RS Sharma Slides

Ancient history
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CHAPTER- 1
Importance of Ancient
Indian History

It gives us an idea :
➢ how, when and where the earliest culture
developed .
➢ About agriculture- settlement
➢ About Discovery of resources for livelihood
➢ How farming, spinning, weaving and so on
developed
➢ Of development of village, cities and
kingdoms

Importance of ancient history:
Different forms of writings have been derived from
ancient script
The language we use and developed have roots in
ancient times
Crucible for numerous races- indo greeks,ino aryans,
hunas, turks etc
It gave the birth of different religions- Hinduism,
Buddhism,Jainism
The ancients strove for unity- unity in diversity

➢ Our country got the name from anceints only
➢ The word Hind derived from sanskrit word- sindhu
➢ India –in greek and Hind in persian and arabic
language
➢ It tells about the continuos efforts for cultural and
linguistic unity of the country.- about languages like
prakrit and sanskrit
➢ Even the epics Ramayana and Mahabharta written
in different languages
➢ Ancient history is a source of knowledge of varna
and caste system- how it arosed, was prevalent or not

CHAPTER- 2
construction of Ancient
Indian History

Materials remains:
found from excavations and
explorations
➢Stone temples and brick monastries

➢Burnt brick structure and stone structure.
➢Excavation in humid,moist and alluvial areas
– cities developed around 2500 B.C Place your screenshot here
➢Material culture developed in gangetic basin

➢About settlement, pottery,cereals, food,tools
,weapons etc
➢Megaliths- big pieces of stones

Scientific
examination:
➢ Dates are fixed through Radio carbon dating
➢ Examination of plant residues-specially pollen
analysis- which suggests agricultire in kashmir and
Rajasthan dated back to 6000 B.C
➢ Sources of metals
➢ Examination on bones remains
gives idea of domestication

Coins:
➢ Study of coins = Numismatics.
➢ No paper currency [paper used after 14th century]
➢ only metal (Copper, Silver, Gold, Lead) coins
made from burnt clay moulds- Kushan period
➢ It disappeared during post-gupta period (this
shows the decline of trade & commerce)
➢ They stored coins in earthen pots and brass
vessels
➢ Earliest coins contained symbols later the names
of Kings, Gods, Dates.

➢ This enabled us to decipher who came from where and
where they ruled, ex: Indo-greeks (from north afghan) ruled
india in 2nd and 1st century B.C.
➢ Coins used for medium of exchange/transaction and helped
in trade development
➢ , some coins issued by guilds of merchant and gold smiths
With the permission of rulers It shows the importance given
to crafts and commerce.
➢ Largest no. of coins issued after post-maurya period.
➢ Largest no of Gold coins issued by Guptas.
➢ Post gupta period- decline of trade and commerce
➢ Religious symbols and legends-gives idea of art and religion

INSCRIPTIONS
✣ Study of Inscriptions = Epigraphy
study of old writings in inscriptions =
Palaeography.
Carvings of inscriptions: found on

seals/stone pillars/rocks/ copper
plates/temple walls/bricks/images.
✣ Earliest inscription is on “STONE
✣ During Christian era, “COPPER
PLATES”.

Language of Inscription
➢ Earliest = Prakrit (3rd century B.C. – 10th century A.D)
➢ Sanskrit (2nd century – 5th Century A.D.)
➢ Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum = collection of inscriptions
bearing history of Maurya, Post-Maurya + Gupta.
➢ Harappan Inscriptions – written in pictographic script,not yet
deciphered
Ashokan Inscriptions – written in differnet scripts
Brahmi Script = written from Left to Right.
Found all over India.
Main script, continued to followed till end of Gupta period

Kharoshthi script = Written in Right to Left. Found in North-
western India.
Greek and Arabic scripts = Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Ashokan inscription were first deciphered by James Princep in
1837
Types of inscriptions:
1. Some convey Royal Orders/ Decision regarding social,
religious & administrative matters
2. Records of followers of Jainist, Buddhist,
vaishanavism/shaivism- marks of devotion

➢ Allahabad inscriptions of Samudragupta -Attributes
,Achievements of Kings and conquerors (not of their
defeat) .
➢ Inscription made by Chief and princes –gives idea
about Land grants by them
➢ Mainly engraved in copper plates in All languages
including prakrit,Sanskrit, tamil, telugu )
Literary sources:
❑ Ancient indians knew writings as early as 2500 B.C
❑ Religious literaturs of Hindus include vedas, epics,
Ramayana, Mahabharta,puranas etc.
❑ They throw light on social and cultural conditionsof ancient
times.
➢ Rig veda mainly contain prayers but later vedic texts
also contain rituals, magic and mythological texts
➢ Post vedic time- large corpus of ritual literature
➢ Religious books on jains[ written in prakrit language-
finally compiled in 6th centuary A.D] and Budhhist[early
Buddhist text in pali language-finally compiled in 2nd
centuary B.C]
➢ Jataka- throw light on social and economic
conditions[5th to 2nd centuary B.C]

➢ Kautilyas Arthshastra- important law book. The
text is divided into 15 chapters known as books.
➢ Rich material for study of ancient polity and
economy
➢ Earliest portion reflect the state of society and
economy in the age of mauryas.
➢ Works of Bhasa, Kalidasa, Banabhatta
➢ Works of kalidasa- kavyas and dramas, most
famous- Abhigyanshakuntalam
➢ Sanskrit sources- earliest tamil texts- sangam
literature-major source of infrmation for
social,political and economic life of Tamil nadu

Foreign Accounts c
Greeks Roman Chinese
✣ Greek visitors mention Sandrokottas, contemporary of

Alexander the Great who invaded india in 324 B.C[no
metion in india sources]
✣ Megasthenes:The Greek ambassador (in the court of
Chandragupta Maurya c. 324-300 B.C.)wrote a book called
Indika - gives information on Maurya Administration,
social classes and economic activities.
✣ The periplus of Erythrean sea and ptolemy’s geography-
gives valuable data on ancient geography and commerce

Chinese Travelers
✣ Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang both of them were Buddhist and
came to learn Buddhism during the period of their visit.
✣ Fa-Hien Describes social-religious and economic
conditions of India- in the time of Guptas.Hiuen-Tsang
described same In the age of Harshavardhana
Arab Historian: Al-Beruni
Contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni.
✣ does not give any political information
✣ comparatively free from religious or racial biases

Historical sense:
➢ Specified years during reign of a king in which important
events took place
➢ Vikram samvat began in 58 B.C
➢ Saka samvat in 78 A.D
➢ Inscriptions- record events in context of time and place
➢ Purana and biographical works- discuss causes and effets of an
event
➢ Biographical work started with composition of Harshacharitra
by Banabhatta in 7th centuary
➢ Best earliest historical writing- Rajtarangini by Kalhana in 12th
centuary- biographies of king of Kashmir –first to posses
several traits of history
Ancient history

CHAPTER- 3
the geographical setting

➢ Indian subcontinent is mostly situated
in tropical zone
➢ Himalaya in north and seas on other 3
sides- peninsula
Importance:
➢ Himalaya protects the country from
cold arctic wind blowing from siberia
through central Asia- thus keeps
northern india fairly warm
➢ Protects from invasion
Important passes:
Sulaiman ranges can be crossed through khyber and gomal pass
Kirthar ranges through- Bolan pass
✓Valley of kashmir can also be crossed through several
passes
✓Valley of Nepal accessible to people of gangetic plains
through number of passes
✓Nepal became repositories of Sanskrit manuscripts.
✓Plains of Indus- northwest
✓Ganga-Yamuna doab- in middle
✓Middle gangetic basin- in East
✓Brahmaputra basin- extreme east

Rainfall pattern:
➢ From Plains of indus system through gangetic
basin to Brahmaputra basin- annual rainfall
increases from 25cm-250cm
➢ Middle gangetic vegetation- 60- 120 cm
rainfall
➢ Lower gangetic and Brahmaputra vegetation-
125-250cm
➢ Human settlement spreading from west to
east
➢ Indus and Western gangetic plains produced
Wheat and Barley
➢ Middle and Lower Gangetic Plains produced Rice
(also used by Gujarat + Vindhyas)

➢Harappan culture originated in indus valley
➢Vedic culture originated in punjab florished in
western gangetic basin
➢Post vedic culture- middle gangetic basin- use of iron
➢Lower gangetic valley- age of guptas
➢Brahmaputra valley- early medieval times
Political and cultural boundaries:
Orissa- between mahanadi in north godavari in south
Andhra pradesh- Godavari north and krishna in south
Tamilnadu- krishna in north and kaveri in south-
prominent power under pallavas

• Kaveri delta: south to vaigai river and north to south pennar
river-chola power
• Port cities: mahabalipuran, kaveripattanam- on coromandal
coast
• Maharashtra- tapti north bhima south
• Tungabhadra river : contested area : between chalukyas of
badami and rashtrakutas on north and Cholas and Pallavas in
South.
• Sea coast along western part of peninsula- malabar coast
• Between indus and gangetic system in north and vindhya in
south – Aravalli mountains
• Thar desert- west of Aravalli
• South-east of aravalli : Here land is Fertile , due to presence of
khetri Copper mines Human settlements arosed
• Gujarat : drained by rivers Narmada, tapi , Mahi, Sabarmati
• Also includes Kathiawar peninsula.
• Famous for coastal and foreign trade
• Madhya Pradesh : Eastern part was important during gupta
period ; Western Part including malwa was hinterland for Gujrat
port
• many wars fought between deccan and northern powers. (1st and
2nd century Between shakas and satavahanas and 8th century :
between marathas and Rajputs)
Vindhya montain: cut the country from west to east and form
boundary between north and south
South of vindhya- dravidian speaking,north- Indo-aryans

➢Copper-iron ore and Gold deposit in india:
➢Copper- first metal to be used
➢Copper mines- chotanagpur specially singhbhum
➢Rich copper deposit- khetri mines Rajasthan
➢No proper tin and Bronze age- was in scarce –supply
from Afghanistan
➢Burma and malaya peninsula had plenty of Tin
➢Iron ores: south Bihar, eastern Madhya pradesh,
karnataka
➢Lead- Andhra pradesh- many coins have been found
➢Gold- kolar goldfield of karnataka
➢Precious stones- india produced variety of stones and
was also an important item of trade- specially Romans

CHAPTER- 4
The stone age

Ancient history
Paleolithic Period: 2 million BC – 10,000 BC Old Stone Age
Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC – 8000 BC Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to

100,000 BC
Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC
Neolithic Period: 8000 BC – 4000 BC – 40,000 BC
Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC –
Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BC – 1500 BC
10,000 BC
Iron Age: 1500 BC – 200 BC

➢Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age)
➢Tools: kurnool- Andhra pradesh
➢ tools used were axes, choppers and
cleavers.
➢Hunters and Food Gatherers
➢Developed in pleistocene period or ice age
➢Early Man in India (except in alluvial Place your screenshot here
plains of Indus, ganga and Yamuna) used

chipped stone tools , pebbles for hunting,
cutting and other purpose.
➢No knowledge on cultivation and horse

Phases of Palaeolithic phases in India : Classification is based on :
1) stone tools used 2) Climate Change
EARLY /LOWER PALAEOLITIHIC AGE :
➢Covers greater part of Ice age
➢They used of Hand-axes , cleavers and choppers.
➢ Axes found similar to west Asia, Europe and Africa.
➢ Stone tools used mainly for chopping
➢Sites : Sohan valley (Pakistan) ; Kashmir ; Thar desert ; Belan valley
(UP) An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh
➢Rockshelters were seasonal camps for men

MIDDLE PALAEOLITIHIC AGE
• Tools used were blades like tools, points, borers, varities of
scrapers made of flakes.
Sites :son and Narmada , Tungabhadra river.
UPPER PALAEOLITIHIC AGE :
➢Climate became less humid and Comparatively warmer
➢ New flint industries and Modern type human (homo sapiens)
first appeared
➢ Use of blades, burins. Scrapers
➢Caves and rockshelters discovered at Bhimbetka
➢Palaeolithic site: all over the country except alluvial plains of
indus and Ganga
Late stone age:
Cliamte became warm and dry
Characteristic tools: microliths
Sites: chotanagpur, central india, south
of river krishna
Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
Between paleolithic and neolithic
New stone age: 2500-1000 B.C
Climatic changes brought changes in
flora and fauna – human beings
moved to new areas
Moved from nomadic to settled life
Tools: from polished stone,stone axes,
cutting tools
Sites: Based on types of axes found
✣ Burzahom (Kashmir) – pit dwelling and domestic dogs
buried
with their masters
✣ Daojali Hading (Tripura/Assam),Hallur (AP),Paiyampalli
(AP)
Chirand (Bihar)
✣ Used numerous tools and weapons made of bones
✣ Used coarse grey pottery
✣ Possesed cattles , sheep and goats, ex: Neolithic settlers in
piklihal- cattle herders
✣ Neolithic sites in Allahabad: noted for cultivation of Rice in
6th millenium B.C

Later neolithic:
➢Had a settled life became Agriculturist
➢They produced Ragi , wheat , Barley and Horsegram
➢Lived in circular or rectangular houses made of mud and reed
➢Used polished toold including microlith blades
➢They knew and used pottery- hand made- early stage,
footwheels- later stage to turn on pots
➢On to threshold of civilization

Ancient history

CHAPTER- 5
the stone-copper phase

➢ Use of stone and copper
➢ Copper was the first metal to be used
➢ Sites: jorwae, nevasa, Daimabad,
Chandoli, songaon, Inamagaon,Nasik
➢ Sites in Allahabad region:
presumbaly on account of their
proximity to vindhays
Chalcolithic culture:
▪ Small tools, weapons made of stones
[stone blade]
▪ Ahar- stone axes absent but hand
axes are found
▪ Gilund: stone blade industry
Pottery:
➢Black and red- prevalent,occasionaly painted with white
linear design
➢Madhya pradesh and Maharashtra- produced channel
spouted pots,dishes on stand,and Bowls on stand
➢They domesticated animals-cows, sheeps, Goats,
Buffaloes,Deer,Horse not clear
➢Remains of camels are also found.People certainly ate
beef
➢Produced wheat, Rice, staple crop- Bajra,pulses-
masoor, gram pea
➢People of Nevdatoli- ber and linseed
➢Cotton was produced in black cotton soil of
Deccan,millets- Ragi, Bajra in lower deccan
Houses:
• No traces of burnt (baked) bricks.
• Inamgaon- mud houses, circular pit have been discovered
• Houses were simple which was either rectangular or circular.
large mud houses with 5 rooms, 4 rectangular and 1 circular in
centre of the settlement are found.
• The walls of houses were made from mud and plastered with cow
dung and lime.
Art and craft:
People knew spinning and weaving
Well acquainted with cloth manufacturing: Cotton ,flax and silk
threads have been found in Mharashtra
Burials
➢ People buried the dead in the floors of their houses in the North-
South direction along with pots and copper objects.
➢Venerated mother Goddess.
➢Malwa and Rajasthan stylized bull terracotta- bull served as
religious cult
➢Beginning of social inequalities.
➢In Navas, children were buried with necklaces around their necks
or with pottery of copper. These children were mainly from
affluent families.
➢ In Kayatha region; bodies were found with 29 bangles and 2
unique axes.

Importance of Chalcolithic Phase
➢Chalcolithic area expanded throughout the country except for alluvial
region and thick forests.
➢ settlment on rivers banks
➢They used microlithic tools of stone and copper.
➢They knew the art of smelting.
➢Mostly all used black and red, wheel turned pots. These pots were used for
cooking, storing, drinking, and eating. Use of lota and thali is seen.
➢At some places where Neolithic phase transferred to Chalcolithic, it was
called Neolithic-Chalcolithic.
➢Fish and rice were the important foods. They grew wheat, barley, lentils,
and rice.
➢In Maharashtra, the dead were buried in north-south direction while in
South India in the east-west direction.

Limitations of Chalcolithioc Phase
✓Rate of infant mortality was high despite having high food
producing economy
✓ supply of copper was limited
✓People had no knowledge of mixing two metals so they could not
use the stronger metal bronze nicely.
✓ People were not aware of the art of writing and they could not
gain any benefit from the technical knowledge of the Indus
people.

CHAPTER- 6
The harappan
civilization

➢Arosed in northwestern part of indian
subcontinent
➢It is called Harappan civilization because
this civilization was discovered first
in 1921 at the modem site of Harappa
situated in the province of West Punjab in
Pakistan.
➢covered parts of Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Place your screenshot here
Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the
fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.
➢It extended from Jammu in the north to
the Narmada estuary in the south, and from
the Makran coast of Baluchistan in the west
of Meerut in the north-east.
✣ Nearly 1500 Harappan sites are known so far in the subcontinent.
✣ The two most important cities were Harappa and Mohenjo-
daro.[mound of the dead]
✣ Chanhu-daro – a third city about 130 km south of Mohenjo-daro in
Sindh
✣ Lothal –fourth in Gujarat at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.
✣ Kalibangan is situated in northern Rajasthan (Kalibangan means black
bangles)
✣ Banawali is situated in Hissar district in Haryana.
✣ This culture is noticeable in its mature and flourishing stage at all these
six places.
✣ It is also found in its mature phase in the coastal cities of Sutkagendor
and Surkotada, each of which marked by citadel
✣ The later Harappan phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi in the
Kathiawar peninsula.
Town Planning and Structures
✣ The Harappan culture was distinguished by its
system of town planning.
✣ citadel or acropolis: possibly occupied by
members of the ruling class. citadel of Harappa
we find as many as six granaries.
✣ Below the citadel -A lower town containing
brick houses- inhabited by the common people.
✣ arrangement of the houses - followed the grid
system.
✣ Cities: Roads cut across one another almost at
right angles use of burnt bricks in the
Harappan cities is remarkable
✣ most important public place of Mohenjo-daro-
Great Bath, comprising the tank. suggested
that the Great Bath served ritual bathing.

Drainage system: mohenjodaro: impressive drainage system
• drains were covered with bricks and sometimes with stone slabs.
• The street drains were equipped with manholes.
• Harappan drainage system was also unique
Agricultural :
➢it was fertile in ancient times.
➢ Indus region possessed more natural vegetation which attracted
more rainfall.
➢ Harappan villages, situated near the flood plains, produced
sufficient foodgrains
Agriculture:produced wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil,
chickpea and mustard

• They used wooden ploughshare. ploughed field have been found at
Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
• Canal irrigation seems to be absent
• They produced two types of wheat and Barley
• The people of Lothal used rice whose remains have been
found
• Foodgrains were stored in granaries in Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and
in Kalibangan.
• The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. Area the
greeks called sindon,which is derived from sindh
• It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation.
Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been
used to store water for agriculture.
Domestication of Animals:
➢Oxen, Buffaloes, Goat, sheep, pigs,cats, dogs, asses, camels were
domesticated
➢humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans.
➢Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjo-daro
and from a doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal.
➢The remains of the horse are reported from Surkotada.
➢In any case the Harappan culture was not horse centred.
➢Elephants are well known to harappans, Harappan people in Gujarat
produced rice and domesticated elephants
➢wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found.

Technology and Crafts:
• The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age.
• Bronze: mix of tin and copper, were very well acquainted with the
manufacture and use of Bronze.
• Copper was obtained from the khetri copper mines of Rajasthan.
• Tin was possibly brought with difficulty from Afghanistan
• A piece of woven cotton has been recovered from mohenjo-daro.
• Brick- laying was an important craft, also practised boat-making
and were experts in Bead-making, Seal-making and terracotta
manufacture were also important crafts.
• The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones.
• The potter's wheel was in full use, pottery was full glossy and
shining.
➢Trade
➢They did not use metal money. They carried on all exchanges
through barter.
➢They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
They knew the use of wheel.
➢They used some kind of modern ekka
➢Harapapn seals discovered from Mesopotamia- trade relation
with Mehula
➢Their cities also carried commerce with those in the land of the
Tigris and the Euphrates.

Political Organization
• No temples have been found at any Harappan site.
• Therefore it would be wrong to think that priests ruled in Harappa.
• We have no religious structures of any kind except the Great Bath.
• Mainly ruled by class of merchants
Religious Practices
• Terracotta figurines of women have been found.
• In one figurine a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a
women.
• Probably the image represents the goddess of earth, and it was
intimately connected with the origin and growth of plants.

➢The Harappans, looked upon the earth as a
fertility goddess and worshipped her in the
same manner as the Egyptians worshipped
the Nile goddess Isis.
➢The male deity is represented on a seal-
Pushupati Mahadeva ,represented in the Place your screenshot here
sitting posture of a yogi, placing one foot on
the other.
➢This god is surrounded by an elephant, a
tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo below
his throne. At his feet appear two deer.
Tree and Animal Worship witnessed

• The picture of a deity is repreented on a seal in
the midst of the branches of the pipal.
• Animals were also worshipped- unicorn,
important one humped bull.
The Harappan Script
➢Harappans invented the art of writing. Their
script has not been deciphered so far
➢They did not write long inscriptions
➢Harappan script is not alphabetical but mainly
pictographic.

Weights and Measures:
• Numerous articles used for weights have been found. They show
that in weighing mosti) 16 or its multiples were used; for instance,
16, 64, 160, 320, and 640.
• The Harappans also knew the art of measurement.
Harappan pottery: decorated with designs of trees, circles,
Images of men are also found
Seals: About 2,000 seals have been found
with pictures of the one-homed bull, the buffalo, the tiger, the
rhinoceros, the goat and the elephant.
• The Harappan artisans made beautiful images of metal-A
woman dancer made of bronze is the best one.
Terracotta: figurines made of fire-baked earthen clay
• These were either used as toys or objects of worship.
• They represent birds, dogs, sheep, cattle and monkeys.
• Harappan culture existed between 2500- 1750 B.C
• Mature phase- 2200-2000 B.C
• Around 1750 B.C two important cities Harappa and
Mohenjodaro disappeared
• Later phase: slow perlocation of new people in Indus basin.
• Although the Rig Vedic Aryans settled down mostly in the land of
the Seven Rivers, in which the Harappan culture once flourished,
we have no archaeological evidence of any mass-scale
confrontation between the mature Harappans and the Aryans.
Ancient history

CHAPTER- 7
the advent of aryans/age
of rig veda

Original home and identity:
They spoke indo- European languages.
✣ originally from south Russia to Central Asia and From there
migrated to India
✣ Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral,
Agriculture being a secondary occupation.
✣ society- male-dominated.
✣ Horse played significant role
Rig-veda: It is a collection of prayers, offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra,
Varuna and other gods by various families of poets or sages.
✣ It consists often mandalas or books, of which Books II to VII
form its earliest portions.
✣ Books I and X seem to have been the latest additions.
The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta, which is
the oldest text in the Iranian language.
The earliest Aryans lived in the geographical area covered by eastern
Afghanistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab and fringes of
western Uttar Pradesh.
Rivers: Some rivers of Afghanistan such as the river Kubha, and the
river Indus and its five branches, are mentioned in the Rig Veda.
• The Sindhu river is repeatedly mentioned.
• Another river, the Saraswati, is called naditama or the best of the
rivers in the Rig Veda.
• It is identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra channel in Haryana and
Rajasthan.

• The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in Indian
subcontinents called the Land of the Seven Rivers.
• The Aryans migrated to India in several waves. The earliest wave is
represented by the Rig Vedic people, who appeared in the
subcontinent in about 1500 B.C.
• They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the
dasas, dasyus, etc.
• Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original
inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered
them was called Trasadasyu.
• The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to
the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is
repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.

Tribal Conflicts: Aryans were engaged in two types of conflicts
1. They fought with pre-aryans
2. They fought among themselves
➢ Aryans were divided into five tribes called panchajana
➢ The Bharatas and the Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans, and they
were supported by priest Vasishtha.
➢ The country Bharatavarsha was eventually named after the tribe
Bharata, which appears first in the Rig Veda.
➢ Battle of Ten Kings: fought between the Bharatas and the host of
ten chiefs
➢ was fought on the river Parushni, identical with the river Ravi, and
it gave victory to Sudas and established the supremacy of the
Bharatas.
• Of the defeated tribes, the most important was that of the Purus.
Subsequently the Bharatas joined hands with the Purus and formed a new
ruling tribe called the Kiiru
• The Kurus combined with the Panchalas, and they together established
their rule in the upper Gangetic basin - an important part in later Vedic
times.
Material Life
• They owed their success in India to their use of horses, chariots and also
possibly some better arms made of bronze.
• They possessed better knowledge of agriculture.
• They were acquainted with sowing, harvesting and threshing, and knew
about the different seasons.
• pastoral people- references to the cow and the bull in the Rig Veda says
about it that Most of their wars were fought for the sake of cows.
• Gavishthi: The terms for war in the ring Veda, or search for cows.
• cow seems to have been the most important form of wealth, it
was also given as Gifts to priests including women slaves.
• Crafts mentioned: carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver,
the leather worker, the potter
• The word samudra mentioned in the Rig Veda mainly
denotes a collection of water.
• Aryans did not live in cities.
• Bhagwanpura:[1600- 1000 B.C] a site from where A
thirteen-roomed mud house has been discovered, horse
bones have also been found.

Tribal Polity:
✣ Tribal chief = successful leadership in war and tribal reorganization He
was called rajan, did not exercise unlimited power
✣ king's post had become hereditary
✣ king was called the protector of his tribe.He protected its cattle, fought
its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.
✣ Tribal assembly was called the samiti. sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana
are mentioned in the Rig Veda.
✣ sabha and the samiti were two most important assemblies
✣ women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times.
✣ Purohita: most important functionary
✣ Two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda
are Vasishtha and Vasishtha was conservative and Vishvamitra was
liberal.

Vishvamitra composed the gayatri mantra to widen the Aryan world.
Senani: The next important functionary used speares, axes, swords
etc
Bali: voluntary offerings the king accepted by people
✣ no mentioning of any officer for administering justice. cases of theft
and burglary and especially the theft of cows were reported.
✣ Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities.
Vrajapati: The officer who enjoyed authority over a large pasture
ground
✣ He led heads of families (Kulapas) or
✣ Heads of fighting hordes (gramanis)
Gramini: head of tribal fighting unit In the beginning and head of
village When unit settled
Tribe and Family :
• Kinship was the basis of social structure
• People gave primary loyalty to tribe, They called it as Jana
• Vis: another important term for tribe- mentioned number of times
in Rig veda- divided into grama or smaller tribal unit Meant for
fighting
• Family (kula) mentioned very rarely in Rig Veda- instead used
term Griha
• It was a very large joint unit, A patriarchal family, Headed by
father
• Prayed for brave sons (to fight in the wars), No desire for daughter
• Women could attend assemblies. They Could offer sacrifices
along with husband
• Polyandry existed
• Practice of levirate and widow remarriage
• No example of child marriage, Marriageable age between 16 to
17
Social Divisions
• Varna: term used for colour
• Aryans were fare,Indigenous inhabitants were dark
• Social division: most important factor was conquest of
indigeneous inhabitants by Aryans
• The Dasas and the dasyus, conquered by the Aryans, were
treated as slaves and shudras.
• Tribal society was divided into three groups - warriors, priests
and the people - on the same pattern as in Iran
➢The fourth division called the shudras appeared towards
the end of the Rig Vedic period,mentioned first time in
tenth book of Rig Veda
➢Condition of slaves: were given as gifts to the priests. They
were mainly women slaves. Employed for domestic
purposes
➢Differentiation of people based on the occupation started.
➢social divisions based on collection of taxes or accumulation
of landed property were absent because The society was still
tribal and largely egalitarian.

Rig Vedic Gods:
1. indra: The most important divinity in the Rig Veda - he was
called Purandara or breaker of forts. Two hundred and fifty
hymns are devoted to him.
• He is considered to be the rain god
2. Agni: held second position (fire god) to whom 200 hymns are
devoted.
Agni acted as a kind of intermediary between the gods on the one
hand, and the people on the other.
3. varuna: who personified water.
• Varuna was supposed to uphold the natural order, and whatever
happened in the world was thought to be the reflection of his
desires.
➢Soma was considered to be the god of plants, and an intoxicating
drink.
➢Female divinities: Aditi and Ushas- who represented the
appearance of the dawn. But they were not prominent in the time
of the Rig Veda.
➢Male gods were far more important than female
• Prayers played an important part in Rig Vedic times and they also
made Offerings to gods.
• Rig vedic people did not follow rituals, They did not worship gods
for their spiritual uplift or for ending the miseries of existence.
They asked mainly for praja (children), pashu (cattle), food,
wealth, health etc.
Ancient history

CHAPTER- 8
the later vedic phase
[Transition to state and
social formation]

Expansion in the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000-500 B.C.)
▪ Samhitas: The collections of the Vedic hymns or mantras
▪ Sama Veda Samhita: a modified collection in which prayers
of the Rig Veda were set to tune
▪ Yajur Veda Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita were
composed in post-Rig Vedic times
▪ Yajur Veda: it contains hymns and also rituasls which have to
accompany their recitation.
▪ Atharva Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and
diseases.
▪ Brahmanas: composition of a series of texts. These texts are
full of ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religious
meaning of rituals.
➢All these later Vedic texts were complied in the upper
Gangetic basin in circa 1000-500 B.C.
➢These are called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites
because they were inhabited by people who used
earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey pottery.
➢The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab
over the whole of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the
Ganga- Yamuna doab.
➢ Bharatas and Purus combined and thus formed Place your screenshot here
the Kuru people.

➢ Kurukshetra called as the land of the Kurus.
➢Panchalas occupied the middle portion of the doab.
And They set up their capital at Hastinapur
➢The Vedic people used iron weapons and horse drawn
chariots which helped them succeeded in the second
phase of their expansion
.

The PGW: Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy
Around 1000 B.C. the use of iron appeared in eastern Punjab,
western Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• With iron weapons the Vedic people may have defeated the few
adversaries that may have faced them in the upper portion of
the doab.
• The metal itself is called shyama or krishna ayas in the later
Vedic texts.
• chief means of livelihood of the later Vedic people- Agriculture
• Shatapatha Brahmana speaks at length about the ploughing
rituals
• In later times ploughing came to be prohibited, for the
members of the upper vernas.
Chief crop- rice and wheat, continued to produce Barley
Rice is called vrihi in the Vedic texts.
• first metals to be used by the Vedic people- Copper and were used
mainly for war and hunting, and also for ornaments.
• Types of pottery - black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted
grey ware and red ware[MOST POPULAR]
• A settled life: engaged in Agriculture(being the primary source of
livelihood) and various crafts.
• permanently settled in the upper Gangetic plains.

Political Organization:
➢later Vedic times Rig Vedic popular assemblies lost importance
➢The vidatha completely disappeared.
➢ The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but they faced
domination by chiefs and rich nobles.
➢position of women- declined they were no longer permitted to sit
on the sabha which get dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.
➢The king: The formation of bigger kingdoms made the chief or the
king more powerful.
➢The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in the
period
➢Later vedic texts shows the Traces of the election of the chief or the
king
✣ The king performed several rituals to strengthen his influence
and prestige
✣ Rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme
power.
✣ Ashvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an
area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.
✣ He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which
the royal chariot was made to win the race against his
kinsmen.
✣ Sangrihitri - was responsible for collection of taxes and
tributes During this period which seems to have become
common.
✣ even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing
army.
Social Organization
• Varna system: dividation of society
• Brahmanas-The growing cult of sacrifices enormously added to
the power of the brahmanas.
• Rajanyas or kshatriyas
• vaishyas- constituted the common people, and they were assigned
to do the producing functions such as agriculture, cattle-breeding,
etc. Some of them also worked as artisans. Towerds the end of the
Vedic period they began to engage in trade.
• shudras- deprived of the sacred thread ceremony and the
recitation of the gayatri mantra
• Aitareya Brahmana, a text of the later Vedic period,this text
called Shudra as the servant of another, to be made to work at will
by another, and to be beaten at will.
• later Vedic texts draw a line of demarcation between the three
higher orders on the one hand, and the shudras on he other
• Position of women declined further , were given a lower position.
• The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic time. People began
to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between
persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same lineage.
• post-Vedic texts mentions four ashramas-Brahmachari or
student, Grihastha or householder(commonly practised by all the
varnas.).Vanaprastha or hermit and Sannyasin or ascetic who
completely renounced the worldly life.
• Only the first three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts; the last
or the fourth stage had not been well established in later Vedic
times though ascetic life was not unknown.
Gods, Rituals and Philosophy.
• Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance.
• Prajapati the creator,occupied the supreme position
• Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic
times.
• Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the
people
• some objects began to be worshipped as symbols of vidinity; signs
of idolatry appear in later Vedic times.
• Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be
regarded as the god of the shudras.
• Sacrifices became far more important, which involved the killing
of animals on a large scale.
The sacrificer was known as the yajamana, the performer of yajna
• the formulae and sacrifices invention, monopoly of priestly
knowledge and expertise and inventeion of a number of rituals
made Brahmans more powrerful
• Cows were usually given as sacrificial gifts, gold, cloth and horses
were also given.
• Sometimes the priests claimed portions of territory as dakshina,
but the grant of land as sacrificial fee is not well established in
the later Vedic period
• Towards the end of the Veclie period around 600 B.C., began a
strong reaction against priestly domination, against cults and
rituals, especially in the land of the Panchalas and Videhawhere
which led to compilation of Upnishadas.

• Upanishads - Upanishads were philosophical texts that
criticized the rituals and laid stress on the value of right belief
and knowledge.
• They emphasised that the knowledge of the self or atman
should be acquired and the relation of atman with Brahma
should be properly understood.
important changes in later Vedic period
• Beginnings of territorial kingdoms.
• Wars were fought not only for the possession of cattle but also
for that of territory. [Mahabharata battle is attributed to this
period]
• Turning a pastoral society of early Vedic time to
agricultural.
• The tribal pastoralists came to be transformed into peasants
who could maintain their chief with frequent tributes.
• The position of shudras were still same
• The tribal society broke up into a varna-divided
societ [ but this could not be carried too far]

Ancient history

CHAPTER- 9
jainism and buddhism

➢ Causes of Origin:
➢ In post-Vedic times society was clearly divided into four varnas
based on birth and Each varna was assigned well-defined
functions.
➢ Some occupied highest status[Brahmanasa] and some were
treated as slaves[shudras] with misreable conditions of women
-so it generated tensions.
➢ kshatriyas, the rulers, reacted strongly against the ritualistic
domination of the brahmanas, and seem to have led a kind of
protest movement against the importance attached to birth in
the varna system.
➢ Vardhamana Mahavira, who founded Jainism, and Gautama
Budha, who founded Buddhism belonged to the kshatriya clan,
and both disputed the authority of the brahmanas.
punch-marked
The real cause: The rise of these new religions lay in coins
the spread of a new agricultural economy in north-
eastern India.
Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in
sacrifices stood in the way of the progress of new
agriculture. But if the new agrarian economy had to be
stable, this killing had to be stopped.
The use of coins: earliest coins belong to the fifth
century B.C., and they are called punch-marked coins.
They circulated for the first time in eastern Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.
The use of coins naturally facilitated trade and
commerce, which added to the importance of the
vaishyas which ranked third, and now they looked for
some religion which would improve their position.

Vardhmana Mahavira and Jainism
Believe of jainas:
▪To have twenty four tirthankaras [teachers or
leaders of their religion].
▪The first tirthankara is believed to be Rishbhadev
▪The twenty-third tirthankara was Parshvanath
▪The last, twenty-fourth, tirthankara, was
Vardhamana Mahavira who was a contemporary
of Gautama Buddha.
About Mahavira and his life:
▪VardhamanaMahavira was born is 540 B.C. in a
village called Kundagrama near Vaishali in north
Bihar.
▪His father Siddhartha was the head of a famous
kshatriya clan.
➢Mahavira’s mother was named Trishala, sister of the Lichchhayi
chief Chetaka, whose daughter was wedded to Bimbisara
➢In the search for truth Vardhamana abandoned the world at the age
of 30 and became an ascetic. he meditated for twelve years practised
austerities of various kinds and endured many hardships.
➢At the age of 42, he attained kaivalya (Juan). Through kaivalya he
conquered misery and happiness.
➢Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero
or jina, i.e. the conqueror, and his followers are known as Jainas.
➢He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at Pavapuri near modern
Rajgir.

Five Doctrines of Jainism
Do not steal
Do not speak a lie Do not commit violence
Do not observe continence

acquire (brahmacharya)
property
✣ Jainism attached the utmost importance to ahimsa or non
injury to living beings
Dividation: Jainism was divided into two sect
➢ shvetambaras or those who put on white dress
➢ digmbaras or those who keep them-selves naked.
✣ Jainism mainly aims at the attainment of freedom from
worldly bonds. No ritual but only three jems are required for
acquiring such liberation.
Three Jewels or triratna of Jainism.
➢ Right knowledge
➢ Right faith
➢ Right action

Spread of Jainism
To spread the teachings of Jainism, Mahavira organized an order of his
followers- Both men and women.
Chandragupta Maurya: he spread of Jainism in Karnataka
• He became a Jaina, gave up his throne and spent the last year of his life in
Kamataka as a Jaina ascetic.
spread of Jainism in south India : A famine that took place in Magadha 200
years after the death of Mahavira.
• to protect themselves many a Jains went to the south under the leadership
of Bhadrabahu [ To be called Digambars]
• Rest of them stayed back in Magadha under the leadership of Sthalabahu [
To be called Shvetambaras]
• Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa in the fourth century B.C., and in the first
cenury B.C. it enjoyed the patronage of the Kalinga king Kharavela who had
defeated the princes of Andhra and Magadha.
Contribution of Jainism
➢First serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the varna order and
the ritualistic Vedic religion
➢Adopted Prakrit language of the common people to preach their
doctrines,which helped in growth of this language and literature-
many regional language developed from prakrit [ ex: Shaurasen out
of which grew the Marathi language]
➢Their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi, and the
texts were final compiled in the sixth century A.D. at Valabhi (in
Gujarat), a great centre of education
➢The Jainas composed the earliest important works in
Apabhramsha and prepared its first grammar.
➢They contributed to the growth of Kananads also
Gautam, Buddha and Buddhism:
❖Born as Siddhartha he was a contrmporary of Mahavira.
❖he was born in 563 B.C. in a Shakya kshatriya family in Lumbini in
Nepal near Kapilvastu and belonged to a noble family.
❖His father was head of the republican clan of the Shakyas. His
mother was a princess from the Koshala dynasty.
❖He left home at the age of 29, kept on wandering for about seven
years and then attained knowledge at the age of 35 at Bodh
Gaya under a pipal tree.
❖From this time onwards he began to be called the Buddha or the
enlightened.
❖Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermons at Sarnath in Banaras.
❖ he passed away at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at Kusinagar
Doctrines of Buddhism
• He said that the world is full of sorrows and people suffer
on account of desires.
• If desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained, that is,
man will be free from the cycle of birth and death.
• He recommended an eight-fold path (ashtangika marga)
for the elimination of human misery.
• He prescribed the middle path.

.
Four Noble Truths of Buddha
World is full of Desire causes

suffering suffering
Wen we get rid of Eightfold path

Desire, suffering will help to win
will be removed
.
Eight fold path

Code of conduct of Buddha
Do not cover the property of others
Do not use intoxicants Do not commit violence
Do not speak a Do not indulge in

lie corrupt practices

Special Features of Buddhism and the Causes of Its Spread
➢It won support of the lower orders as it attacked the varna system.
➢irrespective of caste and sex doors of sangha were open to
everyone so Women also were admitted to the sangha and thus
brought on par with men.
➢In comparison with Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and
democratic.
Understood by common people: The use of Pali language said to be
the language of the people facilitated the spread of Buddhist
doctrines among the common people.
Easy to follow: The only condition required of the monks was that
they would faithfully observe the rules and regulations of the
sangha.
• there are three main elements in Buddhism: Buddha,
Sangha and Dhamma,
Adoption by various monarchies: The monarchies of
Magadha, Koshala and Kaushambi and several republican
states and their people adopted this religion.
• The famous Maurya king Ashoka embraced Buddhism.
• He spread Buddhism into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri
Lanka, and thus transformed it into a world religion.

Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India
Causes of the Decline of Buddhism
✓Brahmans began to reform their religion and Buddhism chnaged
for the worse , Gradually the Buddhist monks were cut off from the
mainstream of people's life
✓They gave up Pali, and took to Sanskrit the language of
intellectuals.
✓From the first century A.D. onwards, they practised idol worship
on a large scale and received numerous offerings from devotees
which made the life of monks easy and they started looking women
as a object of lust
✓Vajrayana: the new form of Buddhism further degenerated it
✓Invasions: by turks and Hunas – they destroyed monastries and
killed monks
Importance and Influence of Buddhism
➢It tried to consolidate the social and economic life of people
➢It recommended many measures to remove poverty in this
world.
➢It made an important impact on society by keeping its doors
open to women and shudras.
• With its emphasis on non-violence and the sanctity of animal
life. Buddhism boosted the cattle wealth of the country.
• It created and developed a new awareness in field of intellect and
culture
• They enormously enriched Pali by their writings. ,By mixing Pali
with Sanskrit the Buddhists created a new language which is
called Hybrid Sanskrit.
• The early Pali literature can be divided into three categories. The first contains
the sayings and teachings of the Buddha, the second deals with the rules to be
observed by members of the sangha, and the third presents the philosophical
exposition of the dhamma.
• The Buddhist monasteries developed as great centres of learning, and can be
called-residential universities. Ex: Nalanda and Vikramashila in Bihar, and
Valabhi in Gujrat.
• Buddhism left its mark on the art of ancient India. The first human statues
worshipped in India were probably those of the Buddha.
• Gandhara art developed.
• cave architecture are remarkable : in the Barabar hills in Gaya and in western
India around Nasik.
• Buddhist art flourished in the Krishna delta in the south and in Mathura in the
north.

Gandhara art of Buddha

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Ancient history

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➢Stone temples and brick monastries

➢Material culture developed in gangetic basin

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Carvings of inscriptions: found on

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Greeks Roman Chinese

✣ Greek visitors mention Sandrokottas, contemporary of

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Paleolithic Period: 2 million BC – 10,000 BC Old Stone Age

Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC – 8000 BC Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to

Iron Age: 1500 BC – 200 BC

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plains of Indus, ganga and Yamuna) used

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the Kuru people.

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