INFORMATION SYSTEM AND SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Monika Sethi Anju Sharma

GGDSD College Chandigarh Thapar University Patiala
Affiliated to Panjab University Punjab, India
Chandigarh (Union Territory),India

ABSTRACT
In the last decade the role of monitoring the information has become apparent.
The availability of steadfast information, offered in an suitable format is the basis
for good decision making in an organisation. It is used by various organisations for
attaining a competitive advantage and proficiency. This chapter provide us
knowledge of the features and purposes of information. Organisations can use these
information skills to solve practical problems. It also discusses the role of information
system for developing a new system using System Development Life Cycle (SDLC).

INTRODUCTION
The main objective of this chapter is to gain knowledge about the working of the
information system and the role of System Development Life Cycle (SDLC). It will
integrate various aspects of the input & output of the Information System into SDLC.
An information system is a combination of five elements human, data, software,
hardware and network organized together to convert the given input into output by
processing data into information or it is also said that information system is a system
of organized attributes grouped and worked together as a single unit. The system
resources used for processing information is software and hardware. Hardware
refers to equipments used for transforming information as equipment resource and
software refers to collection of programs, as material resources.

According to Silver et al. Information Systems can be defined as [1]: “Information

systems are implemented within an organization for the purpose of improving the
effectiveness and efficiency of that organization. Capabilities of the information
system and characteristics of the organization, its work systems, its people, and its
development and implementation methodologies together determine the extent to
which that purpose is achieved.”
To become skilled user of information and to know how organisations are achieving
their aims and objectives, one should be very clear about the following factors of the
information.
 Information Source: Information can be collected from various sources like
internal, external, primary, and secondary.
 Information Levels: The information can also be classified based on its
usage in any organization at its different levels like strategic information,
tactical information and operational information
 Information Quality: Quality of information refers to reliability and its fitness
for use. Some of the attributes which effects the quality are timelines,
accuracy, adequacy, relevance, completeness, explicitness and exception
base.
 Information Perspective: Information system plays very significant role in
various perspectives of real world like end user perspective, organization
perspective and global society perspective.

As in the above section various factors of information has been elaborated and next
is the elements of information systems are as follows:

 Human: consist of information specialist and end users.

 Data: deals with transforming the data into information .
 Software: includes procedures and programs for information management.
 Hardware: are equipments and machines used for data processing.
 Network: include communication media and support.

Components of Information System

In a broad sense two major categories of information system are CIS (Computer
Information System) and BIS (Business Information System ) these both collectively
form a new idea that is CBIS (Computer Based Information System) for business.

According to O'Brien, J.A. [2]: “Some make a clear distinction between information
systems, computer systems, and business processes. Information systems typically
include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing in instead
on the end use of information technology. Information systems are also different
from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of
business processes”

CBIS (Computer Based Information System) incorporates following types of

information and support systems at various levels of management. An information
system is a form of information and communication technology (ICT) in which data is
processed using human efforts.

MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEMS

 Expert System (ES) /Executive Support System (ESS)
 Decision Support System (DSS)
 Management Information System (MIS)
OPERATION SUPPORT SYSTEMS
 Transaction Processing System (TPS)
 Office Automation System (OAS)

Organisation levels and Type of information system is shown in Table 1:

Strategic Level Expert System (ES) /Executive Support System (ESS)

Tactical Level Decision support system

Management information system

Operational Transaction Processing System (TPS)

Level Office Automation System (OAS)

Table 1: Organisation levels and Type of information system

Expert Systems (ES)/Executive Support System (ESS):

 An ES/ESS is designed to make strategic decisions by senior management .ES/
ESS involves modeling tools such as "what-if" etc to analyze, that helps strategic
decision-making.

According to Nwigbo Stella and Agbo Okechuku Chuks:[3] “An expert system has a
unique structure, different from traditional programs. It is divided into two parts, one
fixed, independent of the expert system: the inference engine, and one variable: the
knowledge base. To run an expert system, the engine reasons about the knowledge
base like a human.”

Expert System is typically an interactive computer procedure/program that is used to

imitate reckoning and heuristics by gaining the knowledge from human experts for
decision making .An expert system works in two phases as shown in Figure 1:
 Knowledge base
 An inference engine

Facts
Knowledge Base
User
Inference Engine
Expertise

Expert System

Figure 1: Phases of Expert System

The knowledge base contains problem domain and stores information about the
facts and rules. The inference engine is a control mechanism use to draw
conclusions considering, facts and rules to apply on different problem domains
when solving the user’s query.
Decision Support System (DSS):

DSS is a computer-based information system that supports decision-making

activities in an organization. It is an interactive and flexible tool of decision making
used preferably at strategic and tactical level in an organization, which is of low
frequency but high prospective consequences. DSS facilitate a manager to walk
around a range of alternatives to get best out of them. DSS consists of database for
data management, data management models and user interface. A DSS database
contains data, which is extracted before entering the database as it comes from
several sources of information. Data management models are use to develop DSS
applications. The user interface supports the interaction between user and DSS.

According to Keen [4]: “The concept of decision support has evolved from two main
areas of research: The theoretical studies of organizational decision making and the
technical work on interactive computer systems”.

Components of Decision support system (DSS) is shown in Table 2:

Hardware A personal computer or computer network provide primary

hardware resource for DSS
Software it contains software modules and application packages to manage
DSS databases
Data As DSS database contains all data and information, the purpose of
Resources data resource is to store data and information most needed by
managers for a specific type of decision
Model This includes mathematical and analytical techniques as stored
Resources programs ,subroutines and spread sheets etc
People Managers and DSS specialist can use DSS to get alternative
Resource decisions for a problem domain
Table 2: Components of Decision support system (DSS)

Management Information System (MIS):

 MIS deals with the information that is needed to manage different organizational
activities. It is the most efficient and effective information system to manage
organizational resources like people, technology, information etc.

According to O'Brien, J.A.[5]: ”Management information systems involve three

primary resources: people, technology, and information or decision making.
Management information systems are distinct from other information systems in that
they are used to analyze operational activities in the organization”.

Initially the concept of MIS was to process data and made required reports at
regular intervals The changes in the concept comes when a clear distinction is made
between data and information. The information is processed data. The structure of
MIS can be divided in two areas:
i. On the basis of Management activities
ii. On the basis of Functional/Processing activities

Management activities include:

 Strategic Planning: define goals, policies etc
 Tactical planning: define acquisition of resources, monitoring etc
 Operational planning: effective and efficient use of existing factors

Functional / Processing activities include:

 Processing transactions
 Generating reports
 Maintaining master files
 Processing support applications

Transaction Processing System (TPS):

TPS is used to collects information about transactions, and control these

transactions. This is a computerized system that process and records the daily
transactions necessary for a business. It processes routine transactions efficiently
and accurately, for example: billing systems, payroll systems, production and
purchasing systems, stock control systems etc. Four elements of Transaction
Processing are:
i. Inputs: Transactions or events.
ii. Processing: Sorting, listing, merging, updating.
iii. Outputs: Detailed reports, lists, summaries.
iv. Users: Operational personnel, supervisors.
TPS processes transactions into two ways:
1. Batch Processing: Data is mounting up in some course of time and processed
periodically in batches.
2. Real Time Processing: Data is instantaneously processed after a transaction
occurs.
A TPS consists of Transaction Processing Monitor (TPM), databases, and
transactions. Transaction Processing Monitor is used to control transaction
execution. Main functions of TPS are: process data generated by transactions,
maintain accuracy, ensure data integrity, timely delivery of documents and reports
and increase efficiency.

Office Automation System (OAS):

OAS refers to computer system used to create, collect, store and manipulate office
information which is needed to perform a specific task. Raw data storage, electronic
information transfer, and digital management of information etc .OAS automate office
system, enhance communications at every level and increases productivity.OAS
help any individual to perform personal record keeping efficiently using simple
computer based tools like: spreadsheet programs, text & image processing systems,
database systems etc.
LAN is the backbone of office automation system which allows users to transmit
data, image and voice across the network. All office functions like dictation, typing,
copying, filing, fax, and recording etc comes under office automation. Some most
common OAS is: text processors, electronic document management systems,
electronic massage communication systems, teleconferencing and video
conferencing systems.
To develop a good information system, we need to have a set of rules and models
that gives us a framework for creating a planned and controlled information system.
For this purpose it is mandatory to integrate information system into System
Development Life Cycle (SDLC). In coming section we will elaborate the SDLC.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE-CYCLE

The system development life cycle (SDLC) is a process of developing an information

system, or developing models that one can use to develop the information system.
The aim of SDLC is a high quality system that matches the customer requirements,
in terms of time, cost, effectiveness and efficiency. The SDLC provides a set of
phases and activities for system development. The process of SDLC started from
problem identification, after identification next step is to analyse the problem that,
whether it really exist or not. Once the analysis part is over system analyst has to go
through feasibility study. If the problem/need pass the feasibility phase then the
development of the system starts. Once the system is ready, various testing
techniques are applied to check the accuracy, only then the system is implemented.
Result of each phase of SDLC act as an input data for the next phase.

According to Geoffrey Elliott [6] "The traditional life cycle approaches to systems
development have been increasingly replaced with alternative approaches and
frameworks, which attempted to overcome some of the inherent deficiencies of the
traditional SDLC.”

Phases of SDLC are as follows:

 Identification of a problem/ need
 Feasibility study
 Analysis of the problem/need
 System design
 System testing
 Implementation and maintenance

Phases of SDLC are shown in Figure 2:

 Identification of
a problem/ need

Feasibility
study
Analysis of the
problem/need

System design

System
testing

Implementation
and maintenance

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Figure 2: System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

Identification of a problem/ need:

This is the first and phase of system development life cycle. This is the most crucial
phase for the success of the project. The main question of this phase is:
What is the problem/need? This leads to an initial investigation that if the problem is
solved by enhancing the existing system or organisation needs to replace it. This
phase is further divided into two phases: The first phase investigates, identified,
prioritized and arranged the problem domain. The second phase initiates the project
for problem domain and a detailed work plan is made.
Feasibility study:

After initial investigation a feasibility study takes place in time constraints and written
or oral report is made. By considering the economic, technical and behavioural
factors the feasibility study respond. A feasibility study is carried out to select best
system the meets all constraints and requirements. The main objective of this phase
is to determine whether it is feasible to develop the new system. There are seven
types of feasibilities:
1. Technical Feasibility: Whether the project can be carried out with existing
system? Can existing staff work well with new system? Whether a new
technology can be implemented at its best?
2. Economic Feasibility: Does organisation have enough funds for developing a
new system? Whether there are sufficient benefits as compared to cost
incurred?
3. Operational Feasibility: Whether it can be utilised at its best if implemented?
4. Social/Behavioural Feasibility: Whether the users easily adapt the changed
system?
5. Management Feasibility: Whether the system be acceptable by the
management?
6. Legal Feasibility: Whether a system passes all legal litigations?
7. Time Feasibility: Whether the system can be implemented within the given
time constraints?

Analysis of the problem/need:

System analysis is a process of collecting realistic data, understand the business

requirement and create a logical model of the new required system. System analyst
works on identified problem and feasible suggestions for convalescing the system
functioning. System analysis is done to find answers for each of the following
question: What, How, Who, When, and Why.
This phase is concerned with the thinking process of system analyst. It endeavors to
make a new efficient system that satisfies the organizational needs, this phase
results in a logical system design. Systems analysis is a repetitive process that
continues until an ideal and suitable solution comes out. Some major activities of this
phase is collect required information, define system requirements, build prototypes,
scrutiny of existing hardware and software, evaluate alternatives and conceptual
data modeling.

Different analysis tools are used to accomplish the above activities. Some of the
tools are flowchart, data flow diagram (DFD), data dictionary, structured english,
decision trees and decision tables. Most of these tools are graphical in nature, one
of the most commonly used tools is DFD. Symbols used for making DFD are shown
in Figure 3:

Source or Destination of data

Data Flows

Process that transforms Data Flow

Data Stores

Figure 3: Symbols of Data flow diagram

System analysis phase ends up with a document that describes user requirements,
plans, recommendations and a logical design in the form of above mentioned tools.

System Design Phase:

This phase is totally based on the document produced by analysis phase about the
required system. Keeping in view the recommendations of the analyst the designing
of the system starts. It is the decisive phase in the development of a system. Till the
time we are dealing with logical system designs but as resultant it will be converted
into the physical system design. Normally, the designing of a system is done in two
stages:
i. Basic Design stage: In this stage, the specification and features of the new
system are specified. The cost /benefit analysis of a new system is done for
every proposed design. If the proposed design is considered to be feasible,
then the whole process moves to the structured design stage.
ii. Structured or Detailed Design stage: In this stage, the basic design comes out
with more structured details. It is the blue print of a new system with
components, compositions and inter-relationships required in analysis
document. The design is then documented in the required specifications and
offered to management and end users for their review and consent.

This phase involves the activities like detailed description of input and outputs,
database models, design of forms and reports, hardware and software
platforms, codification schemes (if needed), design application architecture,
design of user interfaces, design of system interfaces and design of system
controls.

System Testing Phase:

Now the system is build and approved from management and user but still is not
ready for implementation as it has to go through testing phase. A successful test
ensures that the system is ready to use. It is an important phase for the actual
success of a system.
According to IEEE Standard for Software Unit Testing [7]: “Software testing is the
process of analyzing a software item to detect the differences between existing and
required conditions (that is, bugs) and to evaluate the features of the software item.”

In this phase verification and validation of the system/software is done for various
testing techniques.
According to IEEE Standard Glossary of Software Engineering Terminology [8]:
“Verification (the first V) is the process of evaluating a system or component to
determine whether the products of a given development phase satisfy the conditions
imposed at the start of that phase. Validation is the process of evaluating a system
or component during or at the end of the development process to determine whether
it satisfies specified requirements.”

In this phase tester ensures that the system/software meets the organizational
requirements, and works as expected by the user. This phase also make out defects
and errors in the system that is to be fixed. In case of software systems, after
codifying the whole programs, a test plan is developed and run on a given system.
If the output of the test run matches the required results only then the system is
considered a part of implementation process. The best approach of testing is Pilot
testing .In this testing a system is installed at only one location and then program
and system testing is performed .Both these tests clears all the bugs/errors and
problems in the system .Once the system passes the test then it is installed in all
required areas. There are various testing techniques used for this purpose. Two
main types are: Black Box testing and White Box Testing.

According to IEEE Standard Glossary of Software Engineering Terminology [8]:

“Black box testing (also called functional testing) is testing that ignores the internal
mechanism of a system or component and focuses solely on the outputs generated
in response to selected inputs and execution conditions.” and “White box testing
(also called structural testing and glass box testing) is testing that takes into account
the internal mechanism of a system or component.”

Six test strategies which come under Black and White box testing are:

i. Unit testing is based on white box testing:

According to Kolawa, Adam; Huizinga, Dorota[9]: “Unit testing is a method by
which individual units of source code, sets of one or more computer program
modules together with associated control data, usage procedures, and
operating procedures, are tested to determine if they are fit for use.”
 ii. Integration testing is based on black and white box testing: It is a testing
strategy in which software and hardware components are tested individually
and collectively to appraise the interaction between them.

iii. Functional and system testing is based on black box testing:

According to Kaner, Falk, Nguyen[10]: “Functional testing is a type of black
box testing that bases its test cases on the specifications of the software
component under test. Functions are tested by feeding them input and
examining the output, and internal program structure is rarely considered “

iv. System testing is based on black box testing: It is performed on a complete

incorporated system to evaluate: The component at or outside the limits of its
requirement and this strategy is known as Stress testing. The compatibility of
the components with the specified performance requirements and is also
known as performance testing. How much a user can learn to prepare inputs
and understands the outputs of a system this is also known as usability
testing

v. Acceptance testing is based on black box testing: Acceptance testing is

conducted to determine whether the system satisfies the user as per the
predefined criteria and made it acceptable to the user.

vi. Regression testing is based on black and white box testing: This testing is
done throughout all testing’s, to verify whether any change or modification
have not introduce new faults.
According to Savenkov, Roman[11]: “One of the main reasons for regression
testing is to determine whether a change in one part of the software affects
other parts of the software.”

Implementation and Maintenance phase:

After the user acceptance of the new developed system, the implementation phase
begins. It is the phase where assumption/requirements turn into practice. In this
phase the users are trained about the system and starts using it. The developer of
the system provides two type of documents about the system to the organisation.
These are:
i. Operator/user Document: This document complete description of the system
for the user is given like how to operate, what error messages can occur and
how to solve it.

ii. System Document: This document contains the details of system design,
process flows etc, it makes organisation to understand the system and
changes to be made in the system and permissions granted for changes, to
satisfy new user needs.

Now maintenance means to tune the system for variation needed in the working flow
environment. If any error occurs it must be noted carefully and corrected time to
time. The review of the system is done for understanding the full capabilities of the
system in this phase the required changes for the additional requirements are
noticed and performance is checked in terms of quality and efficiency.

To manage all the phases of SDLC different models or methodologies are used,
such as Waterfall, Spiral, Cocomo, Prototype, Iterative process model etc

As we have discussed earlier the integration of information system into SDLC, now a
person is needed who control and supervise the whole system development
process. The system analyst is the person who analyses and supervises the whole
process of system development life cycle. In the following section we will discuss
about role of system analyst:

SYSTEM ANALYST
The System Analyst is the person who is responsible for every activity in system
development life cycle in an organization. During his job, the analyst must be clear
about the requirements of the organization. System analyst must make sure that
system be flexible to adapt the changing requirements of the organization.

According to Shelly, Gary B., Cashman, Thomas J[12]: “Because they often write
user requests into technical specifications, the systems analysts are the liaisons
between vendors and information technology professionals”

In any organization a system analyst is abide by responsibilities and accountabilities

and designated with power of authority.

Responsibilities of System Analyst are as follows:

i. Assists current users in identification of problems by implementing a new

system or by changing an existing system.
ii. Investigates the real problem to determine the feasibility of the solution.
iii. Assists the prospective users in proposing new or changed system.
iv. Making estimates of the cost in developing a new system using appropriate
tools.
v. Designs users' manuals and conduct training programs for the developed
system.
vi. Assists the users in the installation and use of new system being
implemented.

Accountabilities of System Analyst are as follows:

i. Post implementation reviews to estimate cost/benefit ratio.

ii. Making the users aware of the system before installation.
iii. To verify all proposed functional specifications .
iv. To handle users and management complaints about the working of the
system.
In order to accomplish his responsibilities System Analyst is authorised for the
following activities in an organization:
i. Communicate informally with the management, sponsors and affected people
in the organization.
ii. Assign tasks to subordinate members of the team.
iii. Refuse to undertake activities which appear to be infeasible and unjustified.
iv. Examine relevant supplies of material related to previous or current systems.
v. Supervising the testing phase before the system is implemented.

CONCLUSION

Information Systems are indispensable to the any organization to meet the future
challenges. The five information systems described in this chapter illustrate the
qualities required to make any organization best in The approach (Computer Based
Information System) CBIS makes a fresh contribution to the information system
literature and will assist any organization in classifying a wide variety of systems.
As the interconnectivity and interdependency of information systems increases, it is
gaining a huge amount of importance. In this chapter we have analyzed the concept
of information quality to make a new system uses the different phases of System
Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Therefore, this chapter propagates a subjective and
user-centric approach to develop a new system.

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