The Core Reaction with the Matter

Arranged to Fulfill Task

Course : Radiochemistry
Lecturer : Dr. Ir. Nurfajriani, M.Si

S NEGE
SI TA R

IM
IV E R

E DA N
UN

UN
IMED

Arranged by :
1. Evaline Damanik (4203131036)
2. Ijayanti Pardosi (4203131029)
3. Lamtiur Paronauli Silaban (4203131048)

BILINGUAL CHEMICAL EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTEMEN OF CHEMISTRY
UNIVESITAS NEGERI MEDAN
2020/2021
 PREFACE

Praise the team of writers to God Almighty. Thanks to His blessings and grace, the
writing team was able to complete the Radiochemistry course assignment, this paper cannot be
separated from the direction and guidance of the lecturer who taught the subject. Therefore, the
team of authors would like to thank Dr. Mam. Ir. Nurfajriani, M.Si.
This routine writing assignment aims to make readers better understand the material that
has been delivered by the writing team. The writing team realizes that there are still many
shortcomings in the writing of this paper. Therefore, the writing team expects suggestions and
criticism from readers.
In closing, the authors hope that this paper is useful for readers and can better understand
the material that has been presented.

Medan,14 February 2021

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE………………………………………………………………………..………..............1
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………..……………...2
CHAPTER I………………………………………………………………………..……………...3
1.1 Background of Writing……………………………………………….……………….3
1.2 Aim and Benefit of Writing……………………….…………………………………..3
CHAPTER II…………………………………………………………….………………………..4
2.1 Theoretical framework…………………………………….………………………….4
CHAPTER III……………………………………………………………………………………24
3.1 Conclusions…………………………….…………………………………………….24
3.2 Recommendations……………………..……………………………………………..24
REFERENCES……………………………………….………………………………………….25

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 CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY
1.1 Background of Writing
The need for energy is increasing faster from year to year, while the sources that can be
directly used for certain needs are increasingly limited. Although the energy that comes from
solar radiation (solar energy) is very abundant, but so far it has not been able to be utilized
optimally. Economically, the equipment needed to convert solar energy is still relatively
expensive compared to energy sources that come from oil and natural gas and coal. Nuclear
fusion reactors are one of the alternative energy sources in the future that use abundant, highly
efficient, clean from pollution, will not cause radiation leakage hazard and will not cause
waste.Radioactive worry like in a nuclear fission reactor.For that, we need to understand how the
interactions of the core reactions occur and their classification.

1.2 Aim and Benefit of Writing

This paper also has objectives such as:

-To know the interaction of the nuclear reaction with matter
-To know the classification of the core reaction with the material.
-Add a broader understanding of radiochemistry.

Benefits of writing such as:

-Knowing the interaction of the core reaction with the material.
-Knowing the classification of the interaction of the core reaction with the material.
-Add a broader understanding of radiochemistry.

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 CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Theoretical Framework
A. Definition of Core Reaction
Nuclear reactions are events that change the nucleus of an atom that turns into the
nucleus of another atom with a very large energy error. For nuclear reactions to occur, other
particles need to shake the equilibrium of the nucleus so that the equilibrium of the nucleus is not
disturbed. As a result, the core will split into two new cores. Particles are used to disturb the
equilibrium of a proton or neutron nucleus. Where energetic protons or neutron particles are fired
into the target nucleus so that after a reaction, new atomic nuclei will form new particles to form.
The target nucleus can become a stable atomic nucleus, so that after a reaction the nucleus
becomes an unstable nucleus which is then called a radioactive isotope. So nuclear reactions can
also aim to obtain radioactive isotopes that come from stable nuclei.
Nuclear reactions are very different from chemical reactions, because actually this initial
reaction occurs as a result of the collision (shooting) of the core of the target (target) with a
projectile (bullet). Schematically, the core reaction can be described:

Or

Information:
X: target nuclides
Y: radionuclide from nuclear reaction

4
a: particle gunner
b: particles from the reaction of the nucleus
X is the initial nucleus, Y the final nucleus, while a and b are incident and emitted particles,
respectively.
If a particle is fired at the nucleus X, then there is a possibility that occurs, namely elastic
scattering, inelastic scattering and nuclear reactions. Many experts use this core reaction for the
purpose of qualitative and quantitative analysis in a study, for example AAN (Neutron
Activation).
The laws that apply to core reactions are:
1. The law of conservation of momentum, namely: the amount of momentum before and after the
collision is the same.
2. Humum of energy conservation, namely: the amount of energy before and after
the collision is the same.
3. Law of conservation of atomic number, namely: the number of atomic numbers before and
after the collision is the same. then R + S = T + U
4. Law of conservation of mass number, namely: the amount of momentum before and after the
collision is the same. then M + N = O + P
Examples of core reactions include 14 N + 4 He → 17 O + 1 H. Nitrogen nuclei are shot
with particles (2He4) to become Oxygen nuclei by participating in the emergence of protons
(1H1), the nuclei of oxygen atoms that are formed are radioactive.
In the core reaction of the efforts of several conservation laws, among others:
1. The law of permanence of charge
∑Z = fixed
2. The law of conservation of mass and energy
MA.C2 + ma.C2 + Ka = MB.C2 + Mb.C2 + Kb + Kb MA.C2 + ma.C2 = MB.C2 + Mb.C2 + Q
Where Q = reaction energy
= KB + Kb - Ka
(Kinetic energy) When Q> 0 the reaction is exo energy
Q <0 endo-energy reactions
3. The law of the conservation of mass numbers
∑A = fixed

5
4. Law of conservation of core angular momentum

∑I = fixed

5. The law of the conservation of parity

∑∏ = fixed

6. The law of conservation of linear momentum

∑P = fixed
The particles used to shoot radioactive nuclei so that nuclear reactions occur are α
particles, β particles, γ rays, neutrons, protons and deuterons. In the event of a nuclear reaction,
the core that is fired will change into another nucleus with the release of particles and energy.
The amount of energy formed during the reaction is equal to the difference between the original
mass and the final mass.
B. Classification of Core Reactions
Core reactions can be classified in several ways, depending on the circumstances, namely
as follows:
1. Classification of core reactions according to gunner particles
According to this classification can be classified into several groups, namely:
a. Charged particle reactions
Including these reactions are reactions p, d, α, C12, O16.
b. Neutron reaction
The particles that are fired are neutrons
c. Nuclear photo reaction
The particles that are fired are photons (gamma rays)
d. Electron reaction
The particles that are fired are electrons

6
2. Classify the core reactions according to the energy of the gun particles
A. For neutron reactions, the shooter's neutron energy can be classified into four groups, namely:
Thermal neutrons with incident energy ~ 1/40 eV Epithermic neutrons with incoming energy ~ 1
eV Neutrons come with incoming energy ~ 1 keV Fast neutrons with incoming energy 0.1 - 10
MeV
b. For charged particle reactions, gunner particles are classified as follows:
Low energy particles: 0.1 - 10 MeV High energy particles: 10 - 100 MeV
There are three kinds of nuclear reactions known, namely firing reactions with particles (decay),
nuclear mutation reactions, and energy-producing reactions (fission reactions and fusion
reactions).
1. Decay Reaction
The Decay reaction is spontaneous and exoergic (releases energy).
In the reaction that occurs, the nucleus changes not to become stable to become stable nuclei.
Example: Ra → Rn + α
2. Core Transmutation Reaction
In the nuclear transmission reaction, a nucleus absorbs a particle and changes into another
nucleus by emitting radiation. One way to outsource the nuclear reaction naming is simply to
mention (a, b) at the core of the target. So, for the 35Cl (n, p) 35S reaction, it is called the (n, p)
reaction in 35Cl.
Based on the properties of a and b, the nuclear reactions can be divided into several types as
described below.
A. Elastic Scattering

in the case of nucleation, where the results are a = b and X = Y, it is called the elastic scattering
event. The gunner's particle hits the core of the target, it loses some of its kinetic energy, which
is diverted towards the core of the target. There is no change in the total energy potential, and the
kinetic energy is conserved.
Elastic scattering is used in slowing fast neutrons by moderators in nuclear reactors.
b. Inelastic Scattering
An inelastic language scattering process when some of the kinetic energy of the particle
that is used to increase the potential energy of the base core, among others, is in the form of
excitation to a higher energy level. In this case the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved.
Example:

7
107Ag (n, n) 107mAg 107Ag

44.3 seconds
c. Photonuclear Reactions
Core reactions induced by X-rays or high-energy photons (> 1 MeV) are viewed as
photonuclear reactions. In this reaction a= g and b are more often n or p and when using very
high energy photons it is most likely d, t or a or even a mixture of particles.
d. Radioactive Capture
When the missile particles are absorbed by the target nucleus, the target nucleus is
excited which then emits radiation of one or more gamma (g) photons. The most common
reaction is (n, g), where the result is a target isotope that is one unit mass larger.
Example: 23Na (n, g) 24Na, 31P (n, g) 32P, 179Au (n, g) 180Au
Apart from the (n, g) reaction there are also reactions (p, g), but here the resulting nucleus
is not an isotope of the target nucleus.
Example: 19F (p, g) 20Ne, 27Al (p, g) 28Si
Apart from the (n, ) reaction there are also reactions (p, ), but here the resulting
nucleus is not an isotope of the target nucleus.
Example: 19F (p, ) 20Ne, 27Al (p, ) 28Si
Other types of nuclear reactions include (n, p), (p, n), (n, ), ( , n), d, p), (d, n), ( , t)
reactions.

3. Energy Producing Reactions

A. Fission reaction (cleavage)
A fission reaction is a reaction that occurs in a heavy nucleus which is crushed by a
particle (generally a neutron) which then becomes two new, lighter nuclei. Neutrons are more
easily absorbed by the nucleus because they are not charged, so they do not experience the
repulsive Coulomb force when they rise to the surface of the nucleus. Because the heavy core is
unstable compared to the product, this process releases a lot of energy.

8
 The nuclear fission reaction studied for the first time was the bombardment of uranium-
235 with slow neutrons, whose velocity is proportional to the velocity of air molecules at room
temperature. Under these conditions, uranium-235 undergoes fission.

At each nuclear division, about 200MeV of energy is generated. The neutrons produced
from the first cleavage reaction can be used to shoot the nucleus in subsequent cleavage reactions,
so that they can occur cleavage chain reactions. The energy generated at the cleavage of 235
grams of 235 is equivalent to the energy produced by burning 500 tons of coal.
Fission reactions have a theory of nuclear fission which was used by Lise Meitner - Otto
Frisch and Bohr - Wheeler in 1939. The theory was developed based on the liquid drop model
with attention.
A. The forces that act on and affect the shape of the nucleus in an excited state
b. The energy that drives nuclear division and the binding energy that blocks nuclear division
The explanation of these two matters is as follows:

a) Distortion of the core shape in an excited state

The shape of the core is determined by opposing forces, namely: the surface tension force
which tends to maintain a spherical shape (so that the surface area is minimum) and the coulomb
force which leads to a distorted shape due to the repulsion between the nuclei. proton. When a
nucleus is excited by capturing a neutron or for other reasons, it isolates and produces a dilated
form periodically. If the excitation energy is insufficient, the de-excitation process is through the
emission of alpha particles, with the initial process forming a ball again. Meanwhile, if the
excitation energy is sufficient, the degree of distortion increases from the ellipsoid to a narrow

9
form until it reaches a critical deformation state, the nucleus splits into two fragments, each of
which forms a spherical sphere again with the release of several neutrons. . The Bohr-Wheeler
theory expresses the potential energy of the nucleus as a function of deformation at each stage of
the cleavage process expressed as r, a parameter of the distance between the centers of mass of
two hemispheres.
b) Energetics of nuclear fission
In the fission reaction, the atomic nucleus captures the neutrons and produces a very
unstable nucleus state and in a short time it will become a part of the nucleus equipped with two
or three new neutrons.The size of the two fraction products is not fixed, with the greatest
probability that one fraction has a mass number of about 90 and the other is around it140.
Most of the energy released in fission will turn into the kinetic energy of the two fractions,
which is about 80 percent, while the 20 percent appears in the form of decay (beta and gamma)
and the kinetic energy of a number of neutrons emitted in the fission process. For example on
decay
Uranium that often occurs is:

One example of bad Uranium decay in image form.

Fission chain reactions can occur by using neutrons from one fission process to initiate
the next fission process. In 1942 Fermi built the first controllable core fission reactor. For a
nuclear bomb, it would take more than one neutron from the first to cause the second fission
event (1 g U can release energy equal to about 20000 tons TNT). For nuclear power generation,
it takes one neutron to cause a second event.
Fission chain reactions are 2 ways uncontrolled chain reactions (example: atomic bombs)
and controlled chain reactions (example: atomic reactors)
1) Uncontrolled chain reactions can generate enormous amounts of energy. For one core
cleavage the average energy released is 208 MeV. An uncontrolled chain reaction occurs when

10
the neutrons produced (on average 2.5 neutrons) from each nuclear division strike another
nucleus and this process continues, the energy released will occur so rapidly that an explosion
occurs (as in an atomic bomb).

2) Controlled Chain Reaction, controlled chain reaction is carried out by limiting the number of
neutrons splitting the nucleus in the nuclear environment or by conditioning each nuclear
division to contribute only one neutron which will cause the division of one other nucleus.

Fission is the process of splitting the nucleus into nearly equal parts, releasing energy and
neutrons in the process. If these neutrons are captured by another unstable nucleus the nucleus
will split as well, firing a chain reaction. If the average number of neutrons released per nucleus
fissioning to the nucleus of another atom is symbolized by k, then a k value greater than 1
indicates that the fission reaction released more neutrons than the absorbed number, thus
indicating that this reaction can stand alone. The minimum mass of a fission material capable of
carrying out a self-sustaining chain reaction is called the critical mass.

11
 When a neutron is captured by a suitable atomic nucleus, fission will occur immediately,
or the nucleus will be in an unstable state for a short time. Neutrons used in fission can be
inhibited, for example by a neutron absorber, and the neutrons still make mass nuclear material
has a critical status, then the fission reaction can be controlled. This is what makes nuclear
reactors built. Fast-moving neutrons must not hit the nucleus, they must be slowed down,
generally by bumping the neutron with the neutron core controller before they can be easily
captured. Today, this method is commonly used to generate electricity.

The total energy per fission for one neutron firing off once is about 200 MeV.
From the fission reaction, more than 200 isotopes were found in 35 ways as a result of
uranium-235 cleavage. In terms of the stability of the nucleus, the cleavage results contain many
protons. From the nuclear cleavage reaction, it can be seen that each nuclear cleavage by one
neutron produces two to four neutrons. After one uranium-235 atom undergoes cleavage, the
fissured neutrons can be used for cleavage of other uranium-235 atoms and so on so that it can
produce chain reactions. This cleavage material must be large enough so that the resulting
neutrons can be trapped in the sample. If the sample is too small, the neutrons will come out so
there is no chain reaction.
An application of core fission is the generation of electricity using heat generated from a
limited chain reaction carried out in a nuclear reactor. A nuclear reactor is a place where the
fission reaction of nuclides occurs in a controlled caliber. This nuclear reactor can utilize nuclear
energy so it is called a thermal reactor.
The energy produced is very large, in which new neutrons are produced which will hit the
remaining atomic nuclei so that a nuclear chain reaction occurs which can produce enormous
energy, for example the fission reaction in a nuclear bomb.

12
n + U-235 -> Ba-144 + Kr-90 + 2n + 179.6 MeV
n + U-235 -> Ba-141 + Kr-92 + 3n + 173.3 MeV
n + U-235 -> Zr-94 + Te-139 + 3n + 172.9 MeV
n + U-235 -> Zr-94 + La-139 + 3n + 199.3 MeV

b. Fusion Reaction (Combination)

A fusion reaction (thermonuclear reaction) is a process in which two atomic nuclei
combine to form a larger atomic nucleus and release energy. . The energy generated from the
fusion reaction is greater than the energy generated from the fission reaction of the same mass.
This process requires a large amount of energy to combine nuclear nuclei, even the
lightest element, hydrogen. But the fusion of light nuclei, which forms a heavier nucleus and free
neutrons, will produce energy that is even greater than the energy required to combine them. The
energy released in many nuclear reactions is greater than in chemical reactions, because of the
binding energy involved. gluing the two nuclei is much greater than the energy holding the
electrons to the atomic nucleus.
Consider the fusion reaction with the base material between deuterium and lithium.

Fusion reactions usually occur at temperatures around 100 million degrees Celsius. At
this temperature there is plasma from the nucleus and electrons. This fusion reaction that occurs
at high temperatures is called a thermonuclear reaction.
Nuclear fusion is the energy source that causes stars to shine, and Hydrogen Bombs to explode.

A fusion reaction is a reaction that cannot yet be created because a container that can
withstand temperatures reaching ~ 107oK is required. At this temperature the atoms ionize to
form a state called plasma. Actually the fusion reaction is a source of energy because it produces
enormous energy. Like the reaction that occurs in the sun and stars.

13
2. The nuclear fusion reaction in the hydrogen bomb
The raw materials for hydrogen are the deuterium and tritium nuclei, which form the
helium nucleus while releasing a large amount of energy. To combine these nuclei requires a
very high temperature obtained from ordinary atomic explosions resulting from fission reactions
as the trigger for the continuation of the hydrogen bomb fusion reaction which will produce a
more powerful bomb explosion. The fusion reaction equation for the hydrogen bomb can be
written:

2
H  3H  4He  1n 17,6MeV
1 1 2 0

The energy produced is formed through two types of reactions, namely through the
proton-proton recycling and carbon recycling, which produce energy of about 25 MeV and 28
MeV, respectively.

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A. Proton-proton cycle

Picture. Proton cycle reaction

b. The Carbon Cycle

15
 The basis for the use of core fusion research for energy production is the behavior shown
that when two light nuclei fuse or fuse to form a larger and more stable nucleus, much energy is
released in the process. The continuous fusion of nuclei in the sun is composed mainly of
hydrogen and helium.
The product resulting from the fusion reaction is not radioactive so it is safer to use.
Currently, development is starting to be made elements heavier than Uranium as fuel for atomic
reactors. Uranium 235 is generally used.
Weapons are weapons that use the principles of nuclear nuclear reaction and nuclear
fusion. The elements often used in nuclear fusion reactions are Lithium and Hydrogen
(especially Lithium-6, Deuterium, Tritium). The deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion reaction is
considered to be the most developed process for producing fusion power. (http: // nuclear physics
/ radioactivity / UNNES)
2.2 Energy of Core Reactions, Differences of Core Reactions and Chemical Reactions

A. Core Reaction Energy

The energy of the nuclear reaction is obtained from the shrinkage of the core mass,
namely the difference in the mass of the nucleus before the reaction with the mass of the nucleus
after the reaction. A nuclear reaction requires the use of the mass and energy equivalents
formulated by Albert Einstein
E=mc2
If the exact mass of nuclides is known, we can calculate the nuclear reaction energy using
the above formula. The meter symbol for the change in net mass (in kg), while c is the speed of
light (in meters / second). Energy E is expressed in Joules. If all the mass of the nucleus is
expressed in ama (atomic mass units), then the total energy of the mass of 1 amu is equivalent to
an energy of 931 MeV (1 amu

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= 1.66 × 10-27 kg, c = 3 × 108 m / s and 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 Joules)

In nuclear reactions, energy can be released or absorbed. A reaction releasing energy

means that the kinetic energy of the particles after the reaction is greater than the kinetic energy
of the particles before the reaction. This additional energy comes from converting rest energy
into kinetic energy. The amount of energy that is not measured by the Q value of the nuclear
reaction, which is defined as the difference between the final and initial kinetic energies.
In a centroid system, both particles move and contribute to the total kinetic energy.

Kcm = ½ mA (v-V)2 + ½ mB V2

= ½ mAv2 - ½ (mA – mB) V2

= K - ½ (mA - mB) V2

The total kinetic energy of a particle relative to its center of mass is the total kinetic
energy in the laboratory system minus the kinetic energy ½ (mA + mB) V2 of the center of mass
it is moving. So it can be stated that Kcm is the kinetic energy of the particle's relative motion. If
the particles collide, the maximum kinetic energy that can be converted into excitation energy
from the compound nucleus occurs while maintaining the conservation momentum, which is
Kcm which is smaller than Klab.
The value of Q for a nuclear reaction:
Q = [(mA + mB) - (mC + mD)] c2

= [(mA + mB – mC – mD)]c2

If Q is a positive quantity, energy is released by the reaction. If Q the negative quantity of

kinetic energy in the centroid system is large enough it must be given by the particles which
react thus
Kcm + Q ≥ 0
B. Difference of Core Reaction and Chemical Reaction

17
 Nuclear reactions are different from chemical reactions. Because these reactions occur at
the level of the atomic nucleus (nucleus) rather than the atom as a whole. As has been discussed
in my previous writings, that Chemical energy and Atomic Energy, both come from atoms, but
the difference in chemical energy produced from each - the combustion system of a coal and
petroleum - for example, will result in rearrangement. atoms caused by the redistribution of
electrons. While on the other hand, atomic energy is generated from the redistribution of
particles with atomic nuclei (atomic nuclei). Due to the mistake of avoiding confusion, the term
"Nuclear Energy" is often used, which is the term atomic energy.
Under suitable laboratory conditions, atomic nuclei can be made from other atomic nuclei
especially for elements which have the smallest atomic number, namely the hydrogen nucleus
(identical to the proton), the deuterium nucleus (deuteron) and the helium nucleus (alpha
particles). Nuclear reactions can occur if the nucleus of an atom can be arranged with neutrons,
electrons and gamma rays.
But at ordinary temperatures, the rate of nuclear reactions - (i.e. the number of nuclei
reacting at a given time in a given volume) is very small compared to the rate of chemical
reactions that produce atoms or molecules. Why did this happen? There are two reasons why this
happens:
The first reason is the small size of the nucleus (only cm coded) compared to the total
size of the atoms or molecules coded or. This causes nuclear collisions to occur at a lower rate
than collisions at the atomic or molecular level. However, even so, under special circumstances
where a nucleus with a small energy and mass can appear as if it has a diameter that has the
diameter of the atom so that the rate of nuclear reaction that occurs will occur increased
drastically above the normal value. This special condition will be discussed in my other writings.
The second reason responsible for causing the relatively low rate of interaction of nuclei
with other nuclei is the presence of coulomb forces which are mutually repelling - repelling
between the nuclei due to the positive charge on the nucleus. The energy of the repulsion is
proportional to (z1 - z2) / R. Where Z1 and Z2 are charges, that is, the atomic numbers of the
two nuclei where A and R are the distance between the 2 nuclei.
Since one nucleus has to enjoy another nucleus with a distance of cm before it can, the
energy demand that arises - according to the coulomb equation - will be very large, especially in
the nucleus of an atom with a high atomic number. In the case of nuclei with small atomic
numbers (such as H, He), the coulomb energy occurring in the order of millions of electron Volts,
imagines the Coulomb energy arising in the nucleus of an atom with a large atomic number (such
as uranim -235 for example).

On the other hand, in chemical reactions, the energy required to support electronic field
interactions rarely reaches more than a few electron volts. At ordinary temperatures the
probability that the atomic / molecular pair colliding will have an amount of kinetic energy in the
value of millions of eV is very small. Therefore, not only the number of collisions between

18
nuclei is smaller than the collisions between atoms / molecules under the same conditions, but
the interaction probability of these collisions is also small. So it is surprising that the reactions
that occur between atomic nuclei are much smaller in chemical reactions at the atomic /
molecular level
The following is a comparison table between chemical reactions and core reactions:

Core Reaction Chemical Reaction

Atoms are rearranged by breaking and The element (or isotope of the same
ordering chemical bonds element). Converted from one element to
another.
Only electrons in atone or molecular orbitals Protons, neutrons, electrons, and other
are involved in breaking and ordering bonds elementary particles are involved in the
reaction.
The reaction is accompanied by the The reaction is accompanied by the
absorption or release of relatively little absorption or release of a very large amount
energy of energy.
Proof reaction rate by temperature, pressure The rate of reaction is usually independent
and catalyst pressure of temperature, pressure and catalyst.
The isotope Different isotopes provide characteristics
different give the same characteristics different

2.3 Definition of Cross Section and Core Excitation Function A. Definition of Cross Section
Cross section: cross section: a measure of the probability of occurrence of a nuclear
reaction. Probability is described as the area where the target is located. Expressed in Warehouse
(1 Warehouse = 10-28 m2)
A cross section if written in Indonesian is referred to as a cross section, the section in this
context is the probability of a collision between one particle and the nucleus or other particles.
The cross section is a quantum parameter related to the reaction of radioactive nuclei. There are
several types of cross-sectional parameters, including the absorption section, the catch section,
the fission section, the scatter section, the transfer section, and others.
The absorption section is a cross section that plays a role in the absorption of particles by
an atomic nucleus. In this case, the particle in question is usually a neutron. When the process
occurs a radioactive atomic nucleus "Absorbing" a neutron, then the atomic nucleus will
experience a "burning" reaction (burnup).
Meanwhile, the capture of the cross-section that plays a role in capturing particles (in this
case is a neutron) to form a new atomic nucleus (transmutation) which has an atomic mass
greater than 1 atomic unit (neutron mass is more than 1 atomic unit). Fertile matter / isotope
undergoes a large cross-sectional capture.

19
 An example of the neutron absorption and capture process is that the nucleus of U-238
will experience a burning reaction (combustion) by absorbing neutrons as well as transmuting
into U-239 if it captures a neutron. The amount of burnup and transmutation quantity in the
absorption and capture cross section of U-238.
The fission cross section is a cross section / probability of reaction of a material / core /
isotope impacted by a neutron. Material / isotope that has a large fission cross section can be said
to be fissile material / isotope. An example is a U-235 nucleus which is pounded by a neutron, a
fission reaction will occur which will produce two or more other isotopes that are smaller and
about 200 MeV of energy.
The scattering cross section is the probability that a particle (neutron) visiting the nucleus
/ isotope will experience scattering (reflected back). Scattering cross section is also divided into
two types, namely the scattering process from the outside into the atomic nucleus, and somewhat
B. Core Excitation Function

Excitation in physics is the addition of a discrete amount of energy (called excitation

energy) to a system - such as a nucleus, atom, or molecule - so as to produce a change, usually
from the lowest energy state (ground state) to one of the higher energies (excited state).
In nuclear, atomic, and molecular systems, the excited states are not continuous but have
only certain discrete energy values. Thus, external energy (excitation energy) can be absorbed in
a discrete amount.
Thus, in a hydrogen atom (consisting of electrons orbiting in one proton), an excitation
energy of 10.2 electron volts is required to propel the electron from the ground state to the first
excited state. A different excitation energy (12.1 electron volts) will be required to raise the
electron from the ground state to the second excited state.
Likewise, the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom constitute a system that can
be raised discretely to a higher energy level by providing the appropriate excitation energy. The
energy of nuclear excitation is approximately 1,000,000 times greater than the excitation energy
of atoms. For the lead-206 nucleus, for example, the excitation energy from the first excited state
is 0.80 million electron volts and in the second 1.18 million electron volts in the second.

20
 Excitation energy is stored in excited atoms and nuclei that emit light are usually seen
from atoms and as gamma radiation from the nucleus as they return to their ground state. This
energy can also be dissipated by the collision.
The excitation process is one of the main means by which matter absorbs pulses of
electromagnetic energy (photons), such as light, and by heat or impact ionization by charged
particles, such as electrons and alpha particles.
In an atom, the excitation energy is absorbed by the orbiting electrons which increase to a
different, higher energy level. In the atomic nucleus, the energy absorbed by the protons and
neutrons is transferred to an excited state. In a molecule, the energy is absorbed not only by the
electrons, which are excited for higher energy levels, but also by the whole molecule, which is
highly excited to the discrete states of vibration and rotation.
The excitation function is the passage between the cross-section of the core reaction and
the energy of the gunner particles; the reaction excitation function with charged particles can be
determined using a particle accelerator which can produce gunner particles of varying kinetic
energy; the excitation function of the nucleus reaction with neutrons can be determined using the
reactor as the source of the gunner particles; because it is not monoenergy, the neutrons from the
reactor are speed-selected by two toothed discs which rotate and rotate at a certain distance; on
the disc tooth places a neutron absorber; The observed criteria for the excitation function is one
of the important data to explain the nuclear reaction.
2.4 Core Reaction Mechanisms

Most of the core data gathered today comes from analyzes of various core reaction
experiments. In this experiment, various nuclei are fired with various projectiles (radiation) of

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particles and nuclei and then the results are observed. As projectiles, various isotopes with an
atomic number of Z = 18 have been used.
Usually, this nuclear reaction gives the result of a final (usually unobservable) residue
plus other experimentally observed particles. (sometimes these two outcomes are observed
together).
The core reactions are expressed in the following equation:

PROYEKTIL + INTI SASARAN INTI SISA + PARTIKEL TERAMATI

Nuclear reactions are classified according to projectiles, observed particles and residual
nuclei. If the projectile and the observed particle are the same. Then we have the scattering
reaction (scattering reaction). If the residual core remains in its low energy or ground state, then
its scattering is elastic. But when the nucleus moves to an excited state, the scattering is not
elastic.
The process by which a projectile is fired to obtain additional nucleons from, or to give
nucleons to the nucleus, is called a pick up and stripping reaction, respectively.
These uptake and disarm reactions occur at a sufficiently high energy level, so that we
can assume that the reactions are direct (direct). In this direct stripping reaction states that it is a
nucleon
take part in the interior or leave a specific skin-model orbit of the target nucleus without
disturbing other nucleons.
Another somewhat opposite type of reaction is that the projectile arrives and the target
nucleus together forms a new nucleus, the so-called compuond nucleus, which lives for short
intervals in an excited state and then decays.
In the nuclear reaction part of the projectile particles will be scattered and the other part
will be absorbed by the nucleus of the target atom. The core reaction steps are as follows:
1. The free particle stage
The experimental results show that in every nucleus reaction there is always scattering
and absorption, at this stage some of the projectile particles are scattered elastically and partially
absorbed by the nucleus of the target atom to enter the compound nucleus stage as shown below.

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 At the absorption stage of the collision of two objects. This means that if the projectile
particle is a single nucleon, then the particle can be measured by the nucleon in the nucleus and
can increase the energy of the nucleon to a higher energy level as shown in the following figure:

2. The Compound Core Stage

In this stage some of the particles absorbed from the first stage are scattered back in
compound elastic scattering, the other part forms a compound nucleus or goes to the final stage
by direct reaction.
3. Final Stage
The compound nucleus will experience decay and emit particles to form a new stable
core. If a compound nucleus is not formed, at this stage there will be a direct reaction between
other reactions of fission and fusion.

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 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Conclusions
After reading several books and journals, we can conclude that: Nuclear reactions are
events that change the nucleus of an atom that changes into the nucleus of another atom with
enormous information. This initial reaction occurs as a result of the collision (firing) of the core
of the target (target) with a projectile (bullet).
The energy of nuclear reactions that arises is obtained from the shrinkage of the nuclear
mass, namely the difference in the mass of the atomic nucleus before the reaction with the mass
of the nucleus after the reaction. Nuclear reactions require the use of the mass and energy
equivalent formulated by Albert Einstein
E = mc2
In nuclear reactions, energy is often released or absorbed. The energy of the reaction
release means that the kinetic energy of the particles after the reaction is greater than the kinetic
energy of the particles before the reaction.
There are also three types of core reactions, namely:
1.Shot reaction with particles (decay)
2. nuclear mutation reactions
3. and energy-producing reactions (reactions and reactions).

3.2 Recommendations
The advice that we can give is that in the future the writer or compiler can provide more
information considering that the era is increasingly developing, science will certainly develop as
well. And hopefully in the future this book or journal can be used as a window of knowledge for
prospective teachers or other educators.

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 REFERENCES

1. Si, M. et al. Buku Pintar Nuklir. 1–216 (2001).

2. Si, M. Makalah Kimia Inti Reaksi Inti ( Transformasi Inti ). (2016).

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