Baw i Be wl PHARMACEUTICALPharmaceutical Engineering ~ (Principles and Practices) Cvs: Subrahmanyarg M.Pharm., 2heD J. Thimma Setty * «M.Pharm. Mrs Sarasija Suresh M.Pharm., Ph.D. Mrs Y. Kusum Devi c ~-M.Pharm,, Ph.D. ey Mobile :01712-090073 ‘oRP! sve ret DHAKA GRANTHA BITAN All Kinds of Medical, Pharmacy Books are Available Here DELH VALLABH PRAKASHAN (Salthill hitai cianDedicated to Dr P. Gundu Rao (Retired Professor and Principal of College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal) Director, Divi's Laboratories, Hyderabad. ISBN 81-85731-27-6, VPBN 52 * First Edition 2001 Reprint 2002 Reprint 2003 Reprint» 2004 Reprint 2005 Reprint (Aug) 2005 © 2002 Vallabh Prakashan All rights reserved. No part and style of this book be repro- duced or transmitted, in any form, or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the publishers and authors. Published by MK Jain for VALLABH PRAKASHAN AP-53A, Pitampura, DELHI-110088 Phone : (011)-27317755 e-mail : vallabh@vsnl.com Printed at New Gyan Offset Printers, DelhiPreface Pharmaceutical Engineering is concerned with the study of industrial processes required to convert raw material into value added pharmaccuti- cals such as drugs and excipients. It is a subject of importance both to the industrial pharmacist and the undergraduate students. Over the years, students of pharmacy have been feeling the need for a simple book, yet in sufficient depth to énable them to handle industrial operations with understanding of the principles involved therein. This book is an attempt to meet these twin objectives. This book consists of 18 chapters: introduction to basic principles in engineering, fluid flow, liquid material transport, solid conveying, heat flow, size reduction, size separation, mixing (solids, liquids and semisol- ids), filtration, centrifugation, distillation, evaporation, crystallisation, drying, humidification and dehumidification, corrosion, plant mai of construction and other related aspects of pharmaceutical industry. als This book deals with unit operations and processes utilised in the production of bulk drugs, dosage forms and biological products. There is a proper blend of physical, chemical and engineering principles. One model equipment has been selected for explaining all the principles and general working though many variations and varieties of the same may ~ be available. Hopefully this book will provide strong foundation subject, and for in-house training of technical personnel jn the industry. Special emphasis is laid on the following: + Application of principles, practice and pharmaceutical examples. + [Illustrations and diagrams explaining the working of equipment. + Units have been described in'SI system. + Question bank. Suggestions and criticism are welcome. Davangere : 1th June, 2001 Authors rinted after necessary corrections and improvement «iiAcknowledgements We place on record our thanks to Prof. K.V. Jayadevappa, B.E., M.Sc.(Engg), Professor and HOD, and Mr. YJ. Jagadeesh, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bapuji Institute of Engineering * and Technology, Davangere, for reviewing the manuscript. Thanks are due to Prof. K.S. Muralikrishria, Professor, and Mr.-S.M. Vijayendra Swamy, Lecturer, Bapuji Pharmacy College, Davangere, for sharing their thoughts and critical comments on the manuscript. »Thanks are also due to Mr. Giriraj Kulkarni, Lecturer, JSS College Pharmacy, Ooty for his valuable suggestions on the manuscript. We express our thanks to Prof. Y.R. Prabhakara, Principal, BEA's School of Pharmacy, Davangere, and Prof. B.G. Shivananda, Principal, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy. Bangalore, for their continued support in the preparation of this edition. We thank Mr. Kiran Shenoy, Artist, Audio-Visual Section, J.J.M. Medical College Library and Information Centre, Davangere,. for the preparation of figures, graphs, and artwork. We acknowledge the sup- port extended by Miss Ranjeetha H.S.. Pradeep Xerox and DTP Centre. Davangere, in the preparation of electronic ‘script. The authors thank their respective parent associations namely, Bapuji Educational Association, Davangere, and Al-Ameen Educational Soci- ety, Bangalore, for their encouragement in this educational endeavour. The authors are grateful to the Curriculum Development Cell, All India Council for Technical Education, Government of India; at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, for the financial assistance provided for the preparation of this book. We thank them profoundly. We also express thanks to Mr. Manish K. Jain of M/s. Vallabh Prakashan. Delhi, for his painstaking efforts to bring out this edition. Davangere 15th June. 2001 Authors iv)A Contents Preface Acknowledgments (iv) Chapter 1. INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING & BASIC PRINCIPLES 1-24 Unit Operations—Unit Processes 3 Unit Operations—Scientifie Foundations 5 Dimensions, Units, Systems and inter-Conversions J Dimensions—Formulae, Equations and Analysis 6 Stoichiometric Equations—Balancing 20. Question Bank—23 " Chapter 2. FLOW OF FLUIDS 25-55 Fluid Statics 26 4 Fluid Dynamics 3 * Bernoulli's Theorem 35 Energy Losses 39 Measurement of Rate of Flow of fluids 43 Question Bank 54 Chapter 3. TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS 56-88 Valves 57° . Pumps 62 Reciprocating Pumps 62 Rotary Pumps 74 Miscellaneous Pumps 86 Question Bunk 87 Chapter 4. CONVEYING 2 89-102 Belt Conveyors 90 Screw Conveyors 94 Pacumatic Conveyors 96 Chain Conveyors 98 vas Bucket Conveyors 100 Storage of Solids /0/ Question Bank = /02 * Chapter 5. FLOW OF HEAT 103-143 Mechanisms of Heat Flow V4 Conduction 105 Convection 1/3 Radiation = 127 * vy) aEquipment—Heat Exchanger and Heat Interchangers bane Bank /42 Chapter 6) SIZE REDUCTION Mechanisms of Size Reduction 147 Modes of Stress applied in Size Reduction 148 Classification of Size Reduction Equioment /48 Size Reduction—Equipment /49 Sclection of a Mill /66, Theories of Comminution 169 Energy for Comminution /7/ ‘ = Question Bank = /74 Chapter 7. SIZE SEPARATION Official Standards for Powders 178 Sicves 179 ; Modes of Motion in Size Separation /84 Sieve Analysis—Testing of Powder /37 Equipment for Size Sep ration 191 Question Bank 198 Chapter 8. Mixing Section I-Mixing of Solids Interpatticle Interactio-s—Segregation 201 Mechanism of Mixing in Solids 202 Mixing Process-Steps 203 : Degree of Mixing and Statistical Evaluation 204 Factors Influencing Mixing 2/2 Classification of Equipnents for Solid Mixing 2/3 Equipment 2/4 Question Bank 224 Section II-Mixing of Liquics Mechanisms of Mixing 226 Mixing Vessels 227 Mixing Devices—Flow “attern 229 Equipment * 236 Question Bank 240 Section III-Mixing of Immise sle Liquids Equipment 24/ Section IV-Mixing of Semisolics Equipment 245 / Question Bank 247 Chapter 9. FILTRATION Mechanisms of Filtration 250 131 144-176 177-198 199-247 199-224, 225-240 241-245, 245-247 248-275eories of Filtration 252 Factors Influencing Filtration 255 Filter Media and Filter Aids 25 y Classification of Filtration Equipment 259 Equipment 260 = Question Bank 275 Chapter 10. CENTRIFUGATION iS 276-292 Theory of Centrifugation 277 Classification of Centrifuges 280 Equipment 282 Question Bank 292 Chapter 11, DISTILLATION 293-336" Theory 295 General Equipment for Distillation 300 Classification of Distillation Methods 304 Simple Distillation 304 Flash Distillation 308 Fractional Distillation 3/0 Azeotropic and Extractive Distiilation 322 Distillation under Reduced Pressure 323 Steam Distillation 327 Molecular Distillation 330 : Destructive Distillation 334 : Compression Distillation 335 Question Bank 335” Chapter 12, EVAPORATION 337-360 Factors Influencing Evaporation 338 Classification of Evaporators 3-41 Equipment 34/ Theory 353 Multiple Effect Evaporator 356 ; Question Bank 360 Chapter 13. CRYSTALLIZATION 361-381 » Chari stics of Crystals 362 Pharmaceutical Solids—Terminology 366 Theory of Crystallization 368 Equipment 373 : Caking of Crystals 379 fis Question Bank 387 ) “Ghapter 14. DRYING . i ees 382-406 Theory of Drying 383 Classification of Drying Equipment 390, Equipment 390 Question Bank 405 Chapter 15. HUMIDIFICATION AND DEHUMIDIFICATION Humidity Charts and Its Utility 4il Humidification: 4/4 Dchumidification 4/5 Refrigeration 4/8 Air Conditioning 424 Question Bank 429 Chapter 16. CORROSION Theories of Corrosion 432 : , Factors Influencing Corrosion 45 Types of Corrosion 438 Prevention and Control of Corrosion 444 Question Bank 448 Chapter 17. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION Factors Influencing the Sclection of Materials 45/ Classification of Materials for Plant Construction 453 +. Ferrous Metals 454 Non Ferrous Metals 457 Nonmetals—Inorganic 459 Nonmetils—Organic 46." Question Bank 466 Chapter 18, PHARMA. INDUSTRY—ESTABLISHMENT. Pharmaceutical Industry 467 Plant Location 468 ~ Plant Layout 473 Utilities and Services 476 Industrial Pollution and Control’ 478 Industrial Hazards and Safety 480 Question Bank 485 APPENDIX-1 : Fractions and Muitiplications of Units APPENDIX-I: Notations and Abbreviations APPENDIX-III : Inter Conversion of Units APPENDIX-IV ; Definitions and Meanings APPENDIX-V + Bibliography SUBJECT INDEX - 407-430 AB 1-449 450-466 467-485 © 4 487 483 490 492 501 503Industrial Processing and Basic Principles pharmaceutically useful products such as drugs and excipients. A wide variety of procesyes are involved in these conversions. Some of them are as follows. ou? ne 1. Production of dosage forms : Conversion of drugs (chemicals ; ; j ea Unit Operations—Unit Processes : Unit Operations—Scientific Foundations Dimensions, Units, Systems and Inter-Conversions 4 i Dimensions—Formulae, Equations and Analysis‘ i Stoichiometric Equations—Balancing oe ee eee eae a et aa Pharmaceutical engineering is concerned with the study of industrial as raw materials) into medicines, (dosage forms), which are suitabl use by the patient. Example is conversion of diclofenac. sodium, ? processes in which raw materials are changed or separated into dosage. forms such as tablets, capsules, suspensions and injections. 2, Production of bulk drugs : Chemicals (raw materials) converted into drugs. For example, salicylic acid is acetylated to. ob acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). This area is known as production, of Bulk Drugs. Conversion of chemicals into intermediates, which in turn are din this aecack used for production of drugs in commercial scale, is also include area. net 3. Production of antibiotics ; Manufacture o| using. microbes with the ajd of precursors i 5 the pharmacist. This area is known as fermentation sechmol example, penicillin G is produced using Penicillium chrysoge the aid of precursor. phenylacetic acid. me 4. Production of biologicals :Extraction.of dru plants and minerals from native raw materials. into, purifies purified) products,are of interest to the pharmacist; Some.examples, are vaccines, insulin. streptokinase and recombinant DNA technology prod- ucts. .w PHARMACEUTICAL ENG z :ERING _ Each process is developed systematically from a laboratory scale to” pilot scale and finally to an industrial scale. In each case, process is undertaken by employing a number of equipment. : with reference to equipment are: . 4 - design - fabrication - assembly operation ~ maintenance The areas of interest Similarly, each process has to be followed scrupulously in terms of: - effectivity - efficiency a - validity - safety 7 aoe - economy x i Effectiveness refers to the quality of what is to be actually accom- plished. - Efficiency means accomplishing tasks with a minimum of wasted material, time and money. In the popular management cliché, efficiency is doing things right, while effectiveness is doing right things. : Validation is defined as a procedure that demonstrates the ability of consistently producing a product with the established specifications un- der ideal conditions. Safety refers to the protection of products, personnel, factory ete. Prevention of accidents and protection from fire constitute important aspects. Sufficient care should be exercised so that human factor is removed from the hazards by making protection a permanent and auto- matic. Economy tefers to the protection of faciory from financial problems, The industrial activity essentially involves the conversion of raw materi- als into value added products. The steps are initiated for the optimization of parameters for an operation’ and process, so that economy works out for the factory as well as customer (or consumer), Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are helpful to obtain a quality product coupled with economy. Therefore, a broad understanding of the basic principles involved ina Process. Knowledge about the construction, working and skills in han- dling them are of vital importance. This chapter provides the basic nami Chel INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING AND BASIC PRINCIPLES 3 information and prerequisites that are necessary for understanding phar- maceutical engineering. 4 UNIT OPERATIONS AND UNIT PROC SSES Normally, every process involves a series of steps. Each step is performed individually. ‘This approach is an economical way.of organiz- ing a given task. Unit Operations ach chemical process frequently consists of a fewer number of distinct individual steps. Each step is called unit operation. Each unit operation is based on one type of scientific principle. A few examples of unit operations and underlying. principles are listed below. sites tit Drying : It is a unit operation used to remove liquid or moisture from solids by evaporation with the aid of heat. For cxample, drying process is employed to remove excess moisture (above equilibrium | moisture content) from the wet granules in the production of tablets. Size reduction : This is a unit operation in which drugs (vegetable or chemical origin) are reduced to smaller pieces, coarse particles or fine powder. This process is extensively used in the manufacture of talcum powders and tooth powders (cosmetic industry). illation : It is a unit operation of converting jiquid into vapour by heating and reconverting vapour again inte liquid by condensing the vapour, ‘This unit operation is used. for obtaining essential oils from various parts of the plants. Example is lemon-grass oil (perfume industry). Evaporation + It is a unit operation which involves free escape of vapour from the surface of a liquid below its boiling point. For example, evaporation technique is extensively used for concentrating the . syrup in the manufacture of sugar (sugar industry). ‘The advantage is that each, unit operation is a common technique and employed=in diverse chemical and pharmaccutical industries. For example, the operation of mass transfer is involved in humidification, evaporation, distillation, extraction and drying, The unit operation of drying is used in the following industries. (1) Pharmaceutical industry + Inthe production of tablets, the powdered mass is converted into wet mass, which is subse- quently dried in order to obtain free flowing dry granules. t4 PHARMACEUTICAL. Et GINEERING In the manufacture of herbal drug extracts, a large number of plants are used. The piant extracts are dried in order to extend the shelf life. Otherwise, the product may. deteriorate. For example, in the preparation of belladonna dry extract IP. liquid extract of belladonna is dried completely. Otherwise it gets deteriorated. Food industry : Grapes, cashew. almonds and other types of * fruits are dried to obtain dry trui These products have ex- tended storage life. (3) Sugar industry :.The crystals of sugar are dried to remove - residual water, so that the sugar will be dry and free flowing. Unit operations are based on both science and experience. The theory and practice must be combined judiciously for achieving profi- ciency in handling equipment. Unit Process Unit process is detined as the one in which several unit operations are combined in a sequence to achieve the objectives of a chemical or physical process. Unit process-Physical process : Consider the example of manufac ture of common salt. The unit operations involved are: Transportation of fluids and solids Transfer of heat Evaporation | Crystallisation Screening | <— | Drying <— | Filtration | <— Unit process—Chemical process : Consider the production of para- cetamol from benzene. : nitration Benzene Nitrobenzene HNO3/H2SO4, 1h = reduction AL H2SO4, 10h acetylation 2 : Paracetamol p-Aminophenol acetic anhydride / sulphuric acid Sequence of reactions for the production of p -ctamol (or acetaminophen) Chel INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING AND BASIC PRINCIPLES 5 . 6 In the above process, three unit processes arc involved. Thes nitration, reduction and acetylation, Each unit process is in turn n a.number of unit operations. For example. in the nitration of benzene to nitrobenzene, the unit] operation involved are: [ Fluid iow Heat transfer Fluid flow Charging of >| Cold brine is passed Addit’ on of f nitric acid into * | to reduce the * | sulphuric acid i, _ | the reactor temperature to 15°C ror Heat transfer eee Filtration Heating to 60°C benzene in : | fon inous small quantities Drying ‘These examples illustrate that unit operations ary, largely used to conduct the physical steps such as: 1. Preparation of the reactants, 2. Separation and purification of the products, 3. Recycling of the unconverted reactanis, 4. Controlling of the energy transfer into or out of the chemical reactor, ~ Thus, several steps are carried in a sequential order to achieve a process efficiently and economically. UNIT OPERATIONS—SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS A large number of unit operations are simultancously handled in a chemical process. Hence, the knowledge of the elementary physical and chemical laws (Figure 1-1) is essential for the application of scienti principles and techniques. Some of these laws are: Basic laws: Laws of conservation of matter, ath wy Laws of conservation of energy. ear * Special laws: Universal gas laws (Ileal gas equation). Dalton’s law of partial pressures.6 a PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEERING . Special laws are discussed in detail in different books mentioned in bibliography. The basic laws are highlighted below. . UNIT OPERATIONS Governed by physical and chemical laws Governed by Basic Laws Laws of conservation ee Energy balance input = output for all forms of energy Estimated ! Considered {a) molal cone, (b) mole fraction, Xp (a) héat (b) mechanical (c) electrical (d) chemical (e) radiation Pigure 1-1. Scientific foundations in unit operations. Basic laws are included. Basic Laws The general law of conservation can be applied to any process. It is employed in engineering in the form of: (a) Material balance (b) Energy balance Material balance : The law of conservation of matter states that material cannot be destroyed or created, it can be changed from one form to another. {n other words, the material entering a process must either accumu- late or leave the process. The given input must be accounted for a output. The principle of material balance can be applied to an equip- * Ch-L INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING AND BASIC PRINCIPLES 7 ment, or to the entire process or any part of it, A simple account of material balance INPUT = ouTPUT * Amount of Amount of Amount of _ raw materials changed + unchanged materials materials Radioactive process is an exception because it does not obey the material balance calculations. Advantages : ‘The mass balance calculations can provide information such as yield value (practical and theoretical) and percent recovery. Currently, validation of processes and cquipment has become important in the certification of International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Mass balance calculations have assumed central place in the current industrial development. * Estimation of material balance : \n a chemical reaction, material balance can be accounted by measuring the amount of all the compo- nents (constituents), Normally, the amount is expressed in concentration units; moles/litre, molal units, mole fraction units, % w/v, % wAw etc. Some of them are reported for ready reference. Mole : In a chemical reaction, the molecular unit is gram mole or pound mole. Some important expressions ae molal units and mole fraction units. : = + In the mass balance calculations, mole is a better term and used frequently. For an individual component, mote is defined as quantity of that substance whose mass is numerically equal to its molecular weight, mass in grams : Gran-moles of a substance a) ¢ molecular weight These values-are useful while selecting the amount of each ingredient to be added to the reaction mixture based on the stoichiometric equation and coefficients. For example, x grams of oxygen gas has been math- ematically expressed as: X grams of ¢xygen x grams Number of moles = ————— molecular weight of oxygen 32 Average molecular weight: When a mixture of substances is involved in a reaction, the average molecular weizht of the mixture’ may be ' written as:PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEFRING Wy + Wy 4 Wet elvendee molectler «os eg weight of mixture, m W, Wy W, tot Ma MyM, where IV, IY, We ctc. are the weights of individual components a, b, ¢. etc. Mg Mp, Mc etc. are the molecular weights of components a, b,c. etc, Molality : For individual components, molality is expressed as: : number of moles of substance Molality, m= —— ie) number of kg of medium (solvent) The unit is mol kg It is designated’ as m. Molality (molal) notation is frequently used in theoretical studies. The advantages are, enumerated below. (a) It does not change with temperature, i.c., contraction or expan- sion of a liquid with temperature does not affect the calculations, (b) The weight of solvent (reaction medium) is considered. Volume has no influence, since it is not precisely known always. Mole fraction : For individual component, mole fraction is, ex- pressed as: number of moles of one constituent Mole fraction of A,X, = —-——-—_—- —--- sd total number of moles of all constituents « It is designated as .Y. One constituent may be solute. Total number of moles of all the constituents refers to moles of solutes and solvents. It is in general notations as: Mole fraction of A, X= Na ae a a) Ng + ny + ne 4 where rig, 1p, He etc., are the number of moles of individual components a,b, ¢, ete. Gey Ch-E INDUSTRIAL. PROCESSING AND BASIC PRINCIPLES. 2 The sum of the mole fractions of all components must be equal to unity. Mole fraction is used frequently in experiments involving theo- " retical considerations. The advantage of mole fraction notation is that it expresses the relationship between the reactants and other components in a simple and direct way. Energy balance : Energy is the capacity to exert a force through a distance and manifests itself in various forms. The unit of energy in SI system is J (Joule), The energy per unit mass is known as ‘specific energy, which has the unit of J/kg. Engineer- ing proce: involve: (a) conversion of energy from one form to another (b) transfer of energy from place to place (c) ‘storage of energy in various forms utilizing a working substance. The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of conservation ‘of energy. It exprésses the fact that energy cannot be created or destroyed. though energy can be transported from one kind to another, The aw of conservation of energy states that ‘he energy output.must be same is the energy input in a chemical process. The energy balance equation must include all “pes of energies. * heat * electrical * chemical * radiation When’ one kind of energy is destroyed or consumed, an equal amount of another kind must be formed. i Applications : Vhe principle of conservation of enerey is applied in a” number of instances. A few of them are mentioned here. “ (1) In the study of Quid flow. Bernoulli's theorem: is applied, which is « special case of the law of conservation of energy. (2) Energy is converted from one-form to another. This principle is used in the working of a pump wherein‘kinetic energy is con- yerted into pressure head for pumping'the liquids. (3) Energy losses due to friction can be, accounted, while a fluid is flowing through pipes. It is alsovhelpful fer adopting suitable measures to reduce losses. - (4) sSince efficiency, and economy are importan: parameters. for any process (chemical or physical), energy. cal/‘tlations’ and balane- ing have assumed importance. When enc gy is obtained from hon-renewable sources, balancing of ‘energy will be a critical fhetor, : ~10 PHARMACEUTICAL ENGI TERING. Some Basic Concepts Rate of a process or reaction : The rate cf a reaction can. be understood by studying the time course changes in the concentration, In general, rate is expressed mathematically as a differential equation: dQ dF driving force Rate,of reaction = ——. = —- = coud (5) dt R resistance where Q = quantity being transferred or reacted time F = driving force R= resistance According to equation (5), the rate at which a system approaches: equilibrium may be expressed as the combined effect of two factors. These are: (a) Potential factor : It indicates the driving force necessary to make (proceed) the reaction. (b) Resistance fuctor : \t indicates the capacity to impede the speed for a given potential. In the example of heat transfer from the hotter end of the iron rod to the colder end. the driving force is the difference in temperature (7). At the same time. iron also offers certain amount of resistance to heat flow, on account of poor thermal conductivity, Steady state and unsteady state : In a system, if the operating conditions are varying with time, then such a system is said to be in unsteady state or transient state. For example, consider a tank of cold water. A coil in which constant pressure of steam is maintained is immersed in the tank. During the heat transfer through the coil, the operating conditions such as temperature difference between the coil and water do not remain same with time. Similarly, thermal resistance between the coil and water changes with time. A system is said. to be at steady state, if the conditions do not vary with time. For example, consider water in a pipe is flowing under two condi- tions, (A) Water entering the tank at constant temperature and flow rate. (B) A jacket in which steam is maintained at constant temperature surrounds the pipe. Condition may vary from section to section along the pipe, but at any one cross section, it does not vary with time. Chel INDUSTRIAL, PROCESSING AND BASIC PRINCIPLES iW DIMENSIONS, UNITS, SYSTEMS AND INTER-CONVERSIONS For the purpose of measurement (dimensions), three systems have been used, namely: Cgs system (centimetre Fy Mks or ST (metre-kilogram-second)~:Modern s wn-second)--- Also known as metric system, s system (foot-pound-second)-—Also known as British system ystem The basic quantities identified for this purpose are length, mass, time etc, These are expressed in various ways in different systems. Some of the important principles in dimensions are given in Figuie | The units mentioned in any system for expressing the physical quan- tilies are known as fundamental units or primary units. for example, length is expressed as centimetre in cgs system, foot in ‘Ips system and metre in mks system. The official international system of units is the SI system (Systeme Internationale d'Units) and ‘commonly employed in engineering and science. The basic units in SI system are given in Table t-1. Primary units are the basis for obtaining derived units. Secondary units ot derived-units are those that are-made by the inclusion of primary units, For example, acceleration is a secondary unit. It is expressed>as Other examples of derived units in SI units are given in For these units, alternative base units aregiven in B part of » TABLE t-1 ‘ Basic Units in SI § ea a ee, Ss es Ce Measuremént/Quantity —~ Unit Length (L) : Metre mv Mass (my Kilogram pita, Time (0) : Second Sor sec Amount of substance Mole . mol ‘Temperature Kelvin K Hleetrie current Ampere A Luminous intensity Candela : ed