AMPLITUDE MODULATION TRANSMISSION

INTRODUCTION
Communications systems had their beginning with the discovery of various electrical, magnetic,
and electrostatic phenomena prior to the twentieth century. Starting with Samuel Morse's
invention of the telegraph in 1837, a truly remarkable rate of progress has occurred. The
telephone, thanks to Alexander Graham Bell, came along in 1876. The first complete system of
wireless communication was provided by Guglielmo Marconi in 1894. Lee DeForest's invention of
the triode vacuum tube in 1908 allowed the first form of practical electronic amplification and
really opened the door to wireless communication. In 1948 another major discovery in the history
of electronics occurred with the development of the transistor by Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen.
The more recent developments, such as integrated circuits, very large-scale integration, and
computers on a single silicon chip, are probably familiar to you.
The rapid transfer of these developments into practical communications systems linking the
entire globe (and now into outer space) has stimulated a bursting growth of complex social and
economic activities. This growth has subsequently had a snowballing effect on the growth of the
communication industry with no end in sight for the foreseeable future. Some people refer to this
as the age of communications.
The function of a communication system is to transfer information from one point to another
via some communication link. The very first form of "information" electrically transferred was the
human voice in the form of a code (i.e., the Morse code), which was then converted back to words
at the receiving site. People had a natural desire and need to communicate rapidly between
distant points on the earth, and that was the major concern of these developments. As that goal
became a reality, and with the evolution of new technology following the invention of the triode
vacuum tube, new and less basic applications were also realized, such as entertainment (radio and
television), radar, and telemetry. The field of communications is still a highly dynamic one, with
advancing technology constantly making new equipment possible or allowing improvement of the
old systems.
Communications was the basic origin of the electronics field, and no other major branch of
electronics developed until the transistor made modern digital computers a reality.

ELEMENTS OF A WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

The most basic possible wireless system consists of a transmitter, a receiver, and a channel,
usually a radio link, as shown in the figure below. Since radio cannot be used directly with low
frequencies such as those in a human voice, it is necessary to superimpose the information
content onto a higher frequency carrier signal at the transmitter, using a process called
modulation. The use of modulation also allows more than one information signal to use the radio
channel by simply using a different carrier frequency for each. The inverse process, demodulation,
is performed at the receiver in order to recover the original information.
The information signal is also sometimes called the intelligence, the modulating signal, or the
baseband signal. An ideal communication system would reproduce the information signal exactly
at the receiver, except for the inevitable time delay as it travels between transmitter and receiver,
and except, possibly, for a change in amplitude. Any other changes constitute distortion. Any real
system will have some distortion, of course: part of the design process is to decide how much
distortion, and of what types, is acceptable.

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Communications systems are often categorized by the frequency of the carrier. The following
table provides the names for various frequency ranges in the radio spectrum. The extra-high-
frequency range begins at the starting point of infrared frequencies, but the infrareds extend
considerably beyond 300 GHz (300 X 109 Hz). After the infrareds in the electromagnetic spectrum
(of which the radio waves are a very small portion) come light waves, ultraviolet rays, X rays,
gamma rays, and cosmic rays.

Shown in the next page is a simple communication system in block diagram form. Notice that
the modulated stage accepts two inputs, the carrier and the information (intelligence) signal. It
produces the modulated signal, which is subsequently amplified before transmission.
Transmission of the modulated signal can take place by any one of four means: antennas,
waveguides, optical fibers, or transmission lines. These four modes of propagation will be studied
in subsequent lessons. The receiving unit of the system picks up the transmitted signal but must
reamplify it to compensate for attenuation that occurred during transmission. Once suitably
amplified, it is fed to the demodulator (often referred to as the detector), where the information
signal is extracted from the high-frequency carrier. The demodulated signal (intelligence) is then
fed to the amplifier and raised to a level enabling it to chive a speaker or any other output
transducer. A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another.

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MODULATION
The process of impressing a low-frequency intelligence signal onto a higher frequency "carrier"
signal may be defined as modulation. The higher-frequency "carrier" signal will hereafter be
referred to as simply the carrier. It is also termed the radio-frequency (RF) signal because it is at a
high-enough frequency to be transmitted through free space as a radio wave. The low-frequency
intelligence signal will subsequently be termed the "intelligence." It may also be identified by
terms such as modulating signal, information signal, audio signal, or modulating wave. Three
different characteristics of a carrier can be modified to allow it to "carry" intelligence. Either the
amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier are altered by the intelligence signal. Varying the
carrier's amplitude to accomplish this goal is the subject of this lesson.

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AMPLITUDE MODULATION FUNDAMENTALS
Combining two widely different sine-wave frequencies such as a carrier and intelligence in a linear
fashion results in their simple algebraic addition, as shown in the figure below. A circuit that
would perform this function is shown.

Linear addition of two sine waves.

The two signals combined in a linear device such as a resistor. Unfortunately, the result (d) is not
suitable for transmission as an AM waveform. If it were transmitted, the receiving antenna would
be detecting just the carrier signal because the low frequency intelligence component cannot be
propagated efficiently as a radio wave. The method utilized to produce a usable AM signal is to
combine the carrier and intelligence through a nonlinear device. It can be mathematically proven
that the combination of any two sine waves through a nonlinear device produces the following
frequency components:
1. A dc level
2. Components at each of the two original frequencies
3. Components at the sum and difference frequencies of the two original frequencies
4. Harmonics of the two original frequencies

This process is shown pictorially with the two sine waves, labelled fc and fi, to represent the
carrier and intelligence. If all but the fc – fi, fc, and fc + fi components are removed (perhaps with a
bandpass filter), the three components left form an AM waveform. They are referred to as:

1. The lower-side frequency (fc - fi)

2. The carrier frequency (fc)
3. The upper-side frequency (fc + fi)
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Mathematical analysis of this process is provided in succeeding lessons.

AM WAVEFORMS
The following figure shows the actual AM waveform under varying conditions of the intelligence
signal. Note in figure (a) that the resultant AM waveform is basically a signal at the carrier
frequency whose amplitude is changing at the same rate as the intelligence frequency. As the
intelligence amplitude reaches a maximum positive value, the AM waveform has a maximum
amplitude. The AM waveform reaches a minimum value when the intelligence amplitude is at a
maximum negative value. In figure (b), the intelligence frequency remains the same, but its
amplitude has been increased. The resulting AM waveform reacts by reaching a larger maximum
value and smaller minimum value. In figure (c), the intelligence amplitude is reduced and its
frequency has gone up. The resulting AM waveform, therefore, has reduced maximums and
minimums, and the rate at which it swings between these extremes has increased to the same
frequency as the intelligence signal.
It may now be correctly concluded that both the top and bottom envelopes of an AM
waveform are replicas of the frequency and amplitude of the intelligence (notice the 180° phase
shift). However, the AM waveform does not include any component at the intelligence frequency.

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AM waveform under varying intelligence signal (ei) conditions

The equation for the AM waveform (envelope) is provided in Equation (1).

This equation indicates that an AM waveform will contain the carrier frequency plus the products
of the sine waves defining the carrier and intelligence signals. Based on the trigonometric identity,

where x is the carrier frequency and y is the intelligence frequency. The product of the carrier and
intelligence sine waves will produce the sum and differences of the two frequencies. If a 1-MHz
carrier were modulated by a 5-kHz intelligence signal, the AM waveform would include the
following components:
1 MHz + 5 kHz = 1,005,000 Hz (upper-side frequency)

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1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz (carrier frequency)
1 MHz - 5 kHz = 995,000 Hz (lower-side frequency)

This process is shown in the succeeding figure. Thus, even though the AM waveform has
envelopes that are replicas of the intelligence signal, it does not contain a frequency component
at the intelligence frequency.
The intelligence envelope is shown in the resultant waveform and results from connecting
a line from each RF peak value to the next one for both the top and bottom halves of the AM
waveform. The drawn-in envelope is not really a component of the waveform and would not be
seen on an oscilloscope display. In addition, the top and bottom envelopes are not the upper- and
lower-side frequencies, respectively. The envelopes result from the nonlinear combination of a
carrier with two lower-amplitude signals spaced in frequency equal amounts above and below the
carrier frequency. The increase and decrease in the AM waveform's amplitude is caused by the
frequency difference in the side frequencies, which allows them alternately to add to and subtract
from the carrier amplitude, depending on their instantaneous phase relationships.
The AM waveform in figure (d) does not show the relative frequencies to scale. The ratio of
fc to the envelope frequency (which is also fi) is 1 MHz to 5 kHz, or 200: 1. Thus, the fluctuating RF
should show 200 cycles for every cycle of envelope variation. To do that in a sketch is not possible,
and an oscilloscope display of this example, and most practical AM waveforms, results in a well-
defined envelope but with so many RF variations that they appear as a blur, as shown in figure (e).

Carrier and side-frequency components result in AM waveform

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Modulation of a carrier with a pure sine-wave intelligence signal has thus far been shown.
However, in most systems the intelligence is a rather complex waveform that contains many
frequency components. For example, the human voice contains components from roughly 200 Hz
to 3 kHz and has a very erratic shape. If it were used to modulate the carrier, a whole band of side
frequencies would be generated. The band of frequencies thus generated above the carrier is
termed the upper sideband, while those below the carrier are called the lower sideband. This
situation is illustrated in the following figure for a I-MHz carrier modulated by a whole band of
frequencies, which range from 200 Hz up to 3 kHz. The upper sideband is from 1,000,200 to
1,003,000 Hz, and the lower sideband ranges from 997,000 to 999,800 Hz.

Modulation by a band of intelligence frequencies

EXAMPLE 1

A 1.4-MHz carrier is modulated by a music signal that has frequency components from 20 Hz to 10
kHz. Determine the range of frequencies generated for the upper and lower sidebands.

Solution
The upper sideband is equal to the sum of carrier and intelligence frequencies. Therefore, the
upper sideband (usb) will include the frequencies from

1,400,000 Hz + 20 Hz = 1,400,020 Hz
to

1,400,000 Hz + 10,000 Hz = 1,410,000 Hz

The lower sideband (lsb) will include the frequencies from

1,400,000 Hz - 10,000 Hz = 1,390,000 Hz

to

1,400,000 Hz - 20 Hz = 1,399,980 Hz

This result is shown in the figure below with a frequency spectrum of the AM modulator's output.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE 1
a. A 1500-kHz carrier and kHz intelligence signal are combined in a nonlinear device. List all
the frequency components produced.
b. If a 1500-kHz radio wave is modulated by a 2-kHz sine-wave tone, what frequencies are
contained in the modulated wave (the actual AM signal)?
c. If a carrier is amplitude-modulated, what causes the sideband frequencies?
d. What determines the bandwidth of emission for an AM transmission?
e. Explain the difference between a sideband and a side frequency.

PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF AM
It is often helpful to use a phasor representation to help understand generation of an AM signal.
For simplicity, let's consider a carrier modulated by a single sine wave with a 100 percent
modulation index
(m = 1). Remember that the AM signal will therefore be composed of the carrier, the usb at one-
half the carrier amplitude with frequency equal to the carrier frequency plus the modulating
signal frequency, and the lsb at one-half the carrier amplitude at the carrier frequency minus the
modulation frequency. With the aid of the figure shown below we will now show how these three
sine waves combine to form the AM signal.

1. The carrier phasor represents the peak value of its sine wave. The upper and lower
sidebands are one-half the carrier amplitude at 100 percent modulation.
2. A phasor rotating at a constant rate will generate a sine wave. One full revolution of the
phasor
corresponds to the full 360° of one sine-wave cycle. The rate of phasor rotation is called
angular velocity ( ) and is related to sinewave frequency ( = 2 f).
3. The sideband phasors' angular velocity is greater and less than the carriers by the
modulating signal's angular velocity. This means they are just slightly different from the
carriers because the modulating signal is such a low frequency compared to the carrier.
You can think of the usb as always slightly gaining on the carrier and the lsb as slightly
losing angular velocity with respect to the carrier.
4. If we let the carrier phasor be the reference (stationary with respect to the sidebands) the
representation shown in the figure can be studied. Think of the usb phasor as rotating
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counterclockwise and the lsb phasor rotating clockwise with respect to the "stationary"
carrier phasor.
5. The instantaneous amplitude of the AM waveform in the figure is the vector sum of the
phasors we have been discussing. At the peak value of the AM signal (point 2) the carrier
and sidebands are all in phase, giving a sum of carrier + usb + lsb or twice the carrier
amplitude, since each sideband is one half the carrier amplitude.
6. At point 1 the vector sum of the usb and lsb are added to the carrier and result in an
instantaneous value that is also equal to the value at point 3. Notice, however, that the
position of the usb and lsb phasors are interchanged at points 1 and 3.
7. At point 4 the vector sum of the three phasors equals the carrier since the sidebands
cancel each other. At point 6 the sidebands combine to equal the opposite (negative) of
the carrier, resulting in the zero amplitude AM signal that theoretically occurs with exactly
100 percent modulation.

The phasor addition concept helps in understanding how a carrier and sidebands combine to
form the AM waveform. It is also helpful in analyzing other communication concepts.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2
1. What does the phasor at point 6 in the above figure imply about the modulation signal?
2. Explain how the phasor representation can describe the formation of an AM signal.
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3. Construct phasor diagrams for the AM signal in the above figure midway between points 1
and 2, 3 and 4, and 5 and 6.

PERCENTAGE MODULATION
In previous lesson it was determined that an increase in intelligence amplitude resulted in an AM
signal with larger maximums and smaller minimums. It is helpful to have a mathematical
relationship between the relative amplitude of the carrier and intelligence signals. The percentage
modulation provides this, and it is a measure of the extent to which a carrier voltage is varied by
the intelligence. The percentage modulation is also referred to as modulation index or
modulation factor, and they are symbolized by m. The following figure illustrates the two most
common methods for determining the percentage modulation when modulating with sine waves.
Notice that when the intelligence signal is zero, the carrier is unmodulated and has a peak
amplitude labelled as Ec. When the intelligence reaches its first peak value (point w), the AM
signal reaches a peak value labeled Ei (the increase from Ec). Percentage modulation is then given
as

or expressed simply by a ratio:

Percentage modulation determination.

or expressed simply by the ratio

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The same result can be obtained by utilizing the maximum peak-to-peak value of the AM
waveform (point w), which is shown as B, and the minimum peak-to-peak value (point x), which is
A in the following equation:

This method is usually more convenient in graphical (oscilloscope) solutions.

OVERMODULATION
If the AM waveform's minimum value A falls to zero as a result of an increase in the intelligence
amplitude, the percentage modulation becomes

This is the maximum possible degree of modulation. In this situation the carrier is being varied
between zero and double its unmodulated value. Any further increase in the intelligence
amplitude will cause a condition known as overmodulation to occur. If this does occur, the
modulated carrier wi11 go to more than double its unmodulated value but will fall to zero for an
interval of time, as shown in the following figure. This "gap" produces distortion termed sideband
splatter, which results in the transmission of frequencies outside a station's normal allocated
range. This is an unacceptable condition because it causes severe interference to other stations
and causes a loud splattering sound to be heard at the receiver.

Overmodulation.

EXAMPLE 2
Determine the %m for the following conditions for an unmodulated carrier of 80 V peak-to-peak
(p-p ).

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Solution

PRACTICE EXERCISE 3
1. Draw a diagram of a carrier wave envelope when modulated 50 percent by a sinusoidal
wave. Indicate on the diagram the dimensions from which the percentage of modulation is
determined.
2. What are some of the possible results of overmodulation?
3. An unmodulated carrier is 300 V p-p. Calculate %m when its maximum p-p value reaches
400, 500, and 600 V.
4. If A = 60 V and B = 200 V as shown in the figure shown in page 8 (Percentage of
Modulation), determine %m.
5. Determine Ec and Em from Problem 12.

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