IEEE PES Transactions on Power Delivery

A Recursive Method for Traveling-Wave Arrival-Time

Detection in Power Systems

Journal: IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery

Manuscript ID Draft

Manuscript Type: Transactions

Date Submitted by the Author: n/a

Complete List of Authors: Jalilzadeh Hamidi, Reza; Arkansas Technical University, Electrical
Engineering; University of Nevada, Reno, University of Nevada, Reno
Livani, Hanif; University of Nevada Reno, Electrical and Biomedical
Engineering Department

Transients, switching surges, and electromagnetic noise < Transmission

Technical Topic Area :
and Distribution

Abrupt change detection, Fault location, Transient detection, Traveling-

Key Words:
wave arrival time
Page 1 of 8 IEEE PES Transactions on Power Delivery
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1
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4 A Recursive Method for Traveling-Wave
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Arrival-Time Detection in Power Systems
8 R. Jalilzadeh Hamidi, Member, IEEE, H. Livani, Member, IEEE
9
10
11  arriving-wave shape, DWT will more accurately detect the
12 Abstract— This paper proposes a novel recursive method for AT [6]-[10]. Thus, researchers developed customized
13 detecting the first arrival time (AT) of traveling waves (TWs) in wavelets. In [11], the characteristic frequencies of a test
14 power grids to enhance the fault-location methods relying on system for different fault locations are determined. Then,
15 TWs. This method depends on the adaptive discrete Kalman
based on the pre-fault analysis, the Morlet wavelet is amended
16 filter (ADKF). It estimates the parameters of a high time-
for more accurate detection of ATs. In [12], wavelets are
resolution voltage or current measurement and generates
17 customized based on the time differences between sequential
residuals (innovation sequence). Both measurement noises and
18 TWs can result in an abrupt change in the residuals. The arriving waves for enhancement of AT-detection accuracy.
19 proposed method pinpoints the probable abrupt change and This method customizes wavelets by solving an unconstrained
20 distinguishes whether it is resulted by noises or arriving waves. optimization problem, relying on db wavelet to find the initial
21 As the proposed method is recursive, it is proper for
guess for the optimization problem.
22 implementation in on-site digital fault locators for real-time
In [13], Park’s transform is utilized for real-time AT
23 applications.
For evaluation of the proposed method, EMTP-RV and the detection. Also, it is improved to be less prone to power
24 system imbalances and measurement noises. However, Park’s
real-time digital simulator (RTDS) are utilized to perform the
25 transient simulations. The results are then analyzed in transform curtails modal decomposition of the measurements
26 MATLAB. The proposed method and the state-of-the-art AT- using Clarke’s transform since it requires three-phase
27 detection methods in the prior literature are compared, and the measurements.
28 sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the measurement noises
In [14] and [15], the application of Hilbert transform (HT)
29 and fault parameters have less influence on the proposed method
in detection of ATs is addressed. The performance of HT in
30 efficiency in comparison to the existing AT-detection methods.
AT detection is investigated in [16] and [17], and it is
31
Index Terms— Abrupt change detection, fault location, concluded that HT is to some extent more efficient compared
32 transient detection, traveling-wave arrival time. to DWT. S-transform is utilized for AT detection in [18]
33
and [19], and it is assessed that S-transform is capable of
34
detecting ATs more efficiently in comparison with DWT.
35 I. INTRODUCTION In [20], the application of short time matrix pencil method
36
37
38
A FTER the occurrence of a fault, it is necessary for electric
utilities to locate the fault and repair the damage for
restoration of service. It is well-established that the fault-
(STMPM) in AT detection is proposed. The arriving waves in
low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measurements can be detected
utilizing STMPM. However, STMPM pinpoints the ATs
39
location methods relying on traveling waves (TWs) are through matrix algebra, requiring high processing ability.
40
superior to the impedance-based methods, especially for cross- Therefore, its implementation in on-site digital fault locators
41
linked PolyEthylene (XLPE) insulated or cross-bonded seems to be challenging.
42
cables [1]-[3]. Accordingly, this paper proposes an AT-detection method
43
A considerable number of TW-based fault-location methods with the following advantages: i) It is appropriate for on-site
44
rely on the arrival times (ATs) of the fault-induced TWs to microprocessor-based fault locators, considering that the
45
estimate the fault location. In this regard, several methods are proposed method is computationally efficient as it is fully
46
proposed for AT detection in the literature. The authors of [4] recursive. ii) In comparison with the existing methods, the
47
addressed the application of sliding discrete Fourier transform proposed method is relatively robust against measurement
48
(SDFT) in AT detection. However, SDFT is not able to detect noises. iii) Fault parameters and power system specifications
49
ATs with adequate time resolution that increases the error in change the shape of the fault-induced arriving waves.
50
fault location. After the introduction of discrete wavelet Therefore, pre-assessment of fault-induced TWs is necessary
51
transform (DWT) for AT detection in [5], various wavelets for DWT-based methods in contrast to the proposed method.
52
such as Haar and Daubechies (db) at various scales are used to EMTP-RV and the real-time digital simulator (RTDS) are
53
detect ATs. If the selected wavelet is more similar to the utilized to perform transient simulations. Then, the results are
54
processed using MATLAB. The performance of the proposed
55
and the existing methods (e.g., DWT, HT, and STMPM) are
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Reza Jalilzadeh Hamidi is with the EE Dept. of Arkansas Tech University compared in terms of the following influencing parameters:
and Hanif Livani is with EBME department of the University of Nevada, measurement noises, fault inception angle (FIA), sampling
58 Reno (emails: rhamidi@atu.edu, hlivani@ieee.org).
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 IEEE PES Transactions on Power Delivery Page 2 of 8
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1 frequency (𝐹𝑠 ), and non-ideal faults (NIF) [21]. The simulation

2
results demonstrate that the proposed method is less
3
susceptible to the influencing parameters. Therefore, the
4
performance of the TW-based fault-location methods
5
depending on the first ATs will improve if the proposed
6
method is utilized as an alternative to the existing AT-
7
detection methods.
8
The organization of this paper is as follows: in Section II,
9 the method is described. In Section III, two test cases, one Fig. 1. Typical aerial modes of voltage and current measurements. The
10 illustrative example, and sensitivity analysis are provided. In voltage level is 230 kV, and the sampling frequency is 200 kHz.
11 Sections IV and V, comparison and conclusion are presented,
12 where 𝑥 denotes the states (2𝑁ℎ states are required for a signal
respectively.
13 with 𝑁ℎ harmonics) and 𝑎 indicates the coefficients.
𝑁ℎ
14 II. METHODOLOGY 𝑧𝑘𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = ∑ 𝑎𝑘2ℎ−1 𝑥 2ℎ−1 + 𝑎𝑘2ℎ 𝑥 2ℎ (4)
15 ℎ=1
Referring to Fig. 1, after the occurrence of a fault, abrupt
16 and (4) can be shown in matrix form as
changes (also referred to as transients) in the related voltage
17 𝑧𝑘𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = 𝑯𝐾 𝒙𝑘 (5)
and current measurements arise due to the fault-induced
18 arriving waves. Then, the corresponding voltages and currents 2𝑁
19 where 𝑯𝐾 = [𝑎1𝑘 , 𝑎𝑘2 , … , 𝑎𝑘 ℎ ] is the measurement coefficient
start drifting from their normal trajectories. The proposed
20 method objective is to detect the first AT of the TWs. The vector, 𝒙𝑘 = [𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 , … , 𝑥 2𝑁ℎ ]𝑇 is the measurement state
21 proposed method first estimates the measurement parameters vector, and (. )𝑇 indicates matrix transposition. The state-space
22 and noise variance through adaptive discrete Kalman filter representation of the measurement is
23 (ADKF). In pre-fault duration, the residuals generated by 𝒙 = 𝝓𝑘 𝒙𝑘 + 𝒘𝑘
24 { 𝑘+1 (6)
ADKF comprise measurement noises. Therefore, the residuals 𝑧̃𝑘 = 𝑯𝑘 𝒙𝑘 + 𝛾𝑘
25 are Gaussian. However, in the case of arriving waves, residual where 𝝓 is the state transition matrix, 𝒘 is the process noise
26 sizes become large, resulting in an abrupt change in the vector, and 𝛾 is the measurement noise. The algorithm of the
27 residual sequence. This abrupt change is detected and verified ADKF is as follows, [23]
28 to find the wave AT. Fig. 2 shows the proposed method −1
29 flowchart, and its steps are described as follows, 𝑮𝑘 = 𝑷− 𝑇 − 𝑇 ̂
𝑘 𝑯𝑘 (𝑯𝑘 𝑷𝑘 𝑯𝑘 + 𝑅𝑘−1 )
30 1. Measurement of One New Sample ̂𝑘 = 𝒙
𝒙 ̂−
𝑘 + 𝑮𝑘 (𝑧̃𝑘 − 𝑯𝑘 𝒙̂−
𝑘)
31 During pre-fault time, the measured samples are in the form (𝑰
𝑷𝑘 = − 𝑮𝑘 𝑯𝑘 𝑘 )𝑷 − (7)
32 −
̂𝑘+1 = 𝝓𝑘 𝒙
𝒙 ̂𝑘
of 𝑧̃𝑘 = 𝑧𝑘𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 + 𝛾𝑘 , where 𝑧̃𝑘 is the 𝑘-th measured sample,
33 { −
𝑷𝑘+1 = 𝝓𝑘 𝑷𝑘 𝝓𝑇𝑘 + 𝑸
𝑧𝑘𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 is the true value of the sample, and 𝛾𝑘 ~𝒩(0, 𝜎 2 ) is a
34
zero-mean Gaussian noise with a variance of 𝜎 2 . where 𝑮, 𝑰, 𝑷, and 𝑸 are respectively the gain, identity, error
35
covariance, and process noise covariance matrices. (. )−
36 2. Parameter Estimation
denotes prediction. It is realistic to assume 𝝓𝑘 = 𝑰, ∀𝑘 =
37 The parameters of the measurement are estimated using
1, 2, 3 …, considering the high sampling rate and slow-
38 ADKF. As the power system voltages and currents may
changing power system parameters [22]. 𝑅̂ is the estimated
39 consist of harmonics, (1) represents the true values of the measurement noise variance. It is scalar since the ADKF
40 measurements. successively receives the measured samples (i.e., one sample
41 𝑁ℎ

42 𝑧𝑘𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = ∑ 𝐴ℎ sin(𝑘ℎ𝜔0 𝑇𝑠 + 𝜙ℎ ) (1) of the measurement aerial mode at any given time).
ℎ=1
43 where 𝐴ℎ and 𝜙ℎ are respectively the amplitude and phase 3. Buffering Time
44 angle of the ℎ-th harmonic, 𝑘 is the sample number, 𝜔0 [rad/s] Since the ADKF gradually updates the states (𝑥) by
45 receiving the successive samples, a short period (buffering
is the power system angular frequency, 𝑇𝑠 [s] is the sampling
46 time) is considered for the ADKF outcomes to become valid.
time-step, and 𝑁ℎ represents the number of the existing
47 harmonics in the power system. (1) is extended as 4. Measurement Noise Estimation
48 𝑁ℎ Since environmental noises and measuring device accuracy
49 𝑧𝑘𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = ∑ 𝐴ℎ cos(𝜙ℎ ) sin(𝑘ℎ𝜔0 𝑇𝑠 ) are inconsistent, the measurement noise variance is also
(2)
50 ℎ=1
inconsistent [24]. Therefore, the ADKF is utilized to update
+ 𝐴ℎ sin(𝜙ℎ ) cos(𝑘ℎ𝜔0 𝑇𝑠 )
51 the measurement noise variance for more accurate results. The
52 Applying the definitions in (3) to (2), yields the state- measurement noise variance is updated as [23]
53 variable representation of 𝑧𝑘𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 as provided in (4), [22] 𝑅̂𝑘 = 𝑅0 , ∀𝑘𝑇𝑠 ≤ 𝑏 (8.a)
54 𝑥 2ℎ−1 = 𝐴ℎ cos(𝜙ℎ ) { 1 𝑚
55 𝑥 2ℎ = 𝐴ℎ sin(𝜙ℎ ) 𝑅̂𝑘 = ∑ 𝑟𝑘−𝑖 2
− 𝑯𝑘 𝑷𝑘− 𝑯𝑇𝑘 , ∀𝑘𝑇𝑠 > 𝑏 (8.b)
𝑚 𝑖=1
56 , ∀ℎ = 1,2, … , 𝑁ℎ (3)
𝑎𝑘2ℎ−1 = sin(𝑘ℎ𝜔0 𝑇𝑠 ) where 𝑅0 is the initial value of the measurement noise
57 2ℎ variance, 𝑏 [s] is the buffering time, 𝑚 is the length of the
58 { 𝑎𝑘 = cos(𝑘ℎ𝜔0 𝑇𝑠 )
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Page 3 of 8 IEEE PES Transactions on Power Delivery
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1 residual history required for updating the measurement noise,

2 and 𝑟 is the residual, which is the difference between the
3 measured sample and its estimation, defined as
4
̂𝑘
𝑟𝑘 = 𝑧̃𝑘 − 𝑯𝑘 𝒙 (9)
5
6 As (8.b) requires a long history of 𝑚 residuals and a large
7 number of summations, (8.b) is formulated in a recursive
8 manner as given in (10). The formulations resulting in (10) are
9 provided in Appendix A.
10 𝑅̂𝑘 = 𝛬(𝑅̂𝑘−1 + 𝑯𝑘−1 𝑷𝑘−1
−
𝑯𝑇𝑘−1 ) + (1 − 𝛬)𝑟𝑘−1
2
11 − 𝑇 (10)
− 𝑯𝑘 𝑷𝑘 𝑯𝑘
12
13 where Λ ∈ (0,1) is the forgetting factor.
14 5. Recursive Average of Residuals
15 For distinguishing if the abrupt change in the residuals is
16 resulted by the noises or arriving waves, it is necessary to
17 normalize the residuals. In this regard, (11) is used for
18 recursively calculating the average of the residuals after
19 receiving each sample. (Appendix A provides formulations
20 resulting in (11)).
21
𝑟̅𝑘 = 𝜆𝑟̅𝑘−1 + (1 − 𝜆)𝑟𝑘 , 𝑟̅0 = 0 (11)
22
23 where 𝜆 ∈ (0,1) is the forgetting factor. Fig. 2. The flowchart of the proposed method.

24 6. Normalization of Residuals gain (long-window) filters can be utilized, which are robust
25 As the residuals are Gaussian random variables (RVs), they against measurement noises. However, they are not able to
26 are normalized as follows, pinpoint abrupt changes (i.e., the time resolution of a low-gain
27
𝑟𝑘𝑁 = (𝑟𝑘 − 𝑟̅𝑘 )/𝑅̂𝑘 (12) filter is low). To be able to use long-window filters, a
28 sufficient set of samples is required, therefore, Steps 9 and 10
29 where 𝑟𝑘𝑁 is the normalized value of the 𝑘-th residual.
are considered.
30 7. Detection of an Abrupt Change in the Residual Sequence
31 The arriving waves result in abrupt changes in the 9. Signal Prediction
32 normalized residual sequence. For detection of the probable As low-gain filters require a set of samples, the next 𝑛
33 abrupt change, the two-sided exponentially weighted moving samples after the detection of the abrupt change are predicted
34 average (EWMA) is selected as a high-gain control chart. The ̂𝑘 ) as
based on the last estimated states (𝒙
35 EWMA is capable of pinpointing the abrupt change, while it is −
𝑍𝑝𝑟𝑒 = {𝑧̂𝑘+1 −
, 𝑧̂𝑘+2 −
, … , 𝑧̂𝑘+𝑛 } (14)
36 relatively less prone to release false alarms due to the −
37 measurement noises [25] and [26]. The two-sided EWMA is where 𝑍𝑝𝑟𝑒 is the set of predicted samples. 𝑧̂𝑘+𝑖 =
38 formulated as ̂𝑘 , ∀𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛. The size of the set, 𝑛, should be
𝑯𝑘+𝑖 𝒙
39 properly selected based on the low-gain filter, which is
40 𝑔𝑘 = max{𝜓𝑔𝑘−1 + (1 − 𝜓)𝑟𝑘𝑁 , 0} , 𝑔𝑘 > 𝑇 → 𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑚 described in Step 11.
{ (13)
41 𝑔𝑘′ = max{𝜓𝑔𝑘−1
′
− (1 − 𝜓)𝑟𝑘𝑁 , 0} , 𝑔𝑘′ > 𝑇 → 𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑚 10. Normalized Prediction-Based Residuals
42 where 𝑔𝑘 and 𝑔𝑘′ (with an initial values of zero, 𝑔0 , 𝑔0′ = 0) It takes time for protection systems to disconnect a faulty
43 are the outputs of the EWMA to rising and falling abrupt transmission line (TL). Therefore, the transient recorders
44 changes, respectively. 𝜓 ∈ (0,1) is the control-chart factor, (TRs) can measure the during-fault voltages or currents before
45 and 𝑇 is the threshold, which is selected based on the the protection system clears the fault. Hence, a set of
46 cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the normal normalized residuals based on the predicted (𝑧̂𝑘+𝑖 −
) and the
47 Gaussian PDF (The selection of the threshold based on the during-fault measured samples (𝑧̃𝑘+𝑖 ) are generated as
48 desired confidence level is described in Appendix A). 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
49 𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒 = {𝑟𝑘+1 , 𝑟𝑘+2 , … , 𝑟𝑘+𝑛 } (15)
50 8. Tentative Arrival Time 𝑁
where 𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒 is the normalized prediction-based residual set,
51 Smaller values for 𝜓 and 𝑇 increase the gain of the EWMA 𝑟𝑘+𝑖 = (𝑟𝑘+𝑖 − 𝑟̅𝑘 )/𝑅̂𝑘 , and the prediction-based residuals are
𝑁
52 control chart, enabling it to pinpoint smaller abrupt changes in −
defined as 𝑟𝑘+𝑖 = (𝑧̃𝑘+𝑖 − 𝑧̂𝑘+𝑖 ), ∀𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛.
53 normalized residuals (𝑟𝑘𝑁 ). However, high-gain (short-
54 window) control charts are prone to release false alarms due to 11. Verification of the Tentative AT (TAT)
55 measurement noises. Therefore, the AT corresponding to the The normalized prediction-based residuals are in the form
𝑁
56 detected abrupt change is considered a tentative AT (𝑇𝐴𝑇 = of 𝑟𝑘+𝑖 = 𝑣𝑘+𝑖 + 𝑒𝑘+𝑖 , where 𝑣𝑘+𝑖 ~𝒩(0,1) is the
57 𝑘𝑇𝑠 ), and its validity should be verified. For this purpose, low- measurement noise and 𝑒𝑘+𝑖 is the error in the (𝑘 + 𝑖)-th
58 normalized residual. Referring to Fig. 1, before the occurrence
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1 of a fault (before arriving waves), 𝑒𝑘 ≈ 0, and the elements of

2 𝑁
𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒 are normal Gaussian RVs. However, when a fault occurs,
3
the measurements start drifting from their normal trajectory.
4
Therefore, 𝑒 starts becoming large, 𝑒𝑘 ≫ 0, and the elements
5 𝑁
6 of 𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒 are no longer normal Gaussian. Hence, the Chi-square
7 testing technique is applicable to check the goodness of the fit
8 between the during-fault measured (𝑧̃𝑘+𝑖 ) and the predicted Fig. 3. One-line diagram of Test Case 1.
− TABLE I
9 (𝑧̂𝑘+𝑖 ) samples as
𝑛
THE HARMONIC CONTENTS OF THE VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
10 𝑁 2
(𝑟𝑘+𝑖 )
𝑌=∑ (16) Harmonic Level [%]
Vh2 Vh3 Vh5 Vh7 Vh9 Vh11
11 𝑖=1 0.2 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
12 where 𝑌 is an RV with Chi-square distribution with (𝑛 − 1) 𝜙ℎ2 𝜙ℎ3 𝜙ℎ5 𝜙ℎ7 𝜙ℎ9 𝜙ℎ11
Harmonic Phase [⁰]
13 degrees of freedom. 2 5 3 3 3 3
14 𝑦𝑡
2
15 ∫ 𝜒𝑛−1 (𝜁) 𝑑𝜁 = 𝐶𝐿 (17)
16 0
2
17 where 𝜒𝑛−1 is the Chi-square PDF with (𝑛 − 1) degrees of
18 freedom, 𝜁 is the integration variable, 𝐶𝐿 is the confidence
19 level, and 𝑦𝑡 is the largest acceptable value for 𝑌.
20 If 𝑌 > 𝑦𝑡 , the elements of the normalized prediction-based
𝑁
21 residual set (𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒 ) are not normal Gaussian, implying that 𝑒 ≫
22 0. Therefore, a fault occurred, and 𝐴𝑇 = 𝑇𝐴𝑇.
23 If 𝑌 ≤ 𝑦𝑡 , the elements of the normalized prediction-based
24 𝑁
residual set (𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒 ) are normal Gaussian, implying that 𝑒 ≈ 0.
25 Therefore, the EWMA released a false alarm. Thus, the
26 EWMA resets and the procedure continues from Step 1.
27
28 III. CASE STUDY AND DISCUSSION
29
A. Test Case 1
30
31 The double-ended traveling wave-based fault-location and
32 the test system in [5] are adopted to validate the proposed
33 method. However, the proposed method is applicable to a Fig. 4. An SLG fault with 𝑍𝑓 = 10 Ω takes places at 50 mi from Bus 1 at 𝑡 =
34 wide range of TW-based fault-location methods utilizing the 250 ms. (a) The measured voltage and its estimated value in the aerial mode.
first ATs (e.g., [2], [6], and [7]). (b) The normalized residuals during the buffering time. (c) The estimated and
35 measured voltages before the occurrence of the fault. (d) The normalized
36 Test Case 1 is shown in Fig. 3. Both ends of the TL are residuals after the buffering time. (e) and (f) The fault-induced arriving wave
37 equipped with TRs. GPS signal receivers are utilized for time and its corresponding normalized residuals. (g) and (h) The entire
38 stamping of the high time-resolution measurements. The TL measurement and normalized residuals during the procedure.
39 length and voltage are 100 mi and 350 kV, respectively.
40 It is assumed that the voltage contains the harmonics given method: 𝑅0 = 0.005 × 𝑉𝐴 where 𝑉𝐴 is the voltage amplitude
41 in Table I. The TL is transposed with a topology based (285.774 kV), 𝑞 = 1, 𝑏 = 20 ms (i.e., the first 4000 samples
42 on [27]. The frequency-dependent TL model is utilized. The as 𝐹𝑠 = 200 kHz), Λ = 0.99, 𝜆 = 0.99, 𝜓 = 0.1. 𝑇 = 1.488 is
43 aerial-mode TW velocity is 183,486 mi/s, which is equivalent selected for a confidence level of 95%. 𝑛 = 10 is selected for
44 to a traveling-time (𝜏) of 545 μs. The two-ended method for the Chi-Square test. A single-line-to-ground (SLG) fault with
45 locating the fault is [5] a fault impedance of 10 Ω (𝑍𝑓 = 10 Ω) occurs 50 mi away
46 𝐸𝐹𝐿 = (𝐿 − 𝑣 Δ𝑡)/2 (18) from Bus 1 at 𝑡 = 250 ms. The voltage measurements contain
47 zero-mean Gaussian noises with 𝜎 2 = 0.01 × 𝑉𝐴 . The aerial
where 𝐸𝐹𝐿 is the estimated fault location in mile, 𝐿 [mi] is the
48 mode of the measured voltages (using Clark’s transform) is
TL length, Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 [s] and 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 are respectively the
49 ATs at Bus 1 and Bus 2. 𝑣 [mi/s] is the TW velocity. The error
fed to the proposed method.
50 in fault-location is calculated as
Fig. 4(a) shows the measured (𝑧̃𝑘 ) and estimated
51 measurements (𝑧̂𝑘 ) in the beginning of the procedure during
52 𝑒𝑟𝑟% = |𝑅𝐹𝐿 − 𝐸𝐹𝐿|/𝐿 × 100 (19) the buffering time (𝑡 ≤ 20 ms). The estimated voltage quickly
53 where 𝑒𝑟𝑟 [%] is the fault-location error, and RFL is the real converge to the measured voltage since the sampling rate is
54 fault location in mile. high and the states update fast. Fig. 4(b) shows the normalized
55 residuals (𝑟𝑘𝑁 ) during the buffering time. It is noticed that the
56 1) Illustrative Example normalized residuals become smaller as the states are updated.
57 The following parameters are selected for the proposed After the buffering time, the estimated voltage closely follows
58 the measured voltage and the normalized residuals deviate
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1 around zero, corresponding to a zero-mean Gaussian noise, as

2 shown in Figs. 4(c) and 4(d). The fault-induced arriving waves
3 reach Bus 1 at 250.275 ms as Fig. 4(e) depicts. As Fig. 4(f)
4 shows, at 𝑡 = 250.275 ms, the normalized residual resulted by
5 the arriving wave becomes large. Therefore, the EWMA
6 determines 𝑇𝐴𝑇 = 250.275 ms. Then, the proposed method
7 predicts the next 10 samples for times
8 250.280, 250.285, … , 250.325 ms. After measurement of the
9 next 10 samples, the normalized prediction-based residual set
10 𝑁
(𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒 ) is generated. Chi-square testing technique determines
11 that the elements of the normalized prediction-based residual
12 𝑁
set (𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑒 ) do not belong to the normal Gaussian noise.
13 Therefore, the low-gain filter verifies that the abrupt change is
14 resulted by an arriving wave. Therefore, 𝐴𝑇 = 𝑇𝐴𝑇 that
15 equals 250.275 ms. Figs. 4(g) and 4(h) illustrate the entire
16 procedure. In Fig. 4(h), the double-head arrow indicates that
17 as the ADKF updates the measurement noise variance, the
18 normalized residuals become smaller, improving the proposed
19 method efficiency.
20 B. Sensitivity Analysis Based on Test Case 1
Fig. 5. Fault-location errors related to an SLG fault 50 mi away from Bus
21 1, 𝑍𝑓 = 10 Ω, 𝐹𝐼𝐴 = 150 , and 𝐹𝑆 = 200 kHz. (a) 𝜎 2 = 0.0075𝑉𝑝 . (b) 𝜎 2 =
The following subsections evaluate and compare the 0.01𝑉𝑝 . (c) 𝜎 2 = 0.0125𝑉𝑝 .
22
23 proposed method with the existing AT-detection methods TABLE II
FIA INFLUENCE OVER FAULT LOCATION ERROR
24 based on Test Case 1.
FIA [⁰]
25 Transient
RFL
1) Noise Sensitivity 5 6 7 8
26 Detection
[mi]
27 Fault-induced TWs mitigate along TLs. Also, the Method
Error in Fault-Location [%]
28 environmental and measuring device noises skew the
(†)
measurements. Therefore, it is preferable that AT-detection 1 F F F F
29 DWT, db-4,
5 F F F F
30 methods be able to accurately detect arriving waves in low- scale 1
50 F F F 1.120
31 SNR measurements. For evaluation of the proposed method, it 1 F F 1.021 1.060
is assumed that an SLG fault takes place 50 mi away from Bus DWT, db-4,
32 scale 2
5 F 1.109 1.015 1.001
33 1, 𝐹𝑆 = 200 kHz and the following parameters are selected to 50 F 0.388 0.382 0.381
1 F F F F
34 provide low-SNR fault-induced arriving waves: 𝑍𝑓 = 10 Ω
DWT, Haar 5 F F F 0.601
35 and 𝐹𝐼𝐴 = 15⁰. The statistical analyses of the fault-location 50 F F 0.820 0.433
36 errors based on one thousand Monte Carlo simulations 1 F F 0.227 0.214
HT 5 F 0.188 0.168 0.160
37 (MCSs) are shown in Fig. 5. The fault-location errors for the
50 F 0.074 0.071 0.066
38 additive Gaussian noises with 𝜎 2 = 0.0075𝑉𝐴 , 𝜎 2 = 0.01𝑉𝐴 , 1 0.960 0.420 0.404 0.395
39 and 𝜎 2 = 0.0125𝑉𝐴 are shown in Figs. 5(a), 5(b) and 5(c), STMPM 5 0.528 0.418 0.392 0.367
40 respectively. It is noticed that the proposed and STMPM 50 0.271 0.216 0.201 0.194
1 F 0.455 0.404 0.395
41 methods are able to detect the arriving waves regardless of The Proposed
5 0.414 0.391 0.391 0.370
42 their relatively low SNRs. However, DWT using db-4 at scale Method
50 0.223 0.188 0.176 0.191
43 1 cannot accurately detect the arriving waves as Fig. 5 depicts. (†)
F means that the method fails to detect the AT.
44 DWT with db-4 at scale 2 is able to detect the arriving waves
45 with a noise variance less than 0.01𝑉𝐴 as Fig. 5 shows. DWT find the location of the faults with 𝐹𝐼𝐴 ≥ 6⁰. However, it is
46 with Harr as well as HT can detect the ATs for a noise worth noting that in the case of a larger attenuation factor
47 variance less than 0.0125𝑉𝐴 . (attenuation factor is equal to 𝑒 −𝛼𝐿 in which 𝛼 is the
48 attenuation constant [mi-1] and 𝐿 is the TL length [mi]) or
49 2) Fault Inception Angle (FIA) severer noise-contaminated measurements, a fault with a
50 As the faults with lower FIAs generate smaller TWs, it is larger FIA can be located.
51 more probable for fault-induced TWs to fade away in noisy
52 measurements. Thus, the proposed method is compared to the 3) Sampling Frequency (𝐹𝑆 )
53 existing methods concerning FIA, and the results are given in A higher sampling frequency results in a higher time-
54 Table II. The fault location is in the middle of the line, 𝑍𝑓 = 5 resolution. Therefore, ATs can be detected more precisely.
55 Ω, 𝐹𝑆 = 200 kHz, and the additive noise is 𝒩(0,0.01𝑉𝐴 ). However, the attenuation factors corresponding to higher
56 According to the results given in Table II, STMPM is able to frequency contents of TWs increase [28], especially for
57 locate the faults with 𝐹𝐼𝐴 ≥ 5⁰ and the proposed method can cables [2] and [20]. Accordingly, the efficiency of AT-
58 detection methods with respect to the sampling frequency is
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Fig. 6. Fault location errors with respect to the sampling frequency. (a) The
14
fault is 5 mi away from Bus 1 (𝑅𝐹𝐿 = 5 mi). (b) The fault is 10 mi away from
15 Bus 1 (𝑅𝐹𝐿 = 10 mi). Fig. 9. (a) The schematic of the test system in RTDS. (b) The schematic of
16 the hardware for converting the analog measurements to digital and sending
17 them to Matlab.
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25 Fig. 7. The effect of fault-impedance on the arriving waves at Bus 1, 𝑅𝐹𝐿 =
26 10 mi from Bus 1, 𝐹𝑠 = 200 kHz, 𝑍𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑗𝑋𝑓 = 2 Ω, and 𝐹𝐼𝐴 = 90⁰.
27
28
29
30
31
32 Fig. 10. (a) and (b) show the arriving waves at Buses 1 and 2, respectively.
33 (c) and (d) show the corresponding normalized residuals (𝐹𝑠 = 200 kHz).
34
35 shapes are slightly dissimilar; therefore, AT-detection methods
36 estimate different ATs. One thousand MCSs are run for each
37
Fig. 8. The effect of fault-impedance on fault-location errors. 𝑋𝑓 /𝑅𝑓 ratio. The resulted fault-location errors by different AT-
38 studied and the results are provided in Fig. 6. Two fault detection methods are shown in Fig. 8. It is noticed that db-4
39 locations (i.e., 5 and 10 mi from Bus 1) are considered with at scale 1 and to a lesser extent at scale 2 are influenced by
40 𝑍𝑓 = 5 Ω, 𝐹𝐼𝐴 = 90⁰, and the additional noise is NIFs. However, NIFs have a relatively low impact on Haar
41 𝒩(0,0.01𝑉𝐴 ). It is noticed that the sampling frequency
and HT. The proposed method and STMPM are robust against
42 drastically detracts from the efficiency of DWT with db-4 at
NIFs.
43 scale 2 and HT. The performance of the proposed method and C. Test Case 2: Real-Time Digital Simulator (RTDS)
44 db-4 at scale 1 to some extent decreases as the sampling Implementation
45 frequency decreases. However, sampling frequency has a The schematic of Test Case 2 is shown in Fig. 9(a), which is
46 minor effect on STMPM and Haar. developed in the RTDS with a digital-to-analog (D/A)-in-the-
47
loop. The system voltage and frequency are 230 kV and 60
48 4) Non-Ideal Faults (NIF) Hz, respectively. The length of the overhead TL is 200 mi
49 The fault impedance (shown with 𝑍𝑓 in Fig. 3) with with the specification based on [29]. The TW velocity is
50
different 𝑋𝑓 /𝑅𝑓 ratios generates fault-induced TWs with 178,430 mi/s [29]. Fig. 9(b) shows the schematic of the used
51
different shapes, affecting AT-detection methods [2] and [20]. hardware. The D/A of the RTDS produces analog voltages
52
53 An SLG fault occurs at 20 mi from Bus 1 with 𝐹𝐼𝐴 = 90⁰, based on the simulation results at 1 MHz. The data acquisition
54 𝐹𝑆 = 200 kHz, and the additional noise is 𝒩(0,0.01𝑉𝐴 ). The (DAQ), “IOTech DAQ/3000”, is used to provide time-
55 absolute value of the fault impedance is constant (𝑍𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 + stamped digital samples at a rate up to 1 MHz [30], and the
56 𝑗𝑋𝑓 = 2Ω), however, the following values are considered for digitalized measurements are then processed in MATLAB.
57 𝑋𝑓 /𝑅𝑓 ratios: 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2. Fig. 7 shows the arriving- Fig. 10 shows the measurements and the detected ATs for a
58 wave shapes at the Bus 1. It is noticed that the arriving-wave solid fault at 75 miles from Bus 1. Referring to (18) and (19),
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7

1 𝑡1 = 74.945 ms, 𝑡2 = 75.220 ms, therefore, Δ𝑡 = 275 µs, TABLE III

2 AVERAGE FAULT-LOCATION ERRORS IN TEST CASE 2
and the estimated fault location is 𝐸𝐹𝐿 = 75.465 mi, with
3 AFL [mi] from Bus 1
𝑒𝑟𝑟 = 0.23%. The measurement noise variances estimated by
4 5 10 25 50 100
the ADKF are almost 2080 V (i.e., 0.011VA ) and 575 V (i.e., 𝐹𝑠 = 200 kHz ≈0
5 Error [%] 0.87 0.81 0.32 0.26
0.003𝑉𝐴 ) at Buses 1 and 2, respectively, which are due to the 𝐹𝑠 = 500 kHz ≈0
6 Error [%] 0.51 0.28 0.18 0.09
RTDS D/A, DAQ system, and the connections.
7 TABLE IV
Several experiments for the DAQ sampling frequencies of
8 AT-DETECTION METHODS IN QUALITATIVE COMPARISON
200 and 500 kHz and different fault locations are carried out.
9 Detection Method FIA NIF 𝐹𝑠 Noise
The average fault-location errors based on one hundred
10 DWT, db-4, Scale 1 W(†) W RR(†) W
experiments for each fault location and 𝐹𝑠 are provided in
11 DWT, db-4, Scale 2 RR W W W
Table III. The average fault-location errors corresponding to
12 DWT, Haar W RR R(†) RR
13 the higher 𝐹𝑠 are smaller. In addition, it is noticed that the R RR RR
HT W
14 average fault-location errors related to the faults closer to Bus STMPM R R R R
15 1 are larger. The Proposed Method R R RR R
(†)
16 “W”, “R”, and “RR” are abbreviations for weak, robust, and relatively
17 IV. COMPARISON robust, respectively.

18 Based on the simulation outcomes, the efficiency of the

streams of high time-resolution measurements. The transient
19 existing and proposed AT-detection methods are qualitatively
simulations are performed utilizing EMTP-RV and the real-
20 compared and the results are given in Table IV. The
time digital simulator (RTDS). The proposed method is
21 performance of DWT using db-4 at scale 1 is not preferable
compared with the state-of-the-art AT-detection methods in
22 against all the influencing parameters except for 𝐹𝑠 . However,
the literature using MATLAB. According to the sensitivity
23 DWT using db-4 at scale 2 is comparatively robust against
analysis, the performance of the proposed method is
24 FIA. The efficiency of Haar deteriorates against low FIAs.
satisfactory for AT detection. The measurement noises, fault
25 However, Haar efficiency does not deteriorate with lower
inception angle (FIA), and non-ideal faults (NIFs)
26 sampling frequencies. The errors in the estimated fault-
comparatively less affect the proposed method. However,
locations using HT are smaller compared to DWT. However,
27 lower sampling frequencies (𝐹𝑆 ) to some extent reduce the
HT results in inefficient outcomes in the case of low-sampling
28 accuracy of the proposed method.
measurements. None of the influencing parameters affects
29
STMPM. The proposed method results in reliable outcomes
30 against the influencing parameters, except for 𝐹𝑠 . APPENDIX A
31 The proposed method is also compared to STMPM in terms • Recursive Measurement Noise Estimation: For any given
32 of computational burden since STMPM is considerably (𝑘 − 1)-th sample satisfying (8.a), (8.b) is [23]
33 capable of detecting ATs, especially for low-SNR and low-𝐹𝑆 1 𝑚
34 𝑅̂𝑘−1 = ∑ 𝑟(𝑘−1)−𝑖 2
−⏟𝑯𝑘−1 𝑷− 𝑇
𝑘−1 𝑯𝑘−1
measurements. The CPU and RAM of the computer are Intel 𝑚 ⏟ 𝑖=1 (20)
35 Xeon E5420 and 32 GB, respectively. In both the proposed 𝐴𝑘−1
𝐵𝑘−1
36 and STMPM methods, calculation of the sine and cosine 𝐴𝑘−1 can be written as
37 functions are fulfilled through lookup tables, and divisions by
38 𝐴𝑘−1 = 𝑚(𝑅̂𝑘−1 + 𝐵𝑘−1 ) (21)
constants are replaced with multiplication (e.g., ÷ 4 is
2
39 replaced with × 0.25) since it decreases the computation time. after the measurement of the next sample (𝑘-th), 𝑟𝑘−1
40 The measurement shown in Fig. 4(g) for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 100 ms is (calculated and saved in the previous step) is added to both
41 considered. As 𝐹𝑠 = 200 kHz, 100 ms is equal to 20,000 sides of (21) as
42 samples. The total running times of STMPM and the proposed 2
𝐴𝑘−1 + 𝑟𝑘−1
⏟ = 𝑚(𝑅̂𝑘−1 + 𝐵𝑘−1 ) + 𝑟𝑘−1
2
(22)
43 method for processing 20,000 samples are 244.539002 s and 𝑙ℎ𝑠
44 0.088102 s (88.102 ms), respectively. Thus, the proposed where 𝑙ℎ𝑠 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑚+1 2
𝑟(𝑘)−𝑖 , and the window length (𝑚)
45 method is considerably faster compared to STMPM.
increases by 1. (20) for the 𝑘-th sample is
46
1 𝑚+1
47 V. CONCLUSION 𝑅̂𝑘 = ∑ 𝑟2 −𝑯 − 𝑇
⏟𝑘 𝑷𝑘 𝑯𝑘
48 𝑚 + 1 ⏟ 𝑖=1 (𝑘)−𝑖 (23)
Accurate detection of traveling-wave arrival times (ATs) 𝐵𝑘
𝐴𝑘
49 plays a vital role in fault location based on ATs. Thus, this
50 replacing 𝐴𝑘 in (23) with 𝑙ℎ𝑠 in (22),
paper proposes a novel method for detecting the first AT of
51 TWs in power grids. The proposed method pinpoints the 1
𝑅̂𝑘 = 𝑙ℎ𝑠 − 𝐵𝑘 (24)
52 abrupt changes in the residuals (innovation sequence) 𝑚+1
53 generated by an adaptive discrete Kalman filter (ADKF) Referring to (22), (24) is
54 through the exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) 𝑚 2
𝑟𝑘−1
55 as a high-gain control chart. Then, the Chi-square filter 𝑅̂𝑘 = (𝑅̂𝑘−1 + 𝐵𝑘−1 ) + 𝑯𝑘 𝑷−
−⏟ 𝑇
𝑘 𝑯𝑘 (25)
𝑚+1 𝑚+1
56 verifies the released alarm validity. The proposed method is 𝐵𝑘

57 recursive. Therefore, it is proper for implementation in on-site by defining 𝛬 = 𝑚/(𝑚 + 1), and referring to (20),
58 microprocessor-based fault locators managing real-time
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1
𝑅̂𝑘 = 𝛬(𝑅̂𝑘−1 + 𝑯𝑘−1 𝑷𝑘−1− [11] A. Borghetti, M. Bosetti, M. Di Silvestro, C. A. Nucci, and M. Paolone,
2 𝑯𝑇𝑘−1 ) + (1 − 𝛬)𝑟𝑘−1
2
“Continuous-wavelet transform for fault location in distribution power
(26)
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