Article
“PE 100 at 100psig - 13 years of success”
Yannis Savidis, Thomas Hill
Advantica Technologies, UK
ABSTRACT
PE 100 has allowed Transco, the largest UK natural gas dis-
tribution company, to develop a 7 bar (100psig) polyethylene
(PE) distribution network. This paper outlines the work that
was undertaken in taking this technology from the polymer
chemists laboratory to the gas engineers trench, from early
work on long term strength, resistance to crack propagation,
installation issues such as fusion welding, proximity distances
to operational issues such as emergency flowstopping.
INTRODUCTION
Polyethylene (PE) pipe was first used as pressure pipe in
the US in the 1950s. These first materials were high density
polyethylenes (HDPEs), which were prone to stress cracking
and had poor resistance to rapid crack propagation (RCP).
Despite this, the benefits of PE over metallic systems were
quickly proven. The PE systems were lightweight and easier
to handle than metallic pipes, and were not at risk of corrosion.
PE pipe could be supplied in coils, reducing the number of
joints to be made, and was flexible enough to negotiate bends
during installation. Jointing could be achieved above ground,
allowing narrower trenches to be used. Developments such
as electrofusion made jointing extremely reliable and rapid.
The pipe could be squeezed to stop the gas flow without long
term damage, giving emergency and routine flowstopping at
minimum cost.
In 1969, Transco started construction of a PE gas distribution
system, using Dupont Aldyl A material at pressures up to 4
bar (60psig). The majority of the UK distribution network
operates at low pressure (<75mbar 1psig) with a small propor-
tion at 2 bar (30psig). This second generation medium density
polyethylene (MDPE) material was less crystalline than the
first generation materials, giving improved resistance to slow
crack growth (SCG) and RCP. Advantica carried out significant
Contact information
PE100+ Association, NL-7300 AC Apeldoorn, P.O.Box 137, The Netherlands
Tel. +31 555 393 405, Fax +31 555 393 685. E-mail: contact@pe100plus.net, www.pe100plus.net
work on stress crack resistance and RCP resis-
tance of the MDPE resins, and established the critical pressures
above which PE pipes are at risk of RCP, which limited the
operational pressures of MDPE pipes to 5.5 bar (80psig).
RCP resistance decreases with diameter, so Transco de-rated
the operational pressures of MDPE pipes as the diameter
increased in their codes of practice, so large diameter PE
pipes are operated at pressures significantly lower than those
permissible based on stress rupture design criteria alone.
Today, the PE mains network extends to almost 120,000 km
(75,000 miles) in sizes up to 630 mm (24 inches) and is accep-
ted as the prime material for gas distribution.
In the early 1980s, Transco engineers wanted to extend the
pressure capability of PE pipes to allow the widely known
benefits of PE to be used at pressures up to 7 bar (100psig).
The materials available at this time were not capable of safely
meeting these requirements, but polymer manufacturers
were making significant steps in understanding how to control
the polymerisation process to achieve the desired material
properties.
Solvay made a breakthrough in the mid 1980s by producing
an HDPE rated at PE 100 with excellent resistance to both
SCG and RCP, and this was widely proclaimed as the ‘third
generation’ of PE. PE 100 rated resins were the only PE
materials that offered the balance of required properties to
allow the use of PE at the pressures desired.
1|6

M AT E R I A L I S S U E S
What is PE 100?
The precise definition of PE 100 is covered with clarity
elsewhere 1, but essentially PE materials that are classified as
PE 100 are theoretically capable of operating at a stress of
10MPa for 50 years. This corresponds to a pressure of 20 bar
(280psig) with SDR 11 pipe. ISO 4437 2 specifies a safety
factor of 2, giving a maximum operating pressure of 10 bar
(145psig). Due to the fact that pipelines above 7 bar (100psi)
bar are subject to taxation in the UK, it was decided to limit
the PE 100 pipe network to a pressure of 7 bar. This led to a
safety factor of 20/7= 2.9.
Balancing the properties of PE 100 resins
For application at high operating pressures, PE pipes must
have the required strength for the design life, resistance to
SCG, and resistance to RCP. Changing the properties of a
resin might improve one aspect of performance, but have a
detrimental affect on the others.
Long term strength
Long term strength is usually measured by carrying out a
series of long term hydrostatic tests at specific stresses at
controlled temperatures and analysing the time to failure re-
sults following the protocol in ISO TR 9080 3, which uses a
lower confidence limit to determine the minimum required
strength classification.
Stress crack resistance
Stress concentrations caused by environmental factors such
as rock impingement or scratches will act as crack initiation
points. Pipe materials for high pressure applications require
excellent resistance to SCG. Advantica carried out extensive
notch pipe testing at elevated temperature on the Solvay PE
100 material, to confirm the material had superior SCG perfor-
mance.
Contact information
PE100+ Association, NL-7300 AC Apeldoorn, P.O.Box 137, The Netherlands
Tel. +31 555 393 405, Fax +31 555 393 685. E-mail: contact@pe100plus.net, www.pe100plus.net
Article
Rapid Crack Propagation (RCP)
A fast running longitudinal brittle fracture can occur in a
pressurized pipe subject to impact, and this is known as RCP.
Extensive work on RCP in PE pipes was carried out by
Advantica 4 (Greig et al) in the 1980s and 1990s, and this
determined the need to de-rate pressures as diameter increa-
ses. The issue of RCP resistance with a 7 bar pipeline,
particularly with the large diameters (up to 400 mm) is obviously
of paramount importance, given the fact that these pipelines
usually run cross country between towns or villages. A fast
running fracture could destroy a long length of pipeline, and
this has happened on a number of occasions worldwide 5
where designers have neglected to include the risk of RCP in
their calculations.
Figure 1: Arrest of a fast running fracture in PE 100
Transco perform a hydrostatic strength test during commis-
sioning at 1.5 times the operating pressure, followed by a leak
test at the operational pressure. It is therefore necessary to
ensure that the critical pressure for RCP is above 10.5 bar.
Transco specify that all PE 100 resins are tested in a full scale
RCP test at 0oC (32oF) at 14 bar (200psig), at the largest
diameter in the size range. Additionally, campaign tests are
carried out at 21 bar (300 psig) on each batch of resin supplied
from the manufacturers, which ensures that there is an RCP
safety factor of at least twice the highest pneumatic pressure
encountered by the pipeline. Figure 1 illustrates the superior
resistance to RCP of PE 100 (orange) in comparison to PE
80- (yellow). The propagating fracture, running from left to
right, is arrested within a short distance in the PE 100 material.
2|6

Use at low temperatures
Gas is supplied to distribution systems following pressure
reduction from higher pressures. Typically, pressures will be
reduced from around 20 bar (290 psig) to 7 bar (100psig). The
process of reducing the pressure in a regulator causes Joule-
Thompson cooling. In the relatively temperate UK winter, gas
temperatures can be as low as 5oC (41oF). This can result in
the gas temperature falling to as low as –20oC (-4oF) downst-
ream of the regulator. Transco usually install water bath heaters
to preheat the gas to an acceptable temperature, but these
heaters can fail and are expensive to install and maintain. It
is therefore important that the performance of any pipe con-
nected downstream of a pressure reduction station is well
understood at the low temperatures that can be experienced.
The risk for PE pipe is that of brittle failure, either of the joints,
or by impact on the pipe, which may lead to RCP. This can be
mitigated by installing steel pipe immediately after the pressure
reduction station, for sufficient length to allow the gas to warm
up to an acceptable temperature before making the transition
to PE pipe. Advantica undertook a test programme to determine
the capability of various grades of PE material, temperatures
down to –20oC (-4oF), at various diameters and pressures.
This was carried out on both pipe and fittings, and acceptable
performance criteria have been established. Advantica has
developed a software package ”HTREC” for Transco that
calculates temperature recovery after pressure reduction.
Contact information
PE100+ Association, NL-7300 AC Apeldoorn, P.O.Box 137, The Netherlands
Tel. +31 555 393 405, Fax +31 555 393 685. E-mail: contact@pe100plus.net, www.pe100plus.net
Article
CONSTRUCTION ISSUES
Butt fusion
Correctly made butt fusion joints are as strong as plain pipe.
The control of melt temperature is highly critical to producing
a good butt weld and to minimise the risk of poor welds, which
is especially critical with higher pressures, fully automatic
machines are used for all PE construction in Transco. Automatic
machines minimise the time between hot plate removal and
butting of the pipes, and this ensures that the melt temperature
has not fallen below critical levels. The fusion procedures
developed by Advantica for Transco are broadly similar for PE
100 and PE 80, with slight differences in applied pressure
during bead up and heat soak.
Inspection of butt fusion welds
Advantica has evaluated a number of Non Destructive Tech-
niques over the years, including radiography and ultrasonics
for assessing the quality of butt joints. None has proved
sufficiently reliable or cost effective for field implementation.
Advantica developed a simple in-field butt fusion quality control
technique, relying on removal and inspection of the external
weld bead. External and hydraulically powered internal weld
bead removal tools are available from a number of manufac-
turers. For PE 100 pipelines, it is common practice to remove
the internal weld bead to improve the flow capacity, and remove
the potential notch in the pipe bore, which reduces the risk of
compromising the strength of the pipe. Removal and inspection
of the external weld bead will reveal any pipe misalignment.
The width of the external weld bead is checked using a standard
min-max gap gauge. For PE 100, new butt fusion bead gauges
had to be developed. The quality control of the fusion process
is highly important, and both the weld beads and the print out
records from each joint are kept for inspection on PE 100
pipeline projects.
3|6

Figure 2: External debeading
Electrofusion
Electrofusion is also used as a jointing technique for PE 100
pipe, mostly for connection of tie-ins. A range of special fittings
has been developed in conjunction with fitting manufacturers,
and fully approved fittings up to 400 mm have been used in
Transco. These fittings have been tested to a higher specif-
ication than fittings for the PE 80 system and are designa-
ted ”Class C”. Most of the Class C fittings are existing products
for PE 80 pipe (Class B) that have achieved Class C rating,
enabling them to be used on the PE 100 network. Fusion
compatibility between PE 100 and PE 80 resins used in the
fittings has been assessed, and found to be satisfactory.
Larger fittings from European suppliers have recently been
approved, and some of these are manufactured from PE 100
resins. The size range of fittings is more restricted than that
available for the PE 80 system, due to the limited demand,
but manufacturers are more inclined to develop new fittings
for PE 100 pipe now it is clear that this is a well established
technology.
Proximity distances and depth of cover
Advantica carried out both experimental and computational
work to determine the effect of 7 bar (100psig) pipes failing
at pressure, both in terms of the risk from the emanating
projectiles, and the risk of ignition of the released gas. Due
to the higher pressure of the gas within the pipe, proximity
distances for 7 bar (100psig) PE pipe are significantly higher
than those required for 4 bar (60psig) pipe. For pipes above
180 mm in diameter operating at 7 bar, the energy of escaping
gas was judged to be high enough to warrant even greater
Contact information
PE100+ Association, NL-7300 AC Apeldoorn, P.O.Box 137, The Netherlands
Tel. +31 555 393 405, Fax +31 555 393 685. E-mail: contact@pe100plus.net, www.pe100plus.net
Article
proximity distances. Where PE 100 pipe is laid in areas where
it may be prone to impact damage, or where specified proximity
distances cannot be maintained, reinforced concrete sections,
welded mesh metal sheet or steel capping plate is used.
In rural or cross-country locations, pipe is laid deeper than in
urban environments, due to the increased risk of farming
activities damaging the pipelines.
Position of valves
Valves are installed in PE 100 lines at operationally desirable
locations, such as on the outlets of a tee, branches or connec-
tions. Special crossings, such as river crossings, are valved
either side. Pressure points and rider points are also installed
either side of valves, to allow their safe use and maintenance.
Due to the volumes of gas likely to be released following a
strike, regular positioning of valves is desirable, especially in
urban environments.
Marking and protection
Marker tape is laid directly above the PE 100 mains to warn
excavators of the position of the pipeline. Detectable marker
tape is specified. Individual lengths of marker tape are con-
nected together, and is in turn connected to marker posts and
earthed to allow detection by induced current, but provision
is made for electrical isolation to allow direct connection of
cable location equipment, or for continuity testing. Marker
posts are positioned at boundaries, such as hedges between
fields, adjacent to fences, at special crossings, and along road
sides at the extremity of the public highway. Marker posts are
also used to identify changes in direction of the main.
Commissioning a new PE 100 pipeline
It is difficult to accurately measure leakage on large pipe
volumes during commissioning pressure testing. For polyethy-
lene pipe, a period of time must elapse to avoid viscoelastic
creep affecting the measured pressure. This creep is significant
when the pressures are high. Also small temperature variations
can mask pressure changes resulting from leakage. Advantica
has developed a solution to both these problems, which enables
several miles of large diameter PE pipe to be accurately
leakage tested in a fraction of the time required using conven-
tional techniques 6. The APT (Advanced Pressure Test) equip-
4|6

ment incorporates software with built in creep compensation
algorithms based on sound knowledge of polyethylene beha-
viour. The advanced pressure test system measures the
temperature change of all the air in the pipe using acoustics.
A loudspeakerand microphone is placed inside the pipe and
a pulse echo technique is used to measure the sound speed.
The speed of sound varies with temperature, and this is used
to determine average changes down to 0.001oC. This data is
then used to compensate the pressure readings. In addition
to the pneumatic leakage test at the operational pressure,
Transco perform a hydrotest on PE 100 pipelines at 1.5 times
the operating pressure to test the strength of the pipeline.
Figure 3: Advanced Pressure Testing using acoustics and creep correction
algorithms
Contact information
PE100+ Association, NL-7300 AC Apeldoorn, P.O.Box 137, The Netherlands
Tel. +31 555 393 405, Fax +31 555 393 685. E-mail: contact@pe100plus.net, www.pe100plus.net
Article
O P E R AT I O N A L I S S U E S
Emergency procedures
Emergency flowstopping was a major concern in the early
days of PE 100. Squeeze off is the standard Transco technique
for flowstopping of PE pipelines, and this was used within
Transco on PE 100 lines. There was concern over internal
cracks that can develop when squeeze off is released from
large diameter, thick wall PE 100 pipes, and for this reason,
it was mandatory to cut out and replace PE 100 pipe sections
that had been subject to squeeze off within 6 months.
Advantica has recently developed squeeze off procedures for
PE 100 that have been proven not to have an impact on the
50 year design life of PE 100 pipes. This has been achieved
by close control of the squeeze off, and in particular, the
squeeze release process. Up to 180 mm (6”), standard squeeze
off equipment can be used. Above this size, specialist equipment
has been developed 7 which provides precise control over the
squeeze off process, allowing squeeze off of pipes up to
355mm (12”). For sizes above 400 mm (14”), Advantica are
working with equipment suppliers to develop folding head
stopple fittings. Prototype fittings have been produced, and
initial testing is proving encouraging.
Figure 4: Squeeze off trials on PE 100 at low temperature
5|6
 Article

Branch connections Success story

A range of 7 bar (100psig) rated branch saddles has been
developed, allowing offtakes of 63 mm (2”) and 90 mm (3”)
for pipe sizes up to 400 mm (14”). Further developments for
large diameter flowstopping are likely to make larger offtakes
available.
History of PE 100 use in Transco
To date, over 400 miles (700 km) of PE 100 pipe has been
installed in diameters up to 400 mm (14”) in the UK. PE 100
is now the preferred material in the majority of 7 bar (100psig)
installations in the UK. The initial reluctance of design engineers
to specify the material has now been overcome, by tackling
issues such as resistance to RCP, large diameter flowstopping
and in field quality control of jointing.

The first 7 bar gas installation using PE 100 was undertaken

in 1989 on the island of Mersea near Colchester in the South
East of England. Mersea Island is separated from the mainland
by saltmarshes and mudflats. The only access was by means
of a road built on a causeway that was liable to flooding at
high tide. There had been considerable interest from the 10,000
villagers of West Mersea in getting natural gas. A feasibility
study undertaken in 1988 to establish whether it was econo-
mically feasible. Two identified options were to lay 7.1 km (x
miles) of 4” and 6” steel pipe, operating at 4 bar (60psig) or
to construct a 180 mm SDR 11 line, operating at 7 bar (100psig).
The PE 100 solution was adopted. A number of issues were Author:
identified during this project, including that of how to conduct Yannis Savidis
a pressure test on a pipe subject to viscoelastic creep. Since Senior Engineer
then, PE 100 has been widely used in the UK, with notable Utility Distribution
projects being a 7 km 355 mm reinforcement project around Tel.: +44 (0) 150 928 2678
Swindon in 2001, which required several road and ditch E-mail: yannis.savidis@advanticatech.com
crossings. www.advanticatech.com

REFERENCES

1
PE 100: Performance Plus- S D Sandstrum, 16th International Plastic Pipe Fuel Gas Symposium,

November 1999, New Orleans

2
ISO 4437- Buried Polyethylene (PE) Pipes for Supply of Gaseous Fuels- Metric Series- Specifications
3
ISO TR 9080 - Plastic Piping and Ducting Systems – Determination of Long Term Hydrostatic Strength of Thermoplastic

Materials in Pipe Form by Extrapolation

4
Rapid Crack Propagation in Polyethylene Gas Pipes - J M Greig Plastics Pipes IX, Edinburgh UK, September 1995.
5
RCP, after 25 years of debates, finally mastered by two ISO tests- P Vanspeybroeck, Plastics Pipes XI,

Munich, Germany, September 2001

6
Pressure testing of polyethylene pipes using acoustic temperature measurement – R Ashworth, Plastics Pipes XI,

Munich, Germany, September 2001

7
Development of flowstop systems for large diameter polyethylene mains D Morgan & T Hill, Plastics Pipes XI,

Munich, Germany, September 2001

Contact information
PE100+ Association, NL-7300 AC Apeldoorn, P.O.Box 137, The Netherlands
Tel. +31 555 393 405, Fax +31 555 393 685. E-mail: contact@pe100plus.net, www.pe100plus.net 6|6