned and at occasions broke Godwinson’s shield wall as they Deployment map of the Battle of Hastings
pursued fleeing Norman cavalry. [26] The repeated implementation of this battle tactic eventually
led to Norman victory in the battle as they were able to draw the English into a pursuit which was
then counter charged and broken.[25] The effective deployment of heavy cavalry by the Normans during this battle demonstrates the importance
of technological improvements through arms and armour and evolving tactics to pitched battles during the Middle Ages.[25]

Early Modern era


Pitched battles developed significantly during the early Modern era as tactics and deployment strategies
evolving rapidly with the introduction of early firearms and artillery. There was a general increase in the size
of pitched battles during this period as states grew and could wield larger standing armies using improved
logistics.[27] Firearms were introduced in Europe during the 16th century and revolutionised pitched battles
due to their devastating effect when fired in sequence.[28] Despite this, early firearms were inaccurate and
slow to fire meaning that they were most effectively deployed in smaller, mobile blocks of infantry who would
fire a mass of projectiles at an enemy.[28] Due to the unreliability of these weapons these troops were
supported by other groups of infantry, especially when confronted with enemy cavalry. In 16th century Italy,
pike and shot infantry would have interweaving ranks of musket and pike armed soldiers to provide mobile Detail of the Battle of Nagashino
screen painting depicting
cavalry protection.[28] Furthermore, during this period artillery would evolve from basic stone throwers to
arquebusiers of the Oda clan
barrelled cannons capable of mobility and more effective siege warfare.[29]

Battle of Nagashino
The battle of Nagashino was a pitched battle fought between the combined forces of Oda and
Tokugawa clans against Takeda clan on 28 June 1575 during the Sengoku period in Japan. The
battle occurred as Oda Nobunaga led 38,000 men to relieve Tokugawa forces besieged by Takeda
Katsuyori at Nagashino Castle.[30] This battle represents an example of a siege that develops into a
pitched battle upon the arrival of new forces. Key to Oda success during the battle was the
deployment of 10,000 Ashigaru arquebusiers.[30] Firearms has been introduced to Japan by
European traders as early as 1543 and had been adopted quickly.[31] Nagashino was one of the
earliest examples of their effective tactical deployment.[32] Before the battle, Nobunaga had Battle of Nagashino
positioned his arquebusiers in formations to be protected from enemy cavalry by supporting
Ashigaru spearmen.[32] The Takeda strategy was to utilise their superior cavalry force and make the
Oda infantry flee with concentrated charges. This was unsuccessful as Oda spearmen worked in tandem with the arquebusiers who fired
organised volleys in ranks of three to repel Takeda cavalry charges and achieve victory in the battle.[30]

Late Modern era


Firearms and artillery dominated pitched battles during the late Modern era as technological improvements such as rifling
improved the reliability and accuracy of the weapons. The efficacy of firearms increased dramatically during the 18th
century with the introduction of rifling for enhanced range and accuracy, cartridge ammunition and magazines. As a
result, most armies during this period would strictly deploy firearm infantry.[33] Notable exceptions to this would be in
colonial Africa where native armies would still employ close quarter fighting to some success, such as at the battle of
Isandlwana in 1879 between the Zulu Empire and the British.[34] The mobility and accuracy of artillery was also improved
with rifling and sophisticated reload mechanisms and would be utilised to great effect alongside infantry throughout the
19th century.[35] Furthermore, cavalry would continue to be an effective force for pitched battles during this period as they
were implemented to harass infantry formations and artillery positions. These tactics would remain in warfare until
developments in technology would make pitched battles less effective towards the end of the 19th century.[36]

Battle of Isandlwana

The Battle of Isandlwana was fought between the Zulu Empire and the British Empire on the 22nd of January 1879. This
pitched battle saw the implementation of superior tactics to overwhelm a technologically superior force.[34] The Zulu army
usually deployed in its well known "buffalo horns" formation. The attack layout was composed of three elements:[37] Zulu warriors
charging
1. the "horns" or flanking right and left wing elements to encircle and pin the enemy. Usually these were the greener
troops.
2. the "chest" or central main force which delivered the coup de grace. The prime fighters made up the composition of the main force.
3. the "loins" or reserves used to exploit success or reinforce elsewhere.

The Zulu forces were generally grouped into 3 levels: regiments; corps of several regiments; and "armies" or bigger formations. With enough
manpower, these could be marshaled and maneuvered in the Western equivalent of divisional strength. Coordination of tactical movements was
supplied by the indunas who used hand signals and messengers. Generally before deploying for combat, the regiments were made to squat in a
semicircle. This semi-circular squat served to align all echelons towards the coming pitched battle, while the commanders made final assignments
and adjustments. While formidable in action, the Zulu arrangements for a pitched struggle could be predictable, as they usually used the same 3-
part layout in their operations.[34]

At Isandlwana, Zulu forces first lured the British into splitting their strength by diversionary actions around
Magogo Hills and Mangeni Falls,[38] and then moved to take advantage of this British error in a careful
approach march, using dispersed units that hid the full strength of the army. As one historian notes:

Meanwhile, the joint Zulu commanders, who had indeed been considering a flank march to
Chelmsford's east to join with Matshana and cut the British column off from Natal, decided
instead to take advantage of the general's division of forces. They detached men to reinforce
Matshana, but on the same evening of 21 January and during the next they transferred the main
army across the British front to the deep shelter of the Ngwebeni valley. This was truly a masterful
manoeuvre. The amabutho moved rapidly in small units, mainly concealed from the Isandlwana
camp nine miles away by the Nyoni Heights. The British mounted patrols that sighted some of the
apparently isolated Zulu units had no inkling an entire army was on the move.[39]
Zulu order of battle
The total Zulu host was then concentrated in a deep ravine near the enemy position, pre-positioned for their
classic "buffalo horns" pitched attack, but in accordance with tradition, waiting until the omens were good for
an assault. Discovered by a British cavalry patrol, the entire Impi sprang up as one man, and launched their attack from some 4 miles away. The
advance was met by withering British rifle, rocket and artillery fire that made part of the advance falter. The British however had divided their
forces- fooled in part by preliminary Zulu feints- and other errors, such as failure to base the camp on a strong central wagon or laager
fortification for example[40] also contributed to fatal weaknesses in the British defences. When pressure by the maneuvering Zulu formations
caused the crumbling of the redcoat line, the Zulu prongs surged through and around the gaps, annihilating the camp's defenders.[41] The
liquidation of almost 1,000 European troops with modern arms by the African spearmen sparked disbelief and uproar in Britain. Aside from the
losses of British regulars, and the supporting native levies, the Zulu impi killed more British officers at Isandlwana than Napoleon killed at
Waterloo.[42]

World Wars
Towards the late 19th century and into the World Wars of the 20th century, pitched battles decreased in frequency due to the increasing size of
armies and developments in weapons technology.[43] larger armies meant that combat could not be resolved in single events and the introduction
of the machine gun, advanced artillery and barbed wire by the First World War meant that deploying infantry in large moveable blocks was
ineffective as they could be easily made immobile and destroyed.[43] Barbed wire alone brought an end to the deployment of cavalry as they would
be rendered immobile and made easy targets.[44] Developments in tactics would emphasise fortified positions in trenches and would result in
battles that would take months and be determined by attrition and supply rather than tactics and mobility.[45] The introduction of mechanised
armour and aircraft in the late First World War meant that trench warfare would be less effective as trenches could be outmanoeuvred and
surrounded. This was demonstrated clearly during the early stages of The Second World War during the German Blitzkrieg in France. Tactics in
the Second World War developed to focus on mobile groups of infantry who would work in tandem with armour, aircraft and artillery to out
manoeuvre and surround enemy positions. This would generally result in many smaller skirmishes along a wide battle front rather than localised
pitched battles.[46] However, during the war, there would be several important battles that would employ pitched battle tactics at a larger scale.

Battle of Caen

During the Normandy landings under Operation Overlord, the Allies engaged in a pitched battle
on a massive scale to defeat German resistance. When the Allies landed at Normandy, the pitched
battle strategy used by the commander of the British land forces, general Bernard Montgomery,
was to confront German armoured units with constant harassment from British armies on the
eastern flank of the beachhead. The role of the British forces would be to act as a great shield for
the Allied landing, constantly sucking the German armour on to that shield on the left (east), and
constantly grinding it down with punishing blows from artillery, tanks and Allied aircraft.[47] As
the shield held the Germans, the Americans were to push in the west on the right of the Allied line,
breaking through the German defences. The British role in the strategy would thus not be a
glamorous one, but a brutal battle in a punishing cauldron of attrition, in and around the key city
of Caen.[48]

Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower affirmed Montgomery's overall strategy in a The British shield in the east held the bulk of the
message of 10 July, urging stronger efforts: German armour fast and worked it over, until the
Americans were able to break through in the
west, destroying the German front.
I am familiar with your plan for generally holding firmly with your left, attracting
thereto all of the enemy armour, while your right pushes down the Peninsula and
threatens the rear and flank of the forces facing the Second British Army.. It appears to
me that we must use all possible energy in a determined effort to prevent a stalemate
or facing the necessity of fighting a major defensive battle with the slight depth we now
have in the bridgehead... please be assured that I will produce everything that is
humanly possible to assist you in any plan that promises to get us the elbow room we
need. The air and everything else will be available.[49]

Montgomery's overall pitched conception of the battle eventually bore fruit, but it took two months of bitter
Operation Overlord
fighting in and around the city of Caen to come to fruition.[50]
Operational Strategic

Post war scope offensive


Planned by Allies
During the Post war period, pitched battles became redundant due to increasing emphasis on camouflage, Objective Invasion of
guerrilla warfare and strategic bombing, all of which prevented the largescale deployment of organised units Normandy
of troops.[51] Battles have became increasingly reliant upon many smaller skirmishes along a frontline or
Date Began
sporadic combat in an area of hostility and no longer resemble pitched battles in any form.[52]
6 June 1944
Executed by Allied forces
See also
Battle
List of battles
Military tactics
Naval battle
War
Meeting engagement
Siege
Ambush

References
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Bibliography
"Policy of the Protectionists" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150923193144/http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/ilej/image1.pl?item=page&seq
=7&size=1&id=bm.1852.6.x.71.440.x.645). Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. 71 (440): 645–68. June 1852. Archived from the original (http://
www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/ilej/image1.pl?item=page&seq=7&size=1&id=bm.1852.6.x.71.440.x.645) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2010-06-16.

External links
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