Book Report

Momentum and Impulse

Momentum and Impulse
Momentum is a measurement of mass in motion and is refers to as the quantity of
motion that an object has. Consequently, the amount of momentum of that an object has is
dependent on how much stuff is moving and how fast the stuff is moving. In physics terms
momentum depends upon the variable mass and velocity. So, in terms of equation, the
momentum of an object is equal to the product of the mass and velocity of the object.
p=m× v
Where:
Lowercase p is the symbol for the quantity momentum
m is for mass, and
v is for velocity
For example:
What is the momentum of a certain object with a mass of 3.0 kg that is travelling at a
velocity of 4.0 m/s?
Formula:
p=m× v
Where: Given:
p is the quantity momentum m=3.0 kg
m is the mass v=4.0 m/s
v is the velocity p=?
Solution:
p=m× v
m
(
p= (3.0 kg ) 4.0
s )
p=12 kg ∙ m/s
Conclusion
A certain object with a mass of 3.0 kg that is travelling at a velocity of 4.0 m/s has a
momentum of 12 kg ∙ m/s.
Going back, the standard units for momentum are kg ∙ m/s, and it is always a vector quantity (is a
quantity that is fully described by both magnitude and direction). This simple relationship means
that doubling either the mass or velocity of an object will simply double the momentum.
The useful thing about momentum is its relationship to force, because in practical term
the momentum of an object increases when a force is acting upon it and this is for the reason that
the force is causing it to accelerate, and to have an increase in velocity. With this we can rewrite
the formula for momentum from this
p=m× v
To this
∆ p=F ∙ ∆ t
Where;
∆ p is the symbol for momentum
F is for force
∆ tis for time
Furthermore, there are two kinds of momentum, and that is called linear momentum and angular
momentum. Linear momentum is the momentum itself which is the product of the mass and
velocity of an object. On the other hand, angular momentum is the rotational equivalent of
momentum with an equation
L=lω
Where:
L is the symbol for angular momentum
l is for inertia, and
ω is for angular velocity

Impulse
Impulse is a term that quantifies the overall effect of a force acting over time. It is
conventionally given the symbol J and is expressed in Newton’s second law. For a constant force
J=F ∙t
Where:
J is for impulse
F is for force, and
t for time

For example:
What is the impulse caused by an average force of 10 Newtons (N) if it acts on a ball for
2.0 seconds?
Formula:
J=F ∙t
Where; Given:
Jis for impulse F=10 N
F is for force t=2.0 s
t is for time J=?

Solution:
J=F ∙t
J=(10 N )( 2.0 s)
J=20 Ns

Impulse is a quantity that is closely related to momentum therefore, it forms a theorem

called impulse-momentum theorem. When an object has a momentum⃗ p1, and a force is applied
for an amount of time, the momentum can change to a new value ⃗ p2 therefore, impulse-
momentum theorem states that the impulse is equal to this change in momentum. As mentioned
above impulse is represented by the symbol J, while momentum is equal to the product of mass
and velocity of an object⃗p= m ⃗v . From these the formula for impulse-momentum theorem was
formed, which is
p2 - ⃗
⃗J =⃗ p1

Where;
⃗J is for impulse

p1 is for initial momentum, and

⃗

p2 is for final momentum

⃗
For example:
A ball with a mass of 0.350 kg bounces off of a wall. Initially, it travelled horizontally to
the right, toward the wall at 25.0 m/s, and then bounces, and travels horizontally to the left, away
from the wall at 15.0 m/s. What is the impulse of this collision between the ball and the wall?
Answer:
The first step is to define a positive direction. The problem can be solved with either the
left or right horizontal direction defined as positive, but for this solution, the positive direction
will be horizontally to the left (away from the wall). With this, the initial velocity of the ball will
be ⃗v1 = -25.0 m/s (horizontally), and the final velocity of the ball is ⃗
v 2= +15.0 m/s

The initial momentum is:

p1= m ⃗v
⃗

p1= (0.350 kg)(−25.0 m/ s)

⃗

p1= −8.75 kg ∙ m/s

⃗

The final momentum is:

p2= m ⃗v
⃗

p2= (0.350 kg)(15.0 m/ s)

⃗

p2= 5.25 kg ∙ m/s

⃗

The impulse of the collision is:

p2 - ⃗
⃗J =⃗ p1

Where; Given:
⃗J is for impulse p1= −8.75 kg ∙ m/s
⃗

p1 is for initial momentum

⃗ p2= 5.25 kg ∙ m/s
⃗

p2 is for final momentum

⃗ ⃗J =?

p2 - ⃗
⃗J =⃗ p1
⃗J =(5.25 kg ∙ m/s)−(−8.75 kg ∙ m/s )
⃗J =5.25 kg ∙m/ s+8.75 kg ∙ m/s
⃗J =14.0 kg ∙ m/s
Conclusion:
The impulse of the collision is 14.0 kg ∙ m/s , horizontally to the left.

Conservation of Momentum
The conservation of momentum is a major law of physics that states that within some
problem domain, the amount of momentum remains constant or are being conserved, because
momentum is neither created, but only changed through the action of forces as being discussed in
Newton’s laws of motion. So practically if there is no force applied then the momentum of the
system is conserved in magnitude and direction.
Pi=P f

Where:
Pis the symbol for momentum
i is for initial momentum, and
f is for final momentum
Pi stand for the total initial momentum

Pf is for the total final momentum

For example:
Consider this example of a balloon the particles of gas move rapidly colliding
with each other and the walls of the balloon even though the particles themselves move faster
and slower when they lose or gain momentum when they collide, the total momentum of the
system remains the same.

Hence, the balloon doesn’t change in size, if we add external energy by

heating it, the balloon should expand because it increases the velocity of the particles and this
increases their momentum, in turn, increasing the force exerted by them on the walls of the
balloon.
In addition, it is also related to Newton’s second law which state that the acceleration of
an object, as produced by the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object. Another way of saying this is that the rate of
change of momentum in an object is directly proportional to the force applied, and the change in
momentum will be in the direction of the applied force.
Furthermore, the conservation of momentum is actually the direct consequence of
Newton’s third law of motion or what we called the action and reaction law, wherein, it states
that for a force applied by an object A on object B, object B exerts back an equal force in
magnitude, but opposite in direction. For instance, consider a collision between two objects,
object A and object B. When the two objects collide, there is a force on A due to B - F AB- but
because of Newton’s third law, there is an equal force in the opposite direction, on B due to A-
F BA

F AB=−F BA

Where:
F is the symbol for force
In addition, the forces act between the objects when they are in contact and the length of
time for which the objects are in contact- t AB and t BA - depends on the specifics of the situation.
For example, it would be longer for two squishy balls than for two billiard balls. However, the
time must be equal for both balls
t AB=t BA

Consequently, the impulse experienced by objects A and B must be equal in magnitude

but opposite in direction.
F AB × t AB=−F BA × t BA

So, if we recall that impulse is equivalent to change in momentum, it follows that the
change in the momentum of the objects is equal but in the opposite directions. This can be
equivalently expressed as the sum of the change in momentum being zero.
m A × ∆ v A =−mB × ∆ v B

m A × ∆ v A + mB × ∆ v B=0

Furthermore, another best examples of conservation of momentum are the recoil/jet propulsion.
Recoil is the result of conservation of momentum, in accordance to Newton’s third law that
states that the force required to accelerate something will evoke an equal but opposite reactional
force, which means that the forward momentum gained by the projectile and exhaust gases will
be mathematically balanced out by an equal and opposite momentum exerted back upon, for
example a gun. For the better understanding, Newton’s third law, known as the conservation of
momentum recognizes that changes in motion of a mass, brought about by the application of
forces and accelerations, does not occur in isolation other bodies of mass are found to be
involved in directing those forces and accelerations. Furthermore, if all the masses and velocities
involved are accounted for the vector sum, magnitude and direction of the momentum of all the
bodies involved does not changed, hence momentum of the momentum is conserved. This
conservation of momentum is why gun recoils occurs in the opposite direction of bullet
projectile. The product of the mass and velocity of the projectile in the positive direction is
equals to the product of the mass and the velocity of the gun in the negative direction. In
addition, the nature of recoil process is determined by the force of the expanding gases in the
barrel upon the gun (recoil force), which is equal and opposite to the force upon the ejecta, plus it
is also being determined by the counter-recoil force applied to the gun (e.g., an operator’s hand).
In accordance, the recoil force only acts during the time that the ejecta is still in the barrel of the
gun. The counter-recoil force is generally applied over a longer period of time and adds forward
momentum to the gun equal to the backward momentum supplied by the recoil force, in order to
bring the gun into halt. Furthermore, there are two special cases of recoil force, one is the free-
recoil and the other one is the zero-recoil. Free-recoil is in which the time duration of the
counter-recoil force is very much larger than the duration of the recoil force. On the other hand,
the zero-recoil is in which the counter-recoil force matches the recoil force in magnitude and
duration. Except for the case of zero-recoil, the counter-recoil force is smaller than the recoil
force but last for a longer period of time. In addition, since the recoil force and the counter-recoil
force are not matched, the gun will move rearward, slowing down until it comes into rest. But in
the zero-recoil case, the two forces are matched and the gun will not move when fired. However,
in most cases a gun is very close to a free recoil condition since the recoil process generally lasts
much longer than the time needed to move the ejecta down the barrel. On the other hand, an
example of near zero-recoil would be a gun securely clamped to a massive or well anchored
table, or supported from behind by a massive wall.
Assume that the firearm and projectile are both at rest before firing, then their
total momentum is zero. Next, assume a near free-recoil condition, and neglecting the gases
ejected from the barrel, then immediately after firing, conservation of momentum requires that
the total momentum requires that the total momentum of the firearm and projectile is the same as
before namely zero. Stating this we can mathematically conclude that:
pf + p p=0

Where pf is the momentum of the firearm and p p is the momentum of the projectile, in other
words immediately after firing the momentum of the firearm is equal and opposite to the
momentum of the projectile. On the other hand, since the momentum of a body is defined as its
mass is multiplied by its velocity, we can rewrite the above equation as:
mf v f +m p v p=0

where:
m f is the mass of the firearm

v f is the velocity of the firearm immediately after firing

m p is the mass of the projectile,

v p is the velocity of the projectile immediately after firing

In addition, in a typical recoil situation the release of a body of smaller mass (body1) has an
impact on a larger body (body 2). Hence, if both bodies start from rest, the law of conservation
of momentum states that m 1 v 1= -m 2 v 2. The recoil velocity is typically the velocity of body 2
after the release of body 1. This velocity is
−m1
v 2= v
m2 1

For example:
 What is the recoil velocity of an 8-pounds Winchester rifle after firing a 9.72 grams bullet
with a speed of 2,820 feet/second?

Before solving this problem, it is necessary to express all quantities in consistent units. One
pound is equal to 454 grams, so the rifle has a mass of 3,632 grams. With this it is now easy to
calculate the recoil speed of the rifle in feet/second.
Formula:
−m B
v R= v
mR B

Where: Given:
v R is the recoil speed of the rifle in feet/ second m B =9.72

m B is the bullet’s mass mR =3 , 632

m R is the rifle’s mass v B=2 , 820

v B is the speed of the bullet v R=?

Solution:

−m B
v R= v
mR B
9.72
¿− ( 2,820 )
3 632
¿−7.55 ft / s
*The minus sign denotes the fact that the recoil speed is in the opposite direction to the speed of
the bullet.

Another example:
A 2 000-ton frigate releases a 2-ton lifeboat at a speed of 15 miles per hour. Assuming negligible
friction, what is the recoil speed of the frigate?
Formula:
−m B
vF= v
mR B

Where: Given:
v F is the recoil speed of the frigate m B =2

m B is the mass of the lifeboat m R =2 000

m R is the mass of the frigate v B=15

v B is the speed of the lifeboat v F =?

Solution:
−m B
vF= v
mR B
2
¿− 15
2 000
¿−0.015 mph

Furthermore, before the projectile leaves the gun barrel, it obturates the bore and “plugs up” the
expanding gas generated by the propellent combustion behind it. This means the gas is
essentially contained within a closed system and acts as a neutral element in the overall
momentum of the system’s physics. However, when the projectile exits the barrel, this functional
seal is removed and the highly energetic bore gas is suddenly free to exit the muzzle and expand
in the form of a supersonic shockwave, creating a phenomenon known as the muzzle blast. Then
the forward vector of this blast creates a jet propulsion effect that exerts back upon the barrel,
and creates an additional momentum on top of the backward momentum generated by the
projectile before it exits the gun. For the better understanding about jet propulsion, jet propulsion
is the propulsion (action or process of pushing or pulling to drive an object forward) in one
direction, produced by ejecting a jet of fluid in the opposite direction. One example of jet
propulsion that we can see every day is a blown-up toy balloon with its neck closed. It shows no
tendency to move because the air inside is pressing equally in all directions. But if the neck was
been suddenly opened, the balloon will shoot away. It is because the escaping air relieves
pressure at the neck, and there is a reaction from the air opposite to the neck. It is not the air
rushing out of the neck and pushing against the outside air, however, that drives the balloon
ahead. In fact, it is the air pushing against the inside front wall of the balloon that propels it
forward.

In addition, there are 2 kinds of conservation of momentum called the conservation of

linear momentum and conservation of angular momentum. Conservation of linear momentum
is a situation wherein the rate of change of the total momentum of a system does not change,
meaning this quantity is constant.
For example:

Note: In the example/experiment above we did not consider any loss of energy due to the
friction, heat, etc. and all the collisions were elastic in nature (there was a total transfer of
energy, but the actual observation may differ.

Now let’s consider a case where a football ball (ball 1) of mass M 2 is resting on the ground, on
the other hand basketball ball (ball 2) with a comparatively heavier mass of M 1 is thrown at the
football ball at a velocity ofU 1. Hence, when the ball 2 hits the ball 1 the energy is transferred
and the ball 2 loses some velocity and moves at a new velocity (V 1), then the ball 1 moves at
velocity (V 2), why did the football ball (ball 1) move?
To conserve the linear momentum, the basketball ball had an initial momentum of M 1 so as M 2<
M 1and the momentum of the football ball should be equal to the momentum lost by the
basketball ball according to the law of conservation of momentum, the football ball had no other
option than moving at a velocity V 2.

Formula:
m 1 u 1 + m2 u 2= m1 v 1 + m2 v 2

Note: m1u1≠m1v1
Where:
m 1 is the mass of the basketball ball

m 2is the mass of the football ball

u1 and u2 are the initial velocities, and

v1 and v 2 are the final velocities

Furthermore, even though the moment of each particle changes, altogether the
momentum of the system remains constant as long as there is no external force acting on it. For
instance, in a head-to-head car accident, the momentum is transferred from one car to the other,
but so much force is applied that the car structure cannot handle it, this is why a car wreaks. If
the cars were able to deal with the amount of force, and the collision was elastic they both will
move in opposite direction, considering their weights are the same. In short, momentum is
always conserved in any collision, whether it be elastic or a non-elastic collision, though kinetic
energy is not conserved in a non-elastic collision, the kinetic energy is then conserved into heat
energy or potential energy, etc.
On the other hand, conservation of angular momentum states that when no
external torque acts on an object, no change of angular momentum will occur, because if the net
torque is zero the angular momentum is constant or are conserved. An example of this can be
seen in an ice skater executing a spin, as shown in this image
 An ice skater is spinning on the tip of her skate with her arm extended. Her
angular momentum is conserved because the net torque on her is negligibly small. In the image
b, her rate of spin increases greatly when she pulls in her arms, decreasing her moment of inertia
and the work she does to pull in her arms results in an increase in rotational kinetic energy.
Consequently, she can spin for quite some time. She can also increase her rate of spin by pulling
in her arms and legs. When she does this, the rational inertia decreases and the rotation rate
increases in order to keep the angular momentum L=lω constant
Where:
l is the symbol for the rotational inertia
ω is for the angular velocity

Furthermore, there is a certain scenario that are closely related to the

conservation of momentum, and that is called collision. Collision is a short duration interaction
between two or more bodies or objects simultaneously causing change in the motion of the
bodies or object involved due to the internal forces acted between them during the collision.
Consequently, collisions involve forces (there is a change in velocity). The magnitude of the
velocity difference at impact is called the closing speed. Furthermore, all collisions conserve
momentum, the thing that only distinguishes its different types is whether they also conserve
kinetic energy, and that types are called as elastic collision, and inelastic collision. Elastic
collision is a collision in which there is no net loss in the kinetic energy in the system as the
result of the collision, and in here both the momentum and the kinetic are conserved. In addition,
there are instances that a collision can be considered elastic even though they are not perfectly
elastic and that thing happens for example in the collisions in mechanics where the energy lost
can be negligible. On the other hand, an inelastic collision is a collision in which there is a loss
of kinetic energy. In here while the momentum of the system is conserved, kinetic energy is not
and this is because some kinetic energy had been transferred to something else. In addition, in a
perfectly inelastic collision the colliding objects sticks together.
For example (Collision):
 Two billiards balls collide. Ball 1 moves with a velocity of 4m/s, and ball 2 is
at rest. After the collision, ball 1 comes to a complete stop. What is the velocity of ball 2 after the
collision? Is this collision elastic or inelastic? The mass of each ball is 0.16 kg.
Answer: To find the velocity of ball 2, use a momentum table.
Objects Momentum before Momentum before
(kg×m/s) (kg×m/s)
Ball 1 0.16×4=.64 0
Ball 2 0 0.16 × v 2
Total 0.64 0.16 × v 2

0.64=0.16 × v 2

kg × m
0.64
s
v 2=
0.16 kg
m
¿4
s
To determine whether this is an elastic or inelastic collision, you can calculate the total kinetic
energy of the system both before and after the collision.
Objects KE Before (J) KE After (J)
Ball 1 0.16×0.16× 42 =1.28 0
Ball 2 0 0.16 × 0.16× 4 2=1.28
Total 0.64 1.28

Conclusion:
The kinetic energy before and after collision of billiards balls are the same
therefore it is an elastic collision.

Another example:
A green ball having a mass of 0.2 kg hits a yellow ball having a mass of 0.25
kg in an elastic collision, and the green ball halts. After that, the velocity of the green ball is 5m/s
and the yellow ball was at rest. Calculate the final velocity of the yellow ball.
Formula
m 1 v 1 i+ m2 v 2 i=m 1 v 1 f +m 2 v 2 f

Where: Given
m 1 is the mass of the green ball m 1=0.2 kg

m 2 is the mass of the yellow ball m 2=0.25 kg

v1 i is the initial velocity of the green ball v1 i=5 m/s

v 2i is the initial velocity of the yellow ball v 2i=0

v1 f is the final velocity of the green ball v1 f =0

v 2 f is the final velocity of the yellow ball v 2 f =?

Solution:
m 1 v 1 i+ m2 v 2 i=m 1 v 1 f +m 2 v 2 f

(0.2 kg)(5 m/s )+(0.25 kg)(0 m/ s)=( 0.2 kg . ) ( 0 ) +(0.25 kg)( v 2 f )

1.0 kg ∙ m/s=(0.25 kg)(v 2 f )

1.0 kg ∙ m/s
v2 f =
0.25 kg
v 2 f =4 m/s

Learnings
In the topic momentum and impulse. we’ve learned that momentum is a
measurement of mass in motion and is refers to as the quantity of motion that an object has,
furthermore, we’ve learned that it particularly depends on the mass and velocity of the object. On
the other hand, we’ve learned that impulse is a term that quantifies the overall effect of a force
acting over time and it is the measure of how much the force changes the momentum of an
object. With this we’ve found out that this two are closely related to each other that it formed a
theorem called impulse-momentum theorem, and it is for the reason that one affects other.
Consequently, it was mentioned in this topic that the momentum of the object is conserved
without the application of force, so we’ve learned that if you applied force (either big or small)
on an object there would be a change in their momentum and it is practically because with the
application of force, there will be an increase in velocity which was where momentum is
dependable with as what was mentioned in this topic. Moreover, we’ve learned that there are
four really important things that you should learn and remember about momentum and that is;
First, momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. Second, momentum is a vector
quantity (because it both describe magnitude and direction). Third, there is a relationship
between momentum and force, because a force acting for a certain time (known as impulse)
produces a change in the momentum of an object. Lastly, and the most important thing that
we’ve learned about momentum is that momentum is always conserved if the total momentum of
an isolated system is constant. Isolated means that no external force acts on the system because if
a system does have an acting net force, then the momentum changes according to the impulse
equation. Consequently, conservation of momentum applies to a single object, but it is much
more interesting to look at a collision where two or more objects collide. With this we’ve learned
that the conservation of momentum is based in Newton’s third law that states that in every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction which was been thought in the recoil/jet propulsion where
in the object recoils because of the equal but opposite reaction and direction, there is a forward
momentum as well as backward momentum, and this is what the person feel when he/she is
firing a gun. In addition to this, it was been mentioned above that a momentum can also be
conserved in a collision of two or more object, with this we’ve learned that collision are consists
of two kinds of namely elastic collision and inelastic collision. Both kind of collision conserved
momentum the only way to distinguish one with the other one is to know what happens to the
kinetic energy, and it is for the reason that in an elastic collision the kinetic energy is conserved
while in the inelastic collision the kinetic energy is not conserved, furthermore, in an inelastic
collision there are instances where the colliding objects sticks with each other.
Momentum is another way of looking at how objects affect each other’s
motion, if you want a change in momentum you can apply force but rather than looking at how
forces change over time of the interaction, we can look at how objects are moving before and
after they interact with each other. We can witness it in our everyday life.