Probability and Statistics

Objectives

•
• Learn of Statstcal Techniques through
SPSS
• Applicaton of Statstcal Techniques
• Hands -on practce of SPSS
•

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 Outlines

• Types of Statstcs:
ØDescriptve Statstcs

ØInferental Statstcs
• Variable and its types
• Graphical & Tabular Representaton of Data
 • What is Data?
• What is SPSS?
• What is Statstcs?
•
•
• SPSS can be used to perform the following

ØData Coding and Entry

ØTabular and Graphical Representaton
ØData Analysis

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 Statistics

Statstcs

Descriptve Inferental
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Variable and its Types

Variable

Qualitatve Quanttatve

Discrete Contnuous
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The Levels of Measurement

• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Rato
Some Definitions

Variable
Variable
 Some Definitions

Variable
Variable

Attribute
Attribute Attribute
Attribute
 Some Definitions

Variable
Variable Gender
Gender

Attribute
Attribute Attribute
Attribute
 Some Definitions

Variable
Variable Gender
Gender

Attribute
Attribute Attribute
Attribute Female
Female Male
Male
What Is Level of Measurement?
The relatonship of the values that are assigned
to the attributes for a variable
What Is Level of Measurement?
The relatonship of the values that are assigned
to the attributes for a variable

Relatonship
What Is Level of Measurement?
The relatonship of the values that are assigned
to the attributes for a variable

Values 1 2 3

Relatonship
What Is Level of Measurement?
The relatonship of the values that are assigned
to the attributes for a variable

Attributes Republican Independent Democrat

Values 1 2 3

Relatonship
What Is Level of Measurement?
The relatonship of the values that are assigned
to the attributes for a variable
Variable Party Afliaton

Attributes Republican Independent Democrat

Values 1 2 3

Relatonship
Why Is Level of Measurement Important?

• Helps you decide what statstcal analysis is

appropriate on the values that were assigned
• Helps you decide how to interpret the data from
that variable
 Nominal Measurement
• The values “name” the attribute uniquely.
• The value does not imply any ordering of the
cases, for example, jersey numbers in football.
• Even though player 32 has higher number than
player 19, you can’t say from the data that he’s
greater than or more than the other.
Ordinal Measurement
When attributes can be rank-ordered.
• Distances between attributes do not have any
meaning for example, code Educatonal
Attainment as 0= under matric; 1=matric;
2=intermediate; 3=BA/BS(Honors); 4=MPhil;
5=PhD
Is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to 4?
 Interval Measurement
When distance between attributes has meaning, for example,
temperature (in Fahrenheit) -- distance from 30-40 is same as
distance from 70-80
• Note that ratos don’t make any sense -- 80 degrees is not twice as hot
as 40 degrees (although the attribute values are).
 Ratio Measurement
• Has an absolute zero that is meaningful
• Can construct a meaningful rato (fracton), for example, number of
clients in past six months
• It is meaningful to say that we had twice as many clients in this period
as we did in the previous six months.
The Hierarchy of Levels

Rato
Interval Distance is meaningful

Ordinal Atributes can be ordered

Nominal Atributes are only named; weakest

Sample versus Population

Populaton Sample

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 Types of Statistics
• Techniques that summarize and describe
characteristcs of a group or make comparisons of
characteristcs between groups are knows as
descriptie statstcs.
•
• Inferentaa statstcs are used to make generalizatons or
inferences about a populaton based on fndings from
a sample.
•
• The choice of a type of analysis is based on the
evaluaton questons, the type of data collected, and
the audience who will receive the results. 
 Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptve Statstcs are used to report on populatons and
samples.
•

• By summarizing informaton, Descriptve Statstcs speed up

and simplify comprehension of a group’s characteristcs.

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 Descriptive Statistics

Types of descriptve statstcs:

• Organizaton of the data
• Tables
• Frequency Distributons(Qualitatve and Quanttatve)

• Graphs
• Bar Chart or Pie Chart(Qualitatve variable)
• Histogram
• Stem and Leaf Plot (Quanttatve variable)
• Frequency Polygon
•

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 Measurement– types of scales
• Nominal scale
• Frequency in each category
• Percentage in each category
• Ordinal scale (rank order)
• Median
• Range
• Percentle ranking
• Interval scale (rank order in equal intervals)
• Mean
• Standard deviaton
• Variance
• Rato scale (arithmetc operatons on actual quanttes)
• Geometric mean
• Coefcient of variaton
•
Measures of Central Tendency
• Measures of central tendency refect the
central tendencies of a distributon
•

• Mode refects the attribute with the greatest

frequency
•

• Median refects the attribute that cuts the

distributon in half
•

• Mean refects the average; sum of attributes

divided by # of cases
Measures of Dispersion
• Measures of dispersion refect the spread or
distributon of the distributon
•

• Range is the diference between largest &

smallest scores; high – low
•

• Variance is the average of the squared

diferences between each observaton and
the mean
• Standard deviaton is the square root of
variance