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Alt Richter 2002
Alt Richter 2002
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To cite this document: Herbert Altrichter, Stephen Kemmis, Robin McTaggart, Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt, (2002),"The concept of action
research", The Learning Organization, Vol. 9 Iss: 3 pp. 125 - 131
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09696470210428840
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Herbert Altrichter, Stephen Kemmis, Robin McTaggart, Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt, (2002),"The concept of action research", The Learning
Organization, Vol. 9 Iss: 3 pp. 125 - 131
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09696470210428840
Herbert Altrichter, Stephen Kemmis, Robin McTaggart, Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt, (2002),"The concept of action research", The Learning
Organization, Vol. 9 Iss: 3 pp. 125 - 131
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09696470210428840
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Introduction
The concept of action Action research has proven its utility, with
research growing recognition of its breadth as a field of
research practice and its depth as a discourse
Herbert Altrichter of theoretical insight. Yet while gaining
Stephen Kemmis recognition internationally, action research
does not have one neat, widely accepted
Robin McTaggart and definition. It is, after all, a very broad
Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt movement. The First International
Symposium on ``Action Research in Industry,
The authors Government and Higher Education'' in
Brisbane in 1989 and the subsequent five
Herbert Altrichter is Professor and Head of Department of
World Congresses on ``Action Learning,
Education and Psychology at the University of Linz, Austria.
Action Research and Process Management''
Stephen Kemmis is Director of Stephen Kemmis
(ALARPM) have made it clear that there is
Research and Consulting P/L and Professor Emeritus of
some demand for a handy definition of action
the University of Ballarat, Australia.
research that explains its conceptual
Robin McTaggart is Professor and Pro-Vice Chancellor,
framework and how this can be used.
Staff Development and Student Affairs, at James Cook
Action research by its very nature seeks to
University, Townsville, Northern Queensland, Australia.
explain the pedagogical assumptions of the
Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt is Director of OZI (Ortrun Zuber
researchers (participants) and their research
International P/L), Adjunct Professor at Griffith University,
project. So it is not surprising that many have
Brisbane, Australia, and Professor of Professional and
focussed their investigative lens on action
Organisational Development in the UK-based
research as a concept. The literature on action
International Management Centres Association (IMCA).
research is rich in useful definitions. Yet none
of these has gained pre-eminence in the field.
Keywords
It is thus useful to clarify the concept of action
Action research, Model research and to explore the definitional
problem. In this paper we take up both tasks.
Abstract We present several definitions put forward by
others and propose a definition that we have
Action research has been recognised for its breadth as a
produced ourselves after extensive thought,
field of research practice and its depth as a discourse of
feedback and refining. However, we maintain
theoretical insight. It does not have one neat, widely
that action research must be both clarified for
accepted definition. Points to some reasons for the
communication and open for ongoing
difficulty of formulating a generally accepted definition of
consideration since confinement in narrow,
action research, and argues why action research should not
restrictive definitions could serve to inhibit
be confined but should be both clarified for communication
useful conceptual development.
and open for development. The discussion stems from a
working definition developed with participants in an
international symposium that serves as a classic definition
of action research. Presents several alternative approaches Defining action research
to resolution and argues for a judicious mix of pragmatism
and flexibility in approaching the definition issue.
We find this definition by Kemmis and
McTaggart (1988, p. 5) generally very
helpful:
Electronic access
Action research is a form of collective, self-
The research register for this journal is available at reflective inquiry that participants in social
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregisters situations undertake to improve: (1) the
rationality and justice of their own social or
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is educational practices; (2) the participants'
available at understanding of these practices and the
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0969-6474.htm situations in which they carry out these practices.
Groups of participants can be teachers, students,
The Learning Organization parents, workplace colleagues, social activists or
Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2002 . pp. 125±131 any other community members ± that is, any
# MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0969-6474 group with a shared concern and the motivation
DOI 10.1108/09696470210428840 and will to address their shared concern. The
125
H. Altrichter, S. Kemmis, R. McTaggart and O. Zuber-Skerritt Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2002 . 125±131
approach is action research only when it is (culturally and historically located) use of
collaborative and achieved through the critically language. They are normative in that they
examined action of individual group members.
inherently involve the definer's attempt to
Participants in the First International include some phenomena into the meaning of
Symposium in Brisbane offered various a communicated term and exclude others.
definitions that they had found useful. The These are preconditions for the
Symposium participants sought to work communicative function of a definition and
towards a more open definition of action they are thus useful in providing a basis for
research that would attract general consent. the critique and development of a concept.
But it was also recognised that rather than one In the following discussion we focus on:
fixed definition, a broadly accepted approach . the encounter of cultures and the
to defining action research would be the best adaptation of definitions;
response to the definition problem. This . some limitations on definitions;
response is consistent with the flexible, . two parts of a definition: axiomatic and
pragmatic, collective response to problem empirical;
solving that action research advocates. Here . two working definitions; and
we try to synthesise some of the major . an action research model.
elements in the discussion of the definitional
problem.
In traditional philosophy, a ``definition'' The encounter of cultures and the
seeks to capture the essence of an object by adaptation of definitions
relating it to its genus proximum (i.e. the
closest superordinate class) and naming its During the Brisbane Symposium, McTaggart
differentia specifica (i.e. specific difference (1996) recounted his experience of
from other species within this class). collaboration with participants from an
Philosophical analysis has aimed to establish indigenous culture quite different from that
what an object is essentially by ``getting hold with which he was familiar. His anecdote hit
of the correct and eternally true account of it'' home not only that action research derives
(Barrow and Milburn, 1986, p. 15). But from the western cultural contexts of their
rather than following this post-Platonian creators. It also highlighted how the western
essentialism, one might ask: ``What is the action researcher who at the beginning of a
purpose of a definition?'' One could also ask project is usually more experienced with
why define, since this opens us to recognising research strategies and techniques than other
the potentially restrictive nature of traditional participants, must be prepared to ``give away''
``scientific''/pseudo-scientific approaches to or share their knowledge of action research,
research. Answering this question alerts us to which is anyway what action research
the usually hidden or at least unobserved advocates as part of the collaborative research
constraints that shape our research questions process. Since this researcher is likely to have
± why, what, how and who we ask ± and little opportunity to develop deep
similarly shape our answers. Asking the ``why understanding of the other participants'
define?'' question is a crucial means that culture, he or she needs to work creatively to
enables us, as action research advocates, to encourage the other participants ± by and for
move thoughtfully beyond the paradigm whom the research project is largely
dominant in our research field and begin with conducted ± to ``reshape'', to ``remake'', to
our own questions, problems and ``reconstitute'' action research in ways that
understandings that are different from those make sense within the participants' culture
of mainstream approaches. Instead of while retaining the philosophical features
defining/controlling, this enables us to set up familiar to the researcher.
malleable parameters to open up and release. In the face of striking cultural differences,
Definitions have pragmatic, descriptive and the appropriate attitude towards identifying
normative functions in research. They are the meaning of concepts seems to be
pragmatic in that they help communication in incremental rather than normative. The
cases where the participants do not have a emphasis here is not on the clear-cut
shared meaning of something, whether or not definitions that some researchers use for what
they have shared experience of it. Definitions may be labelled ``non-action research'' or
are descriptive in that they record a usual ``limited versions of action research''. It is on
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H. Altrichter, S. Kemmis, R. McTaggart and O. Zuber-Skerritt Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2002 . 125±131
offering support for developing the idea and altogether, instead of giving them the chance
practice of action research, in ways useful to to develop their research approach as they
people within the host culture. This become more familiar with the philosophy
cross-cultural approach aims to create space and methodology of action research. The
for participants from the host culture to move can therefore sacrifice the potential for
develop their own self-reflective practice both the practice of action research and the
informed by action research philosophy rather development of new practitioners who could
than to control the practice or at least the in the longer term contribute to developing
naming and framing of practice. the approach.
``Culture'' occupies a prominent position in Definitions are rooted in specific cultures
Holly's personal account of developing action ± ethnic, social, political and others ± that give
research over two decades from the definitions particular meaning and
mid-1970s. He views action research as an significance. To understand and be
innovation ``offered'' to schools (Holly, understood in other cultures, we must do
1996). Characteristically, in the process of more than produce a literal, translation of the
accepting innovations, teachers and schools idea into the language and cultural
further transform these innovations. Like frameworks of the new culture. The idea must
other innovations, action research has been be appropriated in an active process of
transformed in the process of being adapted deconstructing old definitions and models
to the needs of the school setting. Holly and of reconstructing and re-enacting them in
conceives the process of innovation as a relation to the settings, circumstances, values
``meeting of cultures''. ``Culture'' for Holly and interests of the ``host culture''. Thus, an
differs from McTaggart's (1996) notion. In understanding is gradually developed that can
Holly's usage, culture does not denote be expressed in meanings and practices
different ethnicities but different systems of indigenous to the specific context. This
thought and action developed in relatively means that for a definition to fulfil its
unrelated places within one society. ``pragmatic function'', its ``normative
Action research as innovation in this function'' must not be defended too closely.
context represents a ``culture'' that is brought
into relationship with the culture within a
school system or classroom, to which it is at
Some limitations
first potentially alien. Arguably, the attitude
of someone bringing action research to Not every useful and valuable change process
schools should be similar to that which needs to be re-described in the terms put
McTaggart advocates for the ``western action forward by action research, as Kemmis
researcher'': (1996) has argued. This is a particular
. . . since neither can be sure to have fully approach to particular kinds of problems, not
understood the ``host culture'' and since both are some kind of panacea for all problems of
only ``temporary guests'' who do not have to live
with the long-term effects of the innovation,
social practice. It calls for intellectual clarity
their stance should be modest and supportive, and honesty to develop a fairly clear idea of
``giving away'' action research to be used and what one is talking about. This always means
transformed by the ``host culture'' for its own that other approaches to improving social
good rather than monitoring the process to practices, social settings and our
prevent the concept from being ``damaged'' or
understanding of social life, although perhaps
``misconstrued'' or to protect its conceptual
purity from ``contamination'' or ``dilution''. appealing in other respects, must be excluded
from a specific discourse.
Holly (1996) argued that: Action research aims to develop practical
too purist a definition (of action research) is situations and competencies of the
disenfranchising
participants without substantively prescribing
for example, when teachers introduce an objectives to be achieved. The general aims of
action research project it is difficult for them action research are frequently expressed in
to meet rigorous requirements of terms of process criteria (e.g. participation
``participation'' and ``collaboration'' at the and emancipation) and it seems worthwhile to
start. Insisting on rigour or dismissing the continue to stress these characteristics to
evolving research project as a ``limited form of differentiate action research from other
action research'' could turn off newcomers approaches to understanding and creating
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H. Altrichter, S. Kemmis, R. McTaggart and O. Zuber-Skerritt Volume 9 . Number 3 . 2002 . 125±131
social change. Clearly, action research will potentially attracted), the more difficult it
continue to develop. Part of doing research is becomes to argue concretely and incisively the
researching research, as the research task is strengths of action research, and the more
inherently epistemic. Developing our competition with other research programs is
knowledge about and competency in action to be expected.
research therefore remains necessary; we The second, empirical, part consists of a
must avoid behaving as if doing action collection of various researchers' reflected
research were no more than administering a research experiences. It is as extensive as
prescribed strategy. This developmental publication length allows and is open-ended
orientation lies at the very heart of action and dynamic. Its message is clear: in doing
research and valid definitions of action research, action researchers test the inventory
research acknowledge and bear out this of rules, a process that modifies, augments
orientation. and further develops these rules.
The central problem with definitions of
action research seems to be the potential The axiomatic part
incongruity between two of its key aspects The following description of action research is
± intellectual clarity and developmental a concrete example used in the first session of
orientation. So it is important to consider how an introductory course into action research.
intellectual clarity (which seems to be The ``definition'' consists of just three points
necessarily exclusive at any given time) can be (what we are talking about):
achieved without harming the overall (1) action research is about people reflecting
developmental orientation that action upon and improving their own practice;
research aims to promote and embodies itself (2) by tightly inter-linking their reflection and
(and which must necessarily be open to action; and
inclusions). In the following section two (3) making their experiences public to other
attempts at reconciliation are presented for people concerned by and interested in the
discussion. respective practice.
131