A CONCISE GUIDE TO CERAMIC MANUFACTURING

Jigger-Jolleying and other Industrial Processes

By

Umar Adeika Adeiza Sullayman

Department of Industrial Design

Faculty of Environmental Design
Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria, Nigeia

1
 A CONCISE GUIDE TO CERAMIC MANUFACTURING
Jigger-Jolleying and other Industrial Processes

Chapter I

Introduction to Jigger-Jolley Process

Jiggering is referred as a machine process for shaping pottery or an industrial

method of producing pottery, by means of profiled tool at a fixed distance from the

rotating surface of the plaster mould, thereby shaping the convex side and the outer

part of the ware. It is mainly used for manufacturing flat wares. On the other hand,

Jolleying, is the process of shaping the inside of a ceramic ware with a profiled

tool or template rotating at a fixed distance within a hollowed plaster, suitable for

the production of cups and deep wares. The template presses the clay on the

internal surface of the deep plaster mould to form the external surface of the

ceramic ware.

There has been increasing demands for ceramic wares for use in Nigeria and in the

West African sub-region. These ever-growing demands necessitate the use of

machineries, not only to accelerate production processes but also to evolve

mathematical accuracy and similarity in terms of shapes and designs, which might

2
have been humanly impossible given the technology of throwing and slip casting

techniques only.

The use of pottery wares has been as old as man’s civilization, dating back to about

6000 BC. The earliest men used pottery items for storage of water, seeds, wine, for

cooking, etc. The production techniques at this early stage looked simply, ranging

from pinching, coiling, slabbing to building; and the pots were made to serve a

relatively fewer number of people in a more primitive setting.

In 1986, it was observed that in both institutions of learning and in local

communities, traditional or studio ceramics were being produced appreciably in

Nigeria. While these efforts were commendable, the technique was painfully slow

and lacked the dynamism of current technological growth trends, which would

have enhanced higher quality product, self-sufficiency, mass production and export

potentialities. The growing scope of ceramics in the modern world has extended its

scope into architectural, sanitary, electrical and even electronic spheres of

application. This notwithstanding, pottery has further been enhanced with the

introduction of some more complex production and decoration techniques like slip

casting, jigger- jolley, pressing, marbling, etc., all to satisfy the changing needs of

man and the population trend. These techniques have paved ways for large scale

industrial concerns, contributing in no small measures to the economies of the

3
developed nations. It is therefore, a misnomer for Nigerian ceramists to neglect

these important aspects of ceramics, only to continue with the traditional

techniques, which have been in operation for a long time.

Ceramic production in Nigeria has been heavily based on throwing technique; and

recently, on slip casting technique. Throwing and slip casting however, have their

short comings. They are: inability to attain repetitive designs that are

dimensionally stable (especially with throwing); too much of apparent porosity and

high level of shrinkage in slip cast wares and problems of linear geometry

(thickness) associated with cast wares that have variation in casting times and

variable mould absorption rate. These problems, among others which are

associated with these techniques are either completely removed or are reduced to

the barest minimum in wares made by Jigger-Jolley techniques.

Jigger-Jolley techniques are more suited for flat wares and simple dropping shapes

like cylinders and cones. These wares fall within the category of highly

consumable tableware like plates, bowls, cups, beakers, planters, etc., whose

demands are yet to be satisfied by the low rate of production, coupled with its

attendant high selling price, based especially on throwing technique of production.

4
Many willing Nigerians cannot use ceramic containers because they do not have

the purchasing power. The common man therefore, sees ceramic wares as elitist

objects made to satisfy the demand of the well-to-do people. This belief is based on

the price placed on the wares. The producer blames this on the hand-crafted labour

intensiveness of the production techniques, a situation that Jigger-Jolley techniques

stand to reverse.

In the recent past some few industries and research institutes started to give

attention to the Jigger-Jolley techniques, which prior to then were very unpopular

in Nigeria. Such institutions where this existed includes: Projects Development

Institute (PRODA) Enugu, Modem Ceramic Industry, Umuahia; and Richware

Ceramic Manufacturers, Lagos. Except for PRODA, the above other Ceramic

industries have folded up due to energy problem and other harsh investment

climate in Nigeria. However, Jigger-Jolley process is thriving in the UK, US,

China, Japan and a host of other advanced nation as a veritable instrument of

Ceramic mass production till today. Despite the huge potentials of learning and

applying Jigger and Jolley in Ceramic manufacturing, even the Nigerian

educational institutions have been apathetic about the need to address the technical

and curricular inadequacy that excludes this process from industries and schools’

training curricular. These production techniques extol the possibi1ites of industrial

production to specifications in terms of size, weight and volume.

5
Other areas such as the technique of production using the Jigger-Jolley machine,

materials, production processes, preparation and composition of materials, moulds,

and batting are discussed in the subsequent sections.

Chapter II

Jigger- Jolley Production Process

6
The Technique

There appears to be some confusion about the use of the words “Jigger”, “Jolley”,

“Jiggering” and “Jolleying”. The two terms are used to differentiate shaping the

concave or the convex surface on the mould. Thus, ‘Jiggering’ is the process of

shaping an article on a convex plaster mould, i.e., the inside of a plate, while

‘Jolleying’ is the process of shaping an article in a concave mould, i.e., the outside

of a cup.

The flat wheel head used in throwing is removed and replaced by a mould holder.

It usually has a central conical head known as ‘Jigger head or Jolley head. In this

case, the concave and convex surfaces of wares usually made with throwing

technique by the pressing and pulling activities of the hand are carried out by both

the plaster mould and the jiggering blade or template. To ensure uniformity in the

identity of the wares to be made, identical moulds have to be made for each

spindle.

Jiggering Technique

‘Jiggering’ is referred to as a highly mechanical method of making table wares. In

this process a lump of clay is placed on a convex plaster bat and turned while a
7
template is held against it. The bat shapes the inside of the plate while the template

cuts off the excess clay on the outside. When bowls are jiggered, the bat used is

concave, forming the outside surface, while the template shapes the inside. He says

that Jiggering is the most efficient method of making bowls and plates. Practically,

all commercial dinnerware is manufactured this way.

Neal French describes jiggering as the inside out version of jolleying. Where in

cup making the mould forms the outside of the pot and the profile forms the inside,

in jiggering, the mould forms the inside and the profile forms the back and foot.

Jiggering is principally used for making plates, saucers and shallow bowls.

French contends that as with other forms of jolleying, there are two stages of

operation. In the first, a slug of clay of the appropriate weight is placed on a

revolving spreader and is slapped down on plate mould. This is then fitted into the

other wheel head and revolved. As with cup making, the maker presses the bat

down onto the mould with his hand, starting at the centre. The profile is then

brought down on the roughly shaped revolving plate to form the foot rim and the

back of the plate. Again, as in cup making, this profile has been set to give an exact

thickness and weight of the plate.

8
An important weakness in this process is the transfer of the bat to the plate mould.

If the bat meets the mould off centre the spiral stresses set up in the clay by bat

making fight with the further strains induced by the profiling, resulting in a twisted

plate. Ideally the spiral stresses set up in producing firstly, the bat, and secondly,

the plate, should have a common centre. This is sometimes achieved by

introducing into the making process a third wheel head, where the bat is

automatically centered on the mould by means of a plunger. One man working

with a machine of this type will produce about 72 plates in an hour.

Frank Hamer believes that Jiggering is a process of forming pots by using a

spinning mould, usually of plaster, which gives the inside form. Jiggering is used

for plate making. The outside of the plate is formed by a metal, wooden or plastic

profile which is fastened to a pivoted arm. This arm is brought down onto the

mould and is so adjusted that it leaves the correct clay section.

Jolleying Technique

Jolleying is done by forming the inner part of a pot with a profile while the outer

part is shaped by a moving plaster mould. Hamer, describes jolleying as the

process of forming a pot by using a spinning mould, usually of plaster which

9
shapes the outside of the pot. According to him, the fingers and then a metal profile

is on a pivoted arm which brings it into action against the clay. But the template is

adjusted such that the correct section of clay is given. Jolleying is normally used

for cups, deep bowls and fairly deep lids.

French describes jolleying as a kind of modified throwing operation where a

revolving plaster mould takes the place of the right or outside hand. By this

description, the function of shaping a pot by the right hand from outside surface as

is the case on throwing wheel is taken over by the jolley mould. The function of

the left hand is taken over by the two hands in the first place and secondly by the

Jolley profile.

In his explanation on bowl making, Kenny affirms that bowls may also be jiggered.

In this case, a different kind of bat and template are needed. He notes that if the bat

makes the inside of the bowl, it would need to be so sharply convex that the

finished form will not lift off the mould as it dried but would crack. For this

reason, the jigger bat used in making bowls is ‘concave,’ forming the outside of the

bowl, while the template forms the inside of the bowl.

From Kenny’s point of view the term jiggering can be used to describe jolleying as

long as the template and the moulds are suitable for making concave pots. It is
10
important to note that ‘cup making,’ also known as ‘liners’ are useful in jolleying

process, and that this is the straight forward jolleying method used for small pots

such as cups, and small bowls that taper from top to bottom, thereby making

withdrawal less difficult from one-piece mould. However, the tapering should not

be more than that used to make the mould making possible.

With this method, the producer or helper first throws on a wheel head a number of

liners. A liner is a roughly thrown cylinder of the same height as the finished cup.

But it has a little more than half of the diameter of the intended finished pot. The

liner is placed inside a cup mould while the mould is placed into a metal jolley

head.

For the making processes, Kenny, (ibid) states that the clay is not flattened into a

pancake (as in jiggering), but is rolled into a ball. The clay is pressed into the

bottom of the jigger (or jolley) bat, and worked up the sides of the moulds with the

fingers until a rough bowl is made.

The use of a ball of clay directly without throwing a liner is more possible and

successful when using a plastic clay. In this case, the ball is first pressed onto the

bottom of the mould to ensure that the air trapped in the clay is driven out. The

clay is now pulled sideways and upwards to make a rough bowl. The method of
11
throwing liners is important for making cups and bowls in bone china. It is usually

inconvenient and unnecessary to throw liners for bowls larger than 4 ” (20cm) wide

in diameter. Such wares are made by making a flat bat of clay (as for jiggering

plates), and then forced into a dome shape on a ‘chum’. The rough bowl shape

made from the ball of clay is moistened with the sponge. The jigger arm is lowered

and the template is now exerted upon, thereby cutting and pressing the clay into a

smooth inside surface.

Onuora, in his studio at the Projects Development Institute, (PRODA) Enugu,

Nigeria, states that he does not see the need for making liners; and that he neither

makes a rough bowl in the mould before jolleying. According to him, those stages

are taken care of when he gently applies water on the profile or template to open

up the clay. He then slightly moistens the clay and presses down the jolley arm to

complete the shaping.

It is difficult to get a crisp foot ring when using the jolleying method. This is so

because clay usually resists any attempt to force it into sharp corners, especially

with cups and bowls made by this method. The usual method of making high or

precisely shaped foot rings on jolleyed pieces is to place the leather hard pot on a

chum of a lathe and turn the foot to shape. With this method, care should be taken

to leave enough extra clay at the bottom of the ware to enable this turning. This
12
technique has an advantage of giving foot shapes that could not normally be

moulded.

Advantages of Jolleying

Jolleying is a relatively cheap way of making pots. It is believed to be about half

the price of slip casting on cups and similar pieces. It has other advantages for the

ceramic designer:

a. Wares made by this technique are inherently strong and have greater

resistance to distortion than cast wares of the same design.

b. Complete control of the cross section of the jiggered product is achievable

by the designer.

c. Strength can be built in where needed to avoid either distortion in firing or

damage in use.

d. A perception of lightness can be created in serviceable pots by thinning the

section towards the rim.

e. The strain-retaining furrows (hollows) or bad corners found in cast wares are

easily and completely avoidable in jolleyed pieces. They are avoidable when

planning the section for jolleyed wares.

Semi and Automatic Techniques

13
Jiggering of tableware according to French can be made either by semi or fully

automatic methods. It is necessary to obtain sufficient p1asticity of the body. With

these techniques, skilled Jiggerers are not needed and the speed of production per

person is increased.

According to Singer and Singer such machines were first developed in the United

States of America. They pointed out that there are three types of this machine:

a. Semi-automatic machines,

b. Miller machines, and

c. Fully automatic machines.

Twin unit jiggers exist, which have two spindles side by side, and are operated by

one unskilled operator. The two spindles are either used for shaping wares or have

separate functions of jiggering and batting. With this machine, the operator places

the mould (already fed with clay) unto a spindle. The machine is set into motion,

and it now performs the entire wet process of production sequences automatically.

This includes the water lubrication and trimming before stopping. The mould with

the jiggered ware is removed and the entire operations are repeated.

In other words, the entire automatic and semi-automatic jiggering techniques are

referred to as the “roller methods.” It is essential to note that the method has two

important differences:

14
i. It has a heated revolving profile unlike in the manual jiggers that have

stationary beveled profiles. This revolving profile is sometimes called

‘bomb’ and it forms the inside of the pot.

ii. A slug (irregular ball of clay) rather than a thrown liner or bat can be placed

in or on the mould and the roller machine forms the shape conveniently.

This system cuts away a process, which if included could have elongated the

production time on each ware. This advantage therefore leads to automation,

which the manual jiggers cannot achieve. Most of the roller machines in

operation today are either fully automatic or semi-automatic. It is also essential to

note that shapes that can be made by the manual jolleying methods are equally

suitable for roller making.

In terms of mass production efficiency, it is reported that while a batter out and

hand jigger man can make some 20 dozen (240 pieces) of 7in. (18.5cm) diameter

plates in an hour, a single operator of a semi-automatic machine can make 23

dozen (276 pieces) of similar plates in an hour. The uniform treatments of wares,

as well as production of strain-free wares turned out by these machines lead to

spectacular results in ceramic product manufacturing that is unmatched by any

previous production process. This machine can make 34 dozen (408 pieces) of

cups per hour.

15
The second type of semi-automatic jigger has a slowly revolving table. It has three

or more spindles distributed round the circumference. Each spindle has a profile-

holder above it which moves round it. At a point in its journey round with the

table, the spindle stops for manual loading of clay slugs and offloading of finished

wares. Production through this machine, takes place as the spindle revolves while

the profile comes onto it automatically. It sprays water at certain points and trims

off excess clay hanging on the ware. There are some machines with eight heads,

and can produce about 24 plates in a minute; i.e., about 1,440 pieces in an hour. On

some of these machines, a different shape can be made on each head. This of

course, is an incredible development in ceramic manufacturing process.

In the third type of machine unlike in the second one, the jigger head and the

stationary profile are reversed. In this case, a revolving table having 6 mould

holders is loaded with fresh mould containing balls of body. It is unloaded

manually. It takes each mould to the single shaping head where it is raised

gradually and the work is done on the ware by a revolving head holding three

profiles in a hood. The head makes a speed of 700 rpm as against the normal 200

rpm of the conventional spindle for similar wares. However, the ware makes

approximately 2,100 revolutions under the profile per minute. The hood helps to

remove excess clay and applies water as required by the production process. A
16
plate is shaped between 4 - 6 seconds. The production rate is 540-600 pieces per

hour. The wares tend to lift off the mould because they are subjected to

exceptionally high revolving speed. This is because jiggered plates are shaped on

the outside of the mould. The three profiles rather than one in the normal situation,

provide more pressure and speed on the ware, thereby giving less strain on the

ware.

Singer and Singer describes the Roller Machine as a plate making machine

differing considerably from the jigger was first introduced in Great Britain. It

operates by rolling the clay body unto the mould; hence, the name “roller

machine”. The roller takes the role of the jigger profile. A big advantage with this

technique is that a wad of clay can be fed into the mould directly without any

batting. While smaller flat wares are easily producible, larger wares with this

technique are less successful. Roller machines are referred to as being very quick,

very efficient, very sophisticated and are ideal for long runs of a particular item.

They are also very expensive and inflexible.

17
Fig 1: Single-headed Roller Machine for Plates, Dishes and Bowls

18
Fig 2: Double-headed Roller Machine for Big Plates and Bowls

Production

Several authorities in Jigger-Jolley processing believe that this production

technique depends largely on the type of machine being used. While the manual

jigger machines require thrown liners and clay bats respectively for jiggering and

jolleying, the automatic and semi-automatic jiggers do not need this procedure.

The type of wares being made greatly determines the scope or type of machine to

use for the production. Singer and Singer believe that undercut vessels have to be

made with special tools of the vertical type on which the profile can be moved

horizontally when it is down. The profile is applied to the body slowly. A certain
19
amount of kneading has to be performed on it as is done to throwing bodies. It

presses the body down onto the mould and also scrapes and pushes away the

surplus.

Speaking on horizontal movement of the tool, unlike the vertical jolleying used in

tableware production, Waye states that: “Jolleying is widely used in conjunction

with turning, for making high tension insulators. The technique is basically the

same as that used for domestic ware. Modifications are made for shaping particular

types of insulators; for example, provision has to be made for horizontal movement

of the tool, especially when jolleying deep cavities with undercuts or tapers. Great

care has to be taken to avoid introducing strains, which may give rise to local

dielectric weakness a in the fired article.”

He further states that for this reason, stock is removed in small amounts at a time.

With this assertion, it is clear that jolleying can be employed not only for the

making of table wares but for making high voltage insulators. The efficiency and

the capacity of the profile to move on a horizontal axis are very important and

helpful in this case. The horizontal movement enables the profile to remove

unwanted clay from the sides, rather than the normal process of doing so from the

top. This creates grooves at the desired points of the insulators.

20
After shaping in the manual jiggers, the article is removed, first by raising the

profile, and then the spindle is stopped. The process is entirely different from the

automatic and semi-automatic methods of production. In this case, all the

production procedures are either partially or fully automated. These procedures

range from the cutting of slug through placement of mould on the cup head of

spindles, to the finishing stage of production. This method also accounts for

extreme mass production of wares that is incomparable with the manual jiggers.

For this very purpose, French refers to this production technique as being “very

bad for making small numbers”. He further states that using the same mould for

production with all these processes or machines is possible, but the behaviour of

the clay on and off the mould can vary considerably. This phenomenon typically

differentiates this production route from manual jiggers, which uses many

duplicated moulds to enhance limited mass production.

Chapter III:

Body Preparation and Composition for Jiggering and Jolleying

21
The three main classes of Ceramics, such as earthenware, stoneware and porcelain

can be made using jigger-jolleying as the production route. The entire process

begins with separate beneficiation of each of the composing materials. Each solid

mineral required in body formulation is thoroughly washed, dried and separately

subjected to calcination in kilns and furnaces firing to 900- 1000 0c to weaken the

cleavages and binding forces of the crystalline elements in the minerals. Such

minerals requiring calcination include feldspars, quartz, granite, limestone, talc, ox

bones, etc.

The solid minerals are individually grated into smaller lumps using the jaw

crushers. These grated lumps are now subjected to further grinding in the ball mill

for an hour or more, depending on the strength of the material. For instance, quartz

takes more time to grind than feldspar because of the strength of its bondage. The

ball mill grinds the materials into fine powder and is discharged from the mill as a

slurry. The slurry is dried and packed in a labeled plastic receptacle. Other

materials like kaolin, ballclay, etc., are individually soaked in water for about 3

hours to 1 day, to remove mineral salts from them before further subjecting them to

sieving to remove stones and other impurities from them . The slurry coming out of

this preparation is also dried separately and stored away in plastic receptacles.

22
Clay Body for Jigger-Jolleying

Exponents of Jigger jolleying assert that there is virtually no clay body that cannot

be used for jigger jolley productions. Though jigger-jolleying is said to be an

industrial extension of throwing production method, the composition and

preparation of clay for it is different from that of throwing.

Nelson points out that the composition of the clay used for jiggering is different

from that of the throwing clay used by the hand potter. He believes that since the

ware is supported by the mould during the initial drying period, it needs not be so

plastic. According to him, since plastic clay shrinks more in drying, thus,

increasing the likelihood of warpage, it is used in limited amounts. This loss in

green and dry strength is compensated for by the addition of various binders such

as lignin extract and methocel to the clay body.

Singer and Singer report that automatic jiggers require plastic bodies. They further

state that automatic jiggers work slightly less well with vitreous china and

probably cannot be directly applied to hard porcelain or bone china. This problem

is most prominent in the making of flat wares; in which case, batting is a necessity.

Most batting out machines are not suitable for vitreous bodies. Bodies that are less

plastic could be improved for the utilization of the automatic jigger by adding

organic binders or small quantities of chemicals. For instance, an addition of some

quantity of titanic acid could favourably and more easily alter the behaviour of the
23
clay for use by the machine, than altering the working properties of the machine

itself to suit the bodies. Titanic acid is a general name for a family of chemical

compounds of the elements titanium, hydrogen, and oxygen, with the general

formula [TiOx (OH)4−2x]n. Various simple titanic acids have been claimed, mainly

in the older literature. The chemical formula for titanic acid however, is often

stated as: TiH; 4O; 4.

Semi-automatic jigger- jolley machines have been adapted for making bone china

by using special cams which allow enough lubrication while the ware is being

produced. Though the type of clay body used determines the speed of production,

the size of the wares being made has great impact on the production speed. It is

faster to produce smaller or lighter wares than producing large or heavy pieces. As

a result of the plasticity of earthen ware bodies, plates can be jiggered almost four

times as fast as those made of the stiff and much less plastic hard porcelain body.

The production of bone china needs to be slow. Large insulators and other wares

made of less plastic porcelain bodies need a great deal of skill and time to avoid

strain-free pieces. Strained wares are bound to crack or warp.

Body Composition

The body composition for jiggering depends on the type of ware or products

intended or the use to which the finished products will be applied. Jigger jolley
24
technique can be used to produce a varying range of ceramic products. Among

such range of products are earthenware, stone ware, porcelain, bone china, etc. The

peculiarities of these products in terms of composition of raw materials are

considered. The fact that certain existing chemical, mineralogical and geologic

differences do occur in terms of raw materials, it becomes difficult to state with

precision the specification of materials for one body or the other. Other factors to

consider include the size of work to be produced in relationship to the plasticity of

the body and the speed of production. Depending on the above variables, a jiggered

or jolleyed ceramic ware could be made of either clay alone (e.g., earthenware and

stone ware) or clay with other minerals like feldspar, quartz, sand or flint,

bentonite, talc, zirconium silicate, bone ash, etc.

However, the composition of body (in terms of quantity and quality of raw

materials) for throwing, slip casting, hand building and jigger-jolleying remains the

same. The only difference lies in the peculiar needs of each technique. In other

words, the chemical composition of a porcelain body (for instance) for throwing is

the same as that for jigger-jolley. The only difference lies in the need to introduce

more plasticizers in order to make the body suitable for throwing, while less of that

in needed if the body is meant for jiggering.

25
In body composition for Jiggering and Jolleying, already prepared component

materials are measured in percentages and direct proportion to one another to form

the clay body required for the ceramic product type intended. In a particular

instance, the Projects Development Institute (PRODA) in Enugu, Enugu State of

Nigeria, formulated the following body composition:

Table 1: Stone ware Clay Body at Projects Development Institute, Enugu

Material Group % Group B % Group C %

A
Okene Feldspar 31kg 8.9% 15.5kg 8.9% 7.75kg 8.9%
Sude Sand (Imo 15kg 4.3% 7.5kg 4.3% 3.75kg 4.3%
State)
Fire Clay 172kg 49.4% 86.0kg 49.4% 43.00kg 49.4%
(Enugu)
Nsu clay 130kg 37.4% 65.0kg 37.4% 32.50kg 37.4%

Total 348kg 100.0% 174.0kg 100.0% 8.700kg 100.0%

Body Preparation

The body for jigger-jolley technique of production is usually prepared from the

beginning in the same manner as casting slip. Nelson states that the body

ingredients are weighed and mixed in a blunger as in the preparation of casting

slip. The resultant slip is screened and pumped into a filter press. The filter press is

a machine with perforated metal plates and canvas that squeeze excess water from

the slip, leaving behind flat sheets of solid plastic clay. The clay which is removed

26
from this machine in slabs is fed into a pug mill. The pug mill removes most of the

air in the clay through the help of a centrifugal mechanism of using the internal

screw blades in the pug mill to create vents for the trapped air to escape from the

clay.

Chapter IV

Moulds and Templates for Jiggering and Jolleying

The Moulds

The discovery of plaster of Paris is not only useful in slip casting but also serves as

a booster to jigger-jolley technique. With the use of plaster moulds, the forming

process becomes quite rapid and accurate. In addition, the plaster mould produces

a smoother surface than would be possible with bisque mould used in Ceramics

before the discovery of plaster.

27
Plaster of Paris

Plaster of paris (POP) is gypsum rock which has been heated. At the primary stage

when mined, it is a hard rock. The material is heated to dry its chemically

combined water. This reduces the rock into a soft material that is easily crushed

into a fine white powder. Gypsum, very much unlike clay has the property of

regaining its crystallization if water is introduced to it. This, however, explains that

plaster regains water (when water is introduced to it) despite its loss of the

chemically combined water when gypsum was heated to transform it into plaster.

Plaster of Paris is useful to the potter because it absorbs moisture from clay either

in liquid or plastic state. He further explains that this is the property which makes

plaster of paris essential to the pottery industry. Clay slip casting and jigger-

jolleying might have been probably impossible or unsuccessful if plaster of Paris

does not exist.

In a separate study, Leach, (1976) observed that: “Plaster of paris is to the factory

(for mass production), what the throwing wheel is to the potter ’s workshop. By far

the largest proportion of modern pots are made by the use of plaster moulds,

whereas in pre-industrial times biscuited clay moulds were employed on a small

scale, and it was the wheel which supplied the world with most of its pots. The
28
transition from biscuit to plaster concerns us here, and the relative value of each to

the studio or workshop potter. There is no question as to the convenience of this

cheap, quick-setting absorbent substance-plaster in mould making.” He further

contends that without it, casting, the most important process in mass production

would be impossible.”

The plaster of paris mould used for jiggering and jolleying has a porosity of about

30% and has to be carefully controlled for each ware made. Intermittent robbing of

oil on the rim of the moulds while working with it is necessary to forestall the

incidence of abnormal fast drying of the rims of wares being produced. Every

mould lasts for an average of 190 to 200 production cycles. This however, makes

plaster of paris a relatively cheap material for the ceramic industry.

In America, the U.S Gypsum Company’s pottery plaster is often recommended as

being among the most suitable or best form of plaster for pottery and Ceramics. It

is also however, suggested that if pottery plaster is not available one can buy the

Red Top or Sunflower brands. In another dispensation, Ibe of the Projects

Development Institute, Enugu, Nigeria, remarks that from his many years of mould

making, he found the ‘Samia brand’ of plaster as being the most suitable for

ceramic mould making. Samia plaster is however, made in Nouakchott,

Mauritania.
29
Making of Jigger-Jolley Plaster Moulds

Mould making for jigger-jolley production, requires a special skill to turn out

efficient moulds. Jigger-jolley mould making is largely based on lathe turning.

Lathe turning, (whether vertical or horizontal turning) or whirling is certainly the

most widely used method for producing models for Jigger-Jolley ceramic

manufacturing. It is generally agreed that all hollow ware and flat ware shapes of

round section and plain surfaces are modeled in this way. It is also a universal

concept that all ceramic pieces which will ultimately be produced by jiggering,

jolleying or by other automatic making processes are began by lathe turning,

whether or not they incorporate flutes and other embellishments.

In utilizing the lathe turner for model making, the normal procedure is that a

plaster lump is first prepared in a size larger than the required mould. The lathe is

expected to have either tapering spindle attachments or stepped wood chucks with

projecting wooden screws. These are jointly fixed directly into the lathe ’s shaft. At

this point, the plaster lump is produced by making a paper spindle, removing it and

setting it up. The wider end rests on a piece of glass. Around this is a cylindrical

retention wall of the linoleum which is held in place by the use of plastic clay. The

retention wall is of the diameter and height of the proposed lump, making sure that

30
the paper cone is central and vertical. The viscous plaster is at this point poured in

to fill the retention wall. It is left to set and then fitted into the spindle on the lathe.

The Jigger Bat and Template

Conventionally, bat and template making go hand in hand. In this case, bat making

should go along with template making. The procedures are carried out by first

drawing the cross-section of one-half of the plate and trace the inside curve into a

piece of zinc or a thin metal sheet. Then the zinc or metal sheet is cut out with a

pair of snips and filled as smooth as possible (snips are the pairs of scissors used

by tinsmiths for cutting sheet metals). According to him, the zinc profile must be

screwed to a slotted template board and then fastened to the jigger arm in such a

position that it will cut a block of plaster which is turning on the wheel, into the

desired bat. He warns that the inside corner of the zinc profile should be exactly

over the centre of the wheel. The next stage is casting of the plaster out of which

the bat is to be made. All the stages are explained in the following diagrams:

31
32
Fig. 3: The Jigger-Jolley Process illustrated in schematic Drawing

In order to further illustrate the Jigger-Jolley process for clearer understanding, the

following design shows this method in colourful illustration:

33
JOLLEYFig.

4: The Jigger-Jolley Process illustrated in Coloured Drawing

Concave surface of
plate (model)

Clay wad

Fig 5: A wheel-thrown Plate sunk into a clay wad.

Cottle

4cm

34
Fig 6: A Retention wall banded onto the Clay Wad (For casting first
piece of a plate mould).

Plaster mould

Jigger-head

Level of clay

Fig 7: Second piece of a Jigger Mould casted in a Metal Jigger-head.

Jigger plaster bat (Upper part)

Fig 8: Upper and lower pieces of a plate mould before joining them for use.

Plaster mould

Jigger-head
35
Level of clay
Fig 9: Cross-sectional view of a metal bearing (As an attachment between the Improvised
Plaster Jolley head and the Spindle of the Jigger-Jolley Machine).

Design and Construction of Jigger-Jolley Templates

Production of Ceramic wares using the Jigger-Jolley process requires a profiled

tool, usually attached to the manual Jigger holder. A template is a chamfered tool

that takes the shape of either the internal or the external surface of the ware to be

made by the Jigger operator. The shape of the template is usually derived from the

internal surface or concave side of the ware in case of jolleyed wares like bowls,

dishes, mugs, cups, planters, etc. For Jiggering, the template shape is determined

from the external surface or convex side of the mould. Two Jolley templates for the

production of cups and dishes are illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11 respectively. On the

other hand, the cross-sectional view of a plate template is illustrated in in Fig. 12.

36
Templates for Jiggering and Jolleying are usually made of various materials like

stainless steel, mild steel, plastics and seasoned wood. In any case, materials used

in template making must be such materials with dimensional stability when

production pressures are exerted on them on a constant and continuous basis. Any

wavering or distortion in use automatically impacts on dimensional stability of the

ware being made.

20cm

Fig 10: Side view of Cup Template.

Note: The spaces between ‘a’ and ‘b’ in figure 7, 8 and 9 are carved out hollows that
provide points for attachment between the Templates and Jigger machine. The broken
lines marked ‘c’ in figure 11 and 12 show foot rim sections cut away to avoid furrows.

37
 a b

Fig 11: 20cm

Side view of Dish Template.
20cm

a b

Fig 12: Side view of Plate Template.

If your wheel has a drop head, oil it thoroughly and build a collar or band of clay,

of about 3 inches wide around the outside of the head. Tie a retention wall of

building paper or cardboard paper around the outside of the clay, and then mix and

pour the plaster.” But if the wheel does not have a drop head, but has some

notches to hold a bat in place, one can cast directly on such wheel head.

38
As the plaster starts to set (but before being too hard), the bat maker removes the

retention wall and puts on the wheel turning process. The template is slowly

brought down and pressed over the plaster, thereby, cutting the plaster with the

template into the desired shape (as specified by profile provided by the template).

The shaping of the bat is completed when the jigger arm is all the way down. At

this point, the plaster is allowed to set. The template is held against it once more

while the wheel spins. This is to secure a good finished surface. Turning tools can

now be used to trim the outside edge of the bat. The bat or mould is now removed

from the wheel head and kept away for drying.

Thick metals or steel are ideal for making jiggering templates. Templates can

however be made solely of wood without metal facing, especially when hard wood

is used. The template must be cut to take the shape of the outside curve of the plate

and fastened to the back of the template board, which must be tapered. Due to the

application of force by the Jiggerer through manual pressing of the jigger arm,

jiggering is more of a pressing process than a cutting one. This explains why the

surface of the template must slope.

Case Mould

When the template and bat of a plate is made, it is almost as easy to make six as

making one. This reproduction of identical bats can be achieved by casting the bat
39
to get the case mould. Case mould is a parent mould from which working moulds

are made, duplicated and replicated. Replication is made possible by first sizing the

jigger bat, setting it in clay as in the following diagram.

A retention wall is placed around the bat and the clay and plaster is mixed and

poured. This forms the bottom piece of the case mould. After setting, it is turned

over and the clay is removed, leaving the bat in place. Some notches are cut in the

rim. The new piece of mould just made along with the bat is sized again. Another

retention wall is set and the second half is casted with a fresh mixture of water and

plaster. The second half must not be deeper than the height of the jigger bat. This is

because an opening has to be created in the case mould for pouring plaster in the

subsequent bat casting processes.

The top piece of the case mould has to be reinforced. This, according to Kenny, is

because plaster expands slightly while setting. In this case, a barrel loop is cut to a

size that is slightly smaller than the outer circumference of the mould. It is fastened

together with short nails. A heavy wire made into a circular loop with the ends

firmly twisted together can equally serve. As the plaster starts to set, the circular

loop is pressed half way. The plaster should still be in a plastic state at this

moment. The loop, should neither touch the bat nor the retention wall.

40
The case mould becomes useable as soon as it sets. Casting of bats from the case

mould is usually done by sizing it and pouring plaster consecutively. The original

bat which was sized is regrettably, unusable any more.

Batting

Batting is an important procedure in the jiggering of flat-wares like plates, dishes,

lids, etc. Jiggering of plates, dishes and other flat wares involve placing the clay

body on the moulds in the form of a flat circular ‘bat’. The correct forming of these

bats to a uniform thickness and consistency is essentia1 for good jiggering. A bat

may be formed on a plaster base covered with filter cloth for smashing it flat with a

plaster maul. This manual method is old. Today batter out machines are made to

carry out this function. With this machine, there is a plaster wheel head on which a

slug of clay is placed for flattening. The plaster disk (which is a replacement for

wheel head) revolves while a spreader tool is brought down upon the clay. This

method is very successful with plastic bodies e.g., the earthenware bodies. Even at

high speed, earthenware batting is still more successful than porcelain batting.

Porcelain bat hardly holds itself together during manual transfer to the jigger on the

cloth. It is therefore, made on a rigid drum, transferred to the jigger and then cut

off. The drum method also has a considerable advantage of ensuring that the centre

of the bat comes directly on the central point of the jigger mould.

41
There has been an evolution of a batting method for the miller automatic jiggering

machine. This has considerable advantages of its own. It has been separately used

for a batter out machine. In this case, a thin circular slice of clay is taken off from

the pug mill column instead of starting with a slug of clay. In this case therefore,

the need for flattening a ball of clay is completely eliminated by this process. This

slice is then hydraulically raised against a heated die and a high amount of pressure

is exerted on the body.

For larger pieces of hollow-wares to be made in a jolley, the clay is first spread

slightly to make a thicker smaller bat and then pulled over an upright post of

plaster covered with a cloth. This can be removed by hand and transferred into the

jolley mould and then the cloth is removed.

42
 Chapter V

Products of Jigger-Jolleying Machine, Automatic, Miller and Roller

Machines

The three major types of Ceramics such as earthenware, stoneware and porcelain

can be produced using the manual jiggers, semi-automatic machines, fully

automatic jigger machines, miller or roller machines, ram pressing, granular

pressing, etc. Other industrial machine processes of ceramic manufacturing include

cold and hot isostatic pressing (often referred to as dust pressing and dry pressing ),

tape casting, pressure casting, horizontal jiggering of electrical porcelain

insulators. Pressure exertion is of great significance in enhancing using any of the

above-mentioned production routes.

It is necessary to obtain sufficient p1asticity of the body while using some of the

processes listed above, except dust pressing process that requires a minimal 5% of

moisture. With these techniques, skilled Jiggerers or workers are not needed and

the speed of production per person is increased.

According to Singer and Singer such machines were first developed in the United

States of America. In classifying these machines, they pointed out that there are

three categories of this machine:

43
a. Semi-automatic machines,

b. Miller machines, and

c. Fully automatic machines.

Each of these machines has its own production capacity, depending on its level of

automation. For instance, at one of the Royal Doulton Manufacturing facilities in

Stoke-On -Trent, Staffordshire, United Kingdom, a roller machine with multiple

heads operated by only two workmen could produce about 7,000 pieces or flatware

in a day. This translates to about 35,000 pieces in five working days of the week.

The following are product range and samples from the Dartington Potteries at

Shinners’ Bridge, Totnes, Devon; the Royal Doulton Group; and the Allied

Insulators, Stoke-On-Trent, Staffordshire, all in the United Kingdom:

Open Bowls made by Manual Jiggers and Plaster Bats for Jolleyed Mugs
Source: Dartington Pottery, Totnes, Devon.

44
Plates, Round Dishes and Square Dishes made by Jiggering, Jolleying and Ram Pressing
Source: Dartington Pottery, Totnes, Devon.

Ram Pressing of Square Bowls

Source: Dartington Pottery, Totnes, Devon.

45
Display of Tablewares made of Miller, Roller, Automatic and Dry Pressing Processes
Source: Royal Doulton Complex, Leek Road, Stoke-On-Trent, Staffordshire, UK.

Manual Dabbing of Dry Pressed English Chinawawre with Liquidised Gold Dust
Source: Royal Doulton Complex, Leek Road, Stoke-On-Trent, Staffordshire, UK.

46
Some Electrical Porcelain Insulators Manufactured by Vertical Jigger Machines.
Allied Insulators, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, UK.

Electrical Porcelain Insulators Manufactured by Vertical Jigger Machines.

Allied Insulators, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, UK.

47
All products of manual and automatic jigger systems enumerated above have a

common denominator of using vertical pressing and cutting processes in product

manufacturing. Electrical ceramic insulator manufacturing however, differs

considerably in its production route by utilizing horizontal pressing and cutting

mechanisms to formulate solidly dense and dimensionally unified products with

high tensile strength. The products manufactured differs in many respects in terms

of their functions in electrical outfits, and their end use sizes. While some products

are in medium sizes like those in the crates loaded on the trailer truck as shown in

the above picture, some others are so small that they can conveniently be packed

into a match box. Conversely, monumental porcelain insulators made of vertical

jigger machines for thermal or power stations exist, as can be found in the earlier

mentioned picture.

Faults in Flatware

Uneven heights of the rim and concave or convex bottoms are common faults

found in a good number of flat wares. Some of these faults are due to the

preparation of the body, the drying or the firing. These faults are often initiated

during the jiggering process. They are much more frequent in vitreous wares,

(most particularly in hard porcelain) than in earthenware.

48
It is observed that technical investigations of such wares during various stages of

the firing process show that the densities of various parts of the wares are not the

same. This arises during the shaping process when some parts are more

compressed than others. In this case, some parts have higher water content and are

subsequently, more porous on drying. These parts have a high shrinkage on firing,

causing strains; and this therefore, leads to the rising or sinking of the centre,

This fault can be corrected by altering the jigger design and angle. This is because

most jigger tools work by compression, as well as by cutting. A good combination

of these qualities result in a situation by which more uniform pieces of jiggered

wares are obtained.

Another example is that a round ware, firing to a non-round shape with a wavy

edge may be traced to the transfer of the bat to the jigger head. If the centre of the

bat does not fall on the centre of the mould, the strains set up during the two

operations would be non-concentric. With the normal hand transfer, the centre

rarely coincides. But if the drum-head method of batting is used, this can be

achieved with ease.

49
Equipment

Manufacturing through Jigger-Jolley technique requires a series of equipment and

tools. Pottery Crafts Limited, (1989) states that there are a number of industrial

equipment and tools needed to operate this technique. Among such equipment are

the jigger and jolley machine, vertical jolley machine, horizontal jiggering machine

and fully and semi-automatic jiggering machines. Also important is the lathe

turning machine. Tools needed include various grades of turning tools as we1l as

jigger- jolley profiles.

On the production capacity of this equipment, it is reported that a batter out and

hand jigger man can make some 120 pieces of 18cm diameter plates in an hour

while a single operator of a semi-automatic jigger machine can make 276 pieces of

similar plates in an hour. This is a great advantage over throwing and slip casting

processes.

More still, a fully automatic machine, according to him can produce about 1,440

similar pieces of plates in an hour with just three operators. This is not just an

advantage over the manual and semi-automatic jiggers but a great advantage over

all other making techniques.

50
Though the automatic and semi-automatic jiggers are not in use in Nigeria at the

moment, the manual jiggers are sparingly used in a few ceramic industries and

research institutes in Nigeria.

51
 Chapter VI

Other Industrial Processes of Ceramic Manufacturing

Apart from the Jigger-Jolley process, there are many other industrial

manufacturing routes in Ceramic processing that can upscale production processes

for mass production and higher economic gains. Among those areas of industrial

Ceramics include:

 Moulded slip casting

 Ram pressing

 Gel casting of ceramics

 Dust pressing/Granular pressing

 Tape casting

 Ceramic Injection Moulding (CIM)

 Hot and cold Isostatic pressing

Moulded Slip Casting

Moulded slip casting is the process of manufacturing ceramics using the principle

of dissolving submicron particles of solid minerals, held as suspended particles in a

liquid medium within the confines of porous moulds. For Slip casting to be

successful, the mould must have a uniform capacity to suck, absorb and send out

into the atmosphere through its micro-pores, the liquid phase of the slurry that

52
served as the catalyst for particle distribution within the mould. The solid/

particulate components of the slurry are usually a factor of the end product

intended. The three major categories of ceramic products that give rise to product

range in ceramic manufacturing include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain; and

they form the three classes of products that can be made by moulded slip casting

process. The possible dry materials in the slurry matrix are ball clay, kaolin,

quartz/flint, feldspar, granite, ox bone, lime stone, etc.

Of great consideration in slurry preparation for casting is the introduction of

dispersants or deflocculants into the slip mix, and the right choice and percentage

admixture of the deflocculants. In tableware production for instance, the addition

of deflocculants is usually 1% of the total weight of dry materials in the batch, and

the deflocculants of choice are sodium silicate and sodium carbonate (and in the

ratio of 2:1 respectively). Every slip caster is free to experiment on the percentage

and ratios of these additions that may suit his purpose; as the stipulations here are

not rule of the thumb. Slip casting can be employed in the production of tableware,

whiteware, sanitaryware, and in sculptural ceramics among other production lines.

53
Samples of Moulds, Slip in Moulds and Cast wares
Source: www.claycraft.co.uk

Slip Casting for Sanitaryware Production

Raw material suppliers and clay slurry producers have developed specific slurry

solutions that are tailored to each sanitaryware manufacturer’s casting process.

Producing sanitaryware has become an increasingly demanding process. Forming

methods have moved from traditional plaster mould bench casting to polymer

mould pressure casting, changing the raw material characteristics needed to

produce a high-quality product. To meet these needs, raw material suppliers and

54
clay slip producers have developed specific solutions that are designed to cater for

each sanitaryware manufacturer’s casting procedure.

Current Casting Methods

Contemporary sanitaryware producers use four basic casting practices:

1) bench (conveyor or transporter) plaster mould casting,

2) battery (gang or team) casting in plaster moulds,

3) capillary (tube or vessel) casting in plaster moulds and

4) pressure (compression or gravity) casting in polymer moulds.

Bench (Conveyor) Plaster Mould Casting:

Bench plaster mould casting is still used for a number of reasons. For some

companies, bench casting is the way casting has always been done, and they

haven’t thought of the need of changing their procedures. Plaster is of low-cost,

and the workers all understand the mould making knowhow. For other companies,

this method simply works best for them. Amendments to moulds can be made with

comparative ease, small numbers of pieces can be cast efficiently, and the slip

making technology is well established.

Nevertheless, this method poses several difficulties. The method is labour-

intensive, the wage rate for a skilled caster is fairly high, and a long training period
55
is required to ensure expert casters. Moreover, significant space is required to

produce the ware, making the process capital-intensive. Additional limitations of

this procedure include a short mould life and a restriction on the number of pieces

possible to be made in a day.

Manufacturers that use bench plaster mould casting system have two main

expectations for their slurries: cost control and consistency (in respect to particle

size, surface area, casting rate, viscosity and gel structure formation). Slip makers

have tried to address these needs in a number of ways. Improved statistical

methods of analysis have been designed to answer reliability concerns, and

increased-solids slurries have been developed to resolve both consistency and total

cost requirements. In some cases, the slurry producer may recommend a traditional

approach to slip modification. New chemical procedures have also been projected

to improve slurry reliability and uniformity.

Battery (Gang) Casting in Plaster Moulds:

Battery casting offers greater production efficiency and a comparatively low mould

cost. In addition, more pieces can be turned out within the given time space, which

reduces the investment cost needed for this technique compared to bench casting

procedures. The expertise required to manufacture ceramics by this technique is

also lower than bench casting.

56
Nevertheless, this procedure also holds challenges. Among them are that the

mould’s life is short, and that larger turn out of the same items are usually required

because the speed with which the moulds are turned over naturally produce more

ware. Furthermore, even though the moulds are made of plaster, the mould making

methods are different from that of the traditional methods, requiring the

interconnection of several mould parts into one larger assembly group. (With

bench casting, the moulds are not interconnected). Toilets or sanitaryware tend to

be the most preferred piece for gang casting because they are more easily gang-cast

as a group.

Slurry needs for factories using gang casting methods are generally the same as

with traditional bench casting, and many of the same solutions have been

implemented. Factories that use this technique also wish to increase their casting

rate. Coarser, custom-blended slips have been developed that can allow

sanitaryware producers to increase the efficiency of their ball clay and kaolin

slurries to meet the needs of their specific casting procedure.

Capillary Casting in Plaster Moulds.

With capillary casting, more turns can be made per day on the same mould, which

reduces the capital investment compared to bench and battery casting. The moulds

57
are still made from an inexpensive material, and the skill level required is again

lower than with bench casting. Excellent recovery can be achieved with this

method.

Nonetheless, capillary casting also has its weaknesses. Mould life is restricted, and

different mould making skills are required because the moulds are more complex.

While the expertise needed are not as high as with bench casting, the process still

requires significant training. Also, the number of turns per shift is still limited to

only four to six casts per 24-hour day, and the potential excellent recovery is not

always easily achieved.

The demands placed on ball clay and kaolin producers for capillary casting are the

same as with traditional bench casting. In addition, quicker casting and stronger

casts are also required. The methods used to address these needs can be defined as

similar to those of battery casting. Conventional slurry products seem to offer the

likelihood to advance performance in this area.

Pressure Casting in Polymer Moulds:

Sanitaryware producers are more and more turning to pressure casting in polymer

moulds. Increased production output is one advantage of this process—more pieces

58
can be cast per day. Some plants that produce tanks have established operating

parameters that allow them to turn the casts over at about five times per hour.

The quantity of wares made per square foot of production floor space is also larger,

leading to possible savings in overall investment spending. Outstanding mould life

and exceptional recovery are two added benefits—40,000 casts per mould are not

unusual, and excellent recovery over 92% from cast to boxed has been achieved in

quite a lot of occasions.

Yet additional benefit of this casting process is that a lower-level talented caster is

required. For many industries, the struggle for quality and skilled workers is a

substantial requirement for business success. With this method of casting, newly

hired workers can quickly become capable in carrying out the work.

Still, despite the abundant benefits, even this method is not without problems. The

equipment is capital intensive, which is often the main restraining factor to

changing to this type of casting. For the reason that the machinery is much more

complex than the other systems, the support and maintenance staffs must be more

skilled. Some of the pressure casting equipment suppliers limit the chemistry used

in the flocculation-deflocculation system on the slip, making it difficult to find a

slip that works correctly with the moulds.

59
The moulds are also very costly compared to plaster moulds. While the cost can

easily be offset by the high number of casts per mould, the mould making expertise

is kept in secrecy, making it compulsory to rely on the mould producers instead of

internal staffs to adjust or amend the moulds.

As with the other casting methods, high slurry consistency is required. The casting

rate potential of the clays used must be increased, and the slip produced should be

highly penetrable and pervious.

In many cases, ball clay and kaolin producers have addressed these requirements

by turning to traditional sodium silicate deflocculated slurries. Slurry producers

have also provided increased skilled support to the sanitaryware producer by

studying the pressure casting process. Studies have shown that many of the

traditional control parameters (specific gravity, rheology, etc.) can be modified to

work with pressure casting. It has also been necessary to provide significantly

coarser grained slips and made-to-order blends for this application.

60
Sanitaryware Production Line

Source: https://www.nordics.laufen.com/en/products/features-benefits/sanitary-ware/sanitary-
ware-production-tradition-innovation

Samples of Sanitaryware Products made of Slip casting

(www.researchgate.net/publication/)

61
The Future of Slip Casting

Lucrative manufacture of sanitaryware is more problematic currently than it was in

the past. Procedures that maximize recovery and reduce labour will more and more

be the methods of choice in the future. There will probably be an increase in the

number of pressure casting machines used, and polymer moulds will also find use

in traditional casting.

Irrespective of the casting method used, careful choice of raw materials and

slurries is required to heighten the casting process. Materials are available that

meet contemporary needs, and more developments in materials will be made as

new machineries are introduced. A solid partnership between sanitaryware

manufacturers and raw material suppliers can ensure that new slurry solutions are

continuously developed to meet the needs of sanitaryware producers in the future.

Manufacturers looking to improve casting performance often turn to proven

historical methods. The most frequently used methods include adjusting the ratio

of ball clay to kaolin, adjusting the ratio of plastics to non-plastics, and changing

the rheology (deformation and flow) of the slip through chemical system control.

While these methods all improve casting performance, there is an exchange, in that

they also affect some of the other properties of the sanitaryware. For instance,
62
adjusting the ball clay-to-kaolin ratio can influence the plasticity and rheology

targets. Plastic-to-non-plastic modification might also affect plasticity and

rheology, as well as firing ranges. And rheology modifications can change drain

properties. These property variations sometimes result in less than desirable

recovery rates.

Ram Pressing

The ram process of Ceramic manufacturing is the mechanical, hydraulic and

plastic pressing of ceramic shapes or products with porous dies. Gypsum cement,

also known as plaster of Paris is generally employed in carrying out this process.

Nevertheless, more everlasting materials have been established for this purpose,

and are being used where applicable. Instantaneous release of the pressed shape is

obtained by means of fluid pressure forced through the pervious die. The ram

press, shown in operation in the series of images be as follows, is semi-automatic

machine requiring a minimum of physical operation.

Many manufacturers in the diverse ceramic specialties are using the ram process

currently. Examples include: producers of art ware and innovative ceramics,

ranging from hotel china, semi-vitreous dinnerware and informal dinnerware,

electrical porcelain, oxide ceramics, sanitary ware, and structural clay products.

Ram process installations are adjustable to any clay forming ceramic operation.

63
Interestingly too, the present equipment in your factory, workshop, or plant may be

adjustable to the ram manufacturing process with minor modification.

With the regulated production phases of the ram production system, each piece of

manufacture is of unvarying high quality. This therefore, thereby significantly

lowering the number of discards from the making to the furnace. The clay charge is

controlled within required limits. The press dwelling time remains the same for

each cycle. Dewatering of the formed shape during pressing is not left to

estimation but precise exactitude. Each piece has an increased resistance to

sagging. The glazes will look better. All these add up to advanced quality at lesser

cost with ram process employed for the job.

64
Stages in the Production of Ram Pressed Ware.

Extensive Variety of Bodies can be used for Ram Pressing

An extensive variety of ceramic body compositions have been used successfully in

the ram production system, from 100% clay to 100% non-plastics with artificial

plasticizer added. Grog refractory type bodies are used with equal success and an

unusually long die-life. In general, the clay body to be used should be of a "stiff

mud" consistency (a little harder than the ones typically used for jiggering) and

have water holding requirements adequate to enable the body to flow easily during

the pressing cycle. Under standard circumstances the ram system can be modified

to fit the body you are now using. The excellent elasticity of ram production

system is a guarantee of no foremost alteration in the existing plant procedure.

65
Pressure Requirements for Ram Pressing

The pressure applied on the plastic body in ram pressing generally fall within the

range of 100 to 400 psi. Isolated cases have required more or less. The forming

pressure is applied to the entire clay lump or bat, the clay within the cavity, as well

as the flashing around its sideline. The pressure in psi. required is a function of the

following: the type of body used, body consistency, degree of dewatering affected,

thickness of the pressed piece and others.

Die for the Ram Pressing:

Every Ram die comprises of two members; usually a male and a female. They are

encased in metal die casings and provided with registration pins for proper

alignment. The plaster die is internally strengthened with metal for additional

strength. The more permanent die materials, at present, are held in the metal die

case and backed up with plaster. The shape of the metal casing can be round, oval

or rectangular and is only controlled by the physical bounds of the press. The bed

of the ram press will accommodate a large single die or a combination of several

small dies. A single die as large as approximately 2 feet x 2-1/2 feet may be used.

The ram dies can be made in your plant by you or your personnel who are given an

intensive training course on ram plant. Your RAM die maker forms the new

working dies and, in most cases, no special equipment is needed. For instance,

66
One-to-six-man hours (dependent on complexity of the die) is required to produce

working dies. The newly formed die may be used immediately without the usual

drying period of other methods. Change over from one die to another is done at the

press in a matter of minutes. Another important advantage is that large die storage

areas are a thing of the past with ram system installation.

The die life span of the ram die is dependent on very much the same factors as

other forming methods, which include the following:

 Body type used,

 Body consistency,

 Dewatering required,

 Die making control,

 and Limitations of quality

The big difference is in the die-use cost which is equal to or much less than the

mould-use cost of other plastic clay forming methods. Actual ram installations

report that ‘die’ life ranges from 1000 to 5000 pressings from a ram die, with an

average of 2500 pressings. Die life of the more enduring or permanent dies is

significantly higher.

67
Forms and Shapes of Ram Pressed Wares:

All shapes, asymmetrical or symmetrical that can be produced in a two-piece

mould can be adapted to the Ram manufacturing system without any need for

design restructuring. Extensive disparities of thickness are possible. Depth is only

limited by the size of the press. Many attachments such as handles, knobs, etc., can

be pressed straight on the piece eliminating much manual work. Clean finished

holes may be pierced concurrently with the forming operation.

Production of Ceramics with Ram Press

After setting up of the Ram manufacturing system in your workshop or plant, an

instant upsurge in production can be accomplished, and in uncommon situation up

to 600%. The Ram Pressing equipment whose image appears in this book can

operate 5 to 6 pressing cycles-per-minute. In those plants which have/install

automatic handling strategies and similar equipment, product manufacturing can

accomplish or approach this possibility. Motivation of the worker, body used and

complexity of the die are also enabling influences. In a definite production process,

a rate of 1500 pressing cycles per-eight-man-hour day is easily sustained. All of

what is mentioned above is possible and factual. It will work in your plant. It is

important to note that better quality, bigger volume, and greater profits are

synonymous with the ram installed production line.

68
Gel Casting

Gel Casting is a method of shape forming slurry prepared from ceramic powder

mixed with a solution of organic monomer. A monomer is a molecule of any class

of organic compounds that can bind chemically to the same molecules or other

compounds to form a large molecule or polymer containing large number of

repeating units of monomers. Polysaccharides, polypeptides, and polynucleotides

are some of the biopolymers in living cells.

When the slurry is poured into a mould, the monomer polymerizes, forming a gel

that binds ceramic powder particles into a strong complex-shaped part. The parts

may be machined before firing. The process is economical and it is used for

manufacturing large complex shapes parts such as turbine rotors.

Gel casting is a very promising forming technique and was developed to overcome

some of the limitations of other complex-shape techniques such as injection

moulding and slip casting. Additionally, gel-casting technology has rapidly turned

into a high research target in ceramic forming process due to the high strength,

high density, low cost and machinable property of the formed green bodies, since it

was developed by Janney and Omatete in 1991. Gel casting is an efficient method

to manufacture complex-shaped components such as turbine rotors, which need

highly uniform properties. Also, gel casting can be used in manufacturing of large

69
components with simple shapes. In addition, gel casting can be used in metal

powder forming such as tool steel, a nickel-based superalloy etc.

The basic principle of gel casting process is that ceramic powders are combined

with a solvent, usually water, a dispersant, and organic monomers to form a high-

solids-content, fluid slurry. The slurry is poured under conditions into a casting

mould where by an initiator and catalyst the organic monomers polymerize to form

a 3-D polymer network of a solid gel in the shape of the mould being used. The gel

cast part goes through a volatile removal step by calcination. The part is then

sintered using the conventional firing treatment for the particular ceramic material.

The main advantage of gel casting is the forming of complex ceramic shapes.

Crucial factors in the overall success of the process are drying conditions, and the

mould features. The following is a flow chart of Gel casting process.

70
Flow chart for Production of Ceramic foams by Gel casting Process.

A typical gel cast process flow chart is given as above. In a particular study by

Young, Omatete, Janney and Menchhofer (1994) the inorganic powder solid

content in gel casting ranged from 50-80 wt%. The viscosity of the slurry was also

studied versus the solid content to optimize rheological behavior of the gel casting

formulation. After gelation the green bodies were fired at 600 oC until all volatiles

were removed. A final sintering step (1300 oC-1500oC) was used to introduce the

required mechanical and physicochemical properties to the ceramic structure.

Prior to any heating treatment, the green bodies may be subjected to machining i.e.,

cutting or drilling. Porosity and mechanical properties of the ceramic structures

were studied. It was also observed that the final density is high compared

compaired to Clay slip cast wares, the shrinkage degree is low and the surface

finish (cracking, warping etc.) of the ceramics related to the initial ceramic powder

solid content of the gel casting system is minimal.

Ceramic Injection Moulding (CIM):

Powder injection moulding (PIM), which covers metal injection moulding (MIM)

and ceramic injection moulding (CIM), is a net-shaping process that facilitates

mass production of intricately-shaped products for use in a wide spectrum of

71
manufacturing industries. It brings together plastic injection moulding systems and

performance attributes of ceramic and metal powders. Ceramic injection moulding

(CIM) uses ceramic powders such as alumina, zirconia, titania, ferrite powders,

etc. It was introduced in 1940's, but for the next thirty years it was of little interest

to ceramic manufacturers.

In 1970's and 1980's CIM provided cost-effective manufacturing method for mass

production of ceramic parts for automotive industry. Today more than 300

companies operate PIM for their production. Most of them utilize MIM technology

(>70%). Small percentage (5%) produce metals, ceramics and carbide components

and about 25% use CIM technology. This encouraging disposition can be

attributed to unique properties of ceramic materials. They have excellent

mechanical properties and low specific weight. Also, they are suitable for

utilization under extreme conditions (high temperatures, corrosive atmospheres,

abrasive conditions, high loads at high temperatures). This combination makes

them interesting for diverse array of applications.

The ceramic injection moulding system consists of four basic steps: feedstock

preparation, injection molding, debinding process and sintering. When powder

technologies are in question, the key step in production process is choosing the

adequate ceramic powder. Specific surface area, particle size, size distribution,
72
particle shape and purity of the powder influence the behaviour of the feedstock.

Widely acceptable grain sizes in CIM are 1-2μm. However, much finer particles

as low as submicron or nano particles are utilized in advanced CIM. This

technology also uses batch compositions of granules made from composite

materials. A high concentration of ceramic powder is mixed with a thermoplastic

binder system to form moderate viscosity feedstock - homogenous

powder-binder mix that is free of agglomerates, has optimum ceramic/binder

content and still maintains sufficient fluidity (Rak, 1999).

The feedstock is molded using injection molding equipment similar to that used for

polymer injection molding. Injection molding involves concurrent heating and

pressurization of the feedstock. It requires close monitoring in order to minimize

molding defects. As a result, a green body is obtained (Fig. 2). After molding, the

binder is extracted from the green body.

Debinding usually takes place in two steps. Immersion is the first step. Soluble

component of the binder is removed and system of pore channels develops to allow

removal of the remaining component. The second step is thermal debinding and the

insoluble component is being removed by thermal breakdown, thus resulting in

brown body (Fig.)

73
The ceramic injection molding process. (Source:www.intechopen.com)

After debinding process, the sintering process takes place. Sintering parameters

depend on the type and electronic properties of the ceramic powder used and, as a

result, CIM components are obtained. Quality control of ceramic components in

74
the green, brown and sintered state is commonly carried out by visual inspection

and weighting. In that way surface cracks, impurities, voids, pores, distortions,

incomplete parts and skin marks can be detected. Measuring the density of sintered

components is another indispensable method for characterization of CIM parts.

Additional processing after sintering is optional depending on the type of

component and specific application and in standard application is seldom required.

Ceramic Injection Moulding (CIM) is most often deployed in the manufacture of

oxide-based ceramics such as CIM alumina ( Al2O3), ZrO2, Si3N4, AlN. In the

recent years CIM technology has been accepted as one of the fundamental

manufacturing techniques for mass production of ceramic components with

complex geometries. Most commonly used CIM components are based on ferrite,

piezoelectric and alumina ceramic powders.

CIM components are widely used in automotive industry (mechanical parts),

chemical applications (valves, membranes), medical applications (artificial bones),

aerospace (mechanical parts, sensors and actuators), communications, oil and gas

exploration (sensors, valves), etc. Advanced CIM technology, micro-CIM, offers

microparts with structures in sub-millimeter range where materials like silicon and

polymers rapidly reach their limits. Next step in micro-CIM technology is two-

component micro-CIM that allows the production of multi-functional ceramic parts

75
in just one processing step without any additional joining of the compound

partners. Two-component injection molding allows one to combine materials with

different properties, such as electrical conductivity/electrical insulation, high

thermal conductivity/thermal insulation, or magnetic/non-magnetic properties. This

opens new prospects for CIM technology and leads the way to new prospective

market segments.

References

(Gel casting)

1. A.C. Young, O.O. Omatete, M.A. Janney and P.A. Menchhofer, J. Am. Cer.

Soc., 1991. 74 (3): p. 612-618 2. O.O. Omatete, M. A. Janney, S.D. Nunn,

J.Eur.Cer.Soc, 1997, 17(2-3): p. 407-413 3. V. Chalkia, E. Marathoniti, V.

Stathopoulos, Shape forming of LaAlO3 perovskite monolithic structures by

the gel casting method, 13th Pan-Hellenic symposium of Catalysis, 16-18

October 2014, Palaios Agios Athanasios, Pella, Greece

References (Ceramic Injection Moulding)

References
Gu, Y.W.; Li, T.; Li, Q.F.; Pook, S.F. Pook, & Goh, C.W. (2008). Piezoelectric ceramics by
powder processing. SIMTech technical reports, Volume 9, Number 4, (Oct-Dec 2008),
pp. 189-194, Available from: http://www.simtech.astar.edu.sg/Research/
TechnicalReports/STR_V9_N4_CD_Version/STR_V9_N4_02_FTG.pdf
Hausnerova, B; Marcanikova, L.; Filip, P. & Saha, P. (2011). Rheological Characterization of
Powder Injection Moulding using Feedstock Based on Aluminium Oxide and

76
Multicomponent Water-Soluble Polymer Binder. Proceedings of Recent Advances in
Fluid Mechanics and Heat & Mass Transfer, pp. 245-250, ISBN: 978-1-61804-026-8,
Florence, Italy, August 23-25, 2011
Hwang, K. S. & Hsieh, C. C. (2005). Injection-Molded Alumina Prepared with Mg-
Containing Binders. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 88 (9), (September 2005),
pp. 2349–2353, DOI: 10.1111/j.1551-2916.2005.00370.x
Krauss, V.A.; Pires, E.N.; Klein, A.N. & Fredel, M.C. (2005). Rheological Properties of
Alumina Injection Feedstocks. Materials Research, Vol.8, No.2, (April-June 2005),
pp. 187-189, ISSN 1516-1439
Liu, L; Loh, N.H.; Tay, B.Y.; Tor, S.B.; Yin, H.Q. & Qu, X.H. (2011). Preparation and
characterization of micro components fabricated by micro powder injection
molding. Materials Characterization, 62 (6), (June 2011), pp. 615-620,
DOI:10.1016/j.matchar.2011.04.009
Luo, J.S.; Yi, Z.Z.; Xiao, B.; Gao, Y.; Xie, Z.P.; Li, J.B. & Huang, Y. (2006). Injection molding of
ultra-fine zirconia (Y-TZP) powders. Journal of Ceramic Processing Research, 7(1),
(2006), pp. 14-19, ISSN: 1229-9162
Pigram, A. J. & Freer, R. (1994). The production of Mn-Zn ferrite ceramics by injection
moulding. Journal of Materials Science, Vol. 29, No. 24, (January 1994), pp. 6420-6426,
DOI: 10.1007/BF00353998
Piotter, V.; Gietzelt, T. & Merz, L. (2003). Micro powder-injection moulding of metals and
ceramics. Sadhana, Vol. 28, Parts 1 & 2, (February/April 2003), pp. 299–306,
ISSN: 02562499
Piotter, V.; Plewa, K.; Prokop, J.; Ruh, A.; Ritzhaupt-Kleissl, H.J. & Hausselt, J. (2008).
Manufacturing of Versatile Ceramic or Metal Micro Components by Powder
Injection Moulding. Proc.of the 4th Internat.Conf. on Multi-Material Micro
Manufacture, pp. 69-72, ISBN 978-1-904445-76-0, Cardiff, GB, September 9-11, 2008,
Dunbeath : Whittles Publ., 2008
Piotter, V.; Mueller, T.; Plewa, K.; Prokop, J.; Ritzhaupt-Kleissl, H.J. & Hausselt J. (2010).
Manufacturing of complex-shaped ceramic components by micropowder injection
molding. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 46 (1-4),
(January 2010), pp. 131-134, DOI: 10.1007/s00170-009-2095-7
Rak, Z.S. (1999). New trends in powder injection moulding. Powder Metallurgy and Metal
Ceramics, Volume 38, Numbers 3-4, (March 1999), pp. 126-132, DOI:
10.1007/BF02676037

www.intechopen.com

77
For more information about slurries for sanitaryware manufacturing, contact the

Kentucky-Tennessee Clay Co. at (615) 365-0852, fax (615) 365-0842.

78