MODULE 8
; virtuous behavior means practicing moderation:
Moral Character:
- existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty
- person has a good moral character; he/she is a good
person and a good citizen with a sound moral compass
-  individual’s disposition to think, feel, and behave in
an ethical versus unethical manner
Moral Character and Virtues  -
- “character “ancient Greek term character; the mark
impressed upon a coin
- any distinctive feature by which one thing is
distinguished from others
- set of qualities or characteristics that can be used to
differentiate between persons
- Aristotle: often used ēthē for character, linked to
“ethics” and “morality”
Virtual Ethics Approach
- One way to explain character development
Virtue ethics:
- individual’s actions are based upon inner moral virtue
- leading figure ARISTOTLE
- Beauchamp:
; basic function of morality is the moral character
of persons
; virtue is a character trait that is socially valued
& not be thought of as a moral requirement
- Aristotle’s:
; Virtue: central concept in his Nicomachean
Ethics wherein there are two distinct of human
excellences, (1) excellences of thoughts and (2)
excellences of character
; goodness of character as a product of the
practice of virtuous behavior
; virtuous acts are not the end results of a good
character
; practice creates a habit of acting in a virtuous
way
; virtues: learned and improved
; virtue depends on “clear judgment, self-control,
symmetry of desire, and artistry of means
; fruit of intelligent pursuit
; ex: virtue of excellence
avoiding both excess and deficiency
; “doctrine of the mean” principle: suggests that a
moral behavior is one that is in the middle of two
extremes
; ex: between gain and disadvantage is justice,
and between shameless and touchiness is
modesty
Moral Character as Dispositions  -
- Dispositions: particular kinds of properties or
characteristics that objects can possess
- Ex: solubility of a sugar-cube in water
Moral character traits
- dispositions of character for which it is appropriate to
hold agents morally responsible.
- relatively stable, fixed and reliable dispositions of
action and affect that ought to be rationally informed
- trait deserving of a positive reactive
- such as praise or gratitude, is a virtue
- vice: trait deserving of a negative reactive attitude,
such as resentment or blame.
-  affects one’s moral decision
Personality trait   body are actions of the self
- disposition that has become habituated in the
individual moral agent
- developed, nurtured and cultivated
Moral character traits
- can also be dispositions to have certain emotions or
affections
- dispositions in general:
; an individual can have a particular moral
character trait and not currently be manifesting
trait-relevant behavior or affect
Moral Character
- something that springs from the will of the moral
agent
- develops as he/she grows into maturity
- view as a disposition or tendency to act or think in a
specific way for which a person can be held morally
responsible
The Circular Relation of Acts and Character
A. Repetition of Action and its Effect on the Person 
- Actions can be repetitive or automatic in (at least)
three different ways: by habit, by education, and by
habitus
Type of automatic actions
Habit: an action that is constantly repeated, over time
Skill (education): Actions become skills through
repetition and experience
- done without consciously thinking through all the
steps and reasoning and judgments
-  Aquinas: habitus: inclination or disposition, an
inclination, a willingness, to respond charitably to
anyone in need as the situation arises
-  nothing about habitus that requires it to be good.
- May also will to be miserly and act in a miserly way
and therefore develop a bad disposition or habitus of
miserliness.
- morality of the action also determines the morality of
the habitus
- not all acts can be cataloged as moral or immoral
B. The Type of Action 
- human beings are body/soul unities, actions of the
- Aquinas: acts of a human being (actus humanus) and
distinguishes them from human acts (actus humanis)
- Human acts are rational acts and are more closely
associated with character and the former actions come
from the whole person than are acts of human beings
- Ex: laughing
C. Intention and Responsibility
- Two important aspects of the revelatory nature of
action
- Both: rooted in the will
- source of the self-possession and self-governance of
human beings
- Will
; rational power of human beings to act
- ability to choose what is good (or what one thinks is
good) directed by reason
- Self-possession is different from possession of an
object.
- We are both the object of our consciousness and the
subject
- One can be prevented from doing something by
external forces, but carrying through with an action
has an element of the voluntary, of willing to do it and
therefore cannot be forced.
- Hindrance to will: lack of knowledge
- Mitchell:
: human being is self-governing that he can carry
out a human action or not carry it out as he wills.
- Because of self-possession and self-governance,
human beings both intend and responsibility to their
actions
MODULE 9
6 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT  -
Lawrence Kohlberg
- American psychologist and educator known for his
theory of moral development.
- Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development,
a comprehensive stage theory of moral development
based on Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for
children (1932) and developed by Lawrence Kohlberg
in 1958.
- focuses on the thinking process that occurs when one
decides whether a behavior is right or wrong
- theoretical emphasis: how one decides
to respond to a moral dilemma, not
what one decides or what one actually
does
- proposing that moral development is a continual
process that occurs throughout the lifespan
The Heinz Dilemma  MODULE 10
- Kohlberg based his theory on a series of
moral dilemmas presented to his study
subjects.
Theoretical Framework 
Level 1: Preconventional level 
- morality is externally controlled.
- Rules imposed by authority figures:
conformed to in order to avoid
punishment or receive rewards.
- involves the idea that what is right is
what one can get away with or what is
personally satisfying.
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation  judgments by a process of logic.
- Behavior: consequences.
Individual will obey in order to avoid - individual views laws and rules as
punishment.  flexible tools for improving human
- Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation  purposes
- Behavior: consequences. The - there are exceptions to rules.
individual focuses on receiving rewards - When laws are not consistent with
or satisfying personal needs.  individual rights and the interests of the
majority, they do not bring about good
Level 2: Conventional level  for people and alternatives should be
- conformity to social rules remains considered. 
important
- emphasis shifts from self-interest to Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation 
relationships with other people and - highest stage of functioning.
social systems. - claimed that some individuals will
individual strives to support rules that never reach this level.
are set forth by others such as parents, - appropriate action is determined by
peers, and the government to win their one’s self-chosen ethical principles of
conscience.
approval or to maintain social order. 
- These principles are abstract and
universal in application.
- This type of reasoning involves taking
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation  the perspective of every person or
- Behavior = social approval. The group that could potentially be affected
- individual wants to maintain or win the by the decision. 
affection and approval of others by
being a “good person.” 
Kohlberg’s theory
Stage 4: Law and order orientation 
- Social rules and laws determine - highly influential in psychology and education.
behavior. detailed explanation of children’s moral development.
- individual now takes into consideration - Criticism: argued that it ignored the distinct patterns of
a larger perspective, that of societal moral development exhibited by girls
laws.
- Moral decision making becomes more
than consideration of close ties to
 
others.
- individual believes that rules and laws
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS
maintain social order that is worth
REQUIREMENTS FOR ETHICS 
preserving. 
Level 3: Postconventional or principled level  Reason and Impartiality 
- individual moves beyond the
perspective of his or her own society.
 moral truths are truths of reason; that is, a moral
- Morality is defined in terms of abstract
judgement is true if it is espoused by better
principles and values that apply to all
reasons than the alternatives 
situations and societies.
- individual attempts to take the
perspective of all individuals.  Reason 
Stage 5: Social contract orientation 
- Individual rights determine behavior.  ability of the mind to think, understand, and form
  innate and exclusive human ability that utilizes (morally) impartial person makes a group large enough to be an
new or existing information as bases to moral decisions relative to the appropriate group. 
consciously make sense out of things while welfare of the majority and not for
applying logic. specific people alone.  article “Reason and Impartiality as
 associated with thinking, cognition, and intellect   involves the idea that each Minimum Requirement for Morality,”  
 article “Kant and Hume on Morality,” Reason individual’s interest and point of
and experience are required for determining the view are equally important. 
likely effects of a given motive or character trait,  Also called evenhandedness or  Reason and impartiality become
so reason does play an important role in moral fair-mindedness the basic prerequisite for morality
judgment.   impartiality is a principle of justice as one is excepted to be able to
deliver clear, concise, rightful, and
 reason spells the difference of moral judgments holding that decisions ought to be
based on objective criteria, rather appropriate judgments made out of
from the mere expressions of personal
than on the basis of bias, logic and understanding in an
preference. 
prejudice, or preferring the unbiased and unprejudiced manner
 In the case of moral judgments, they require
benefits to one person over another while considering the general
backing by reasons. 
for improper reasons.   welfare to accurately concoct
 In the absence of sensible rationale, they are moral decisions.
merely capricious and ignorable. 
 Moral deliberation is a matter of weighing Impartiality in morality 
reasons and being guided by them.
 nature of morality:  considering reasons is
 requires we give equal and/or
indispensable.
adequate consideration to the
interests of all concerned parties. 
: the rightful moral decision involves selecting  principles of impartiality
the option that has the power of reason on its assume: every person is equally
side.   important; that is, no one is seen as
intrinsically more significant than
anyone else. 
Good reasons
 Other ethicists suggest: some
clarifications are required. 
 moral truths are objectives: they  Why are Reason and
true no matter what we might want Impartiality the Minimum
or think.  Requirements for Morality? 
 We cannot make an act moral or  reason is a necessary requirement
immoral just by wishing it to be  for morality (De Guzman et al.
 morality is not arbitrary  2017). 
 Reason commends what it
commends, regardless of our article “Impartiality,” 
feelings, attitudes, opinions, and
desires. 
 article “Reason and Impartiality as  stated that the only respect in
Minimum Requirement for which morality requires
Morality,”   impartiality is with respect to
violating moral rules—for
example, those rules prohibiting
Impartiality  killing, causing pain, deceiving,
and breaking promises.
 manifesting objectivity.   these kinds of moral rules—those
 quality of being unbiased and that can be formulated as
objective in creating moral prohibitions— possible to act
decision – underscoring that a humanly impartially with regard to