AGRON 509 (2+1) – AGRONOMY OF FODDER AND FORAGE CROPS

ASSIGNMENT :

TREE FODDER CROPS AND AGRO FORESTRY

AJMAL FAYIQUE, C.

1ST M.Sc. Agronomy

College of Agriculture,

Vellayani.
Why are fodder trees important?

• The fodder value of their leaves and fruits is often superior to herbaceous plants, particularly in
the case of legumes.

• In arid and semi-arid zones, they provide the largest part of the protein in the dry periods.

• Cash problems - feed shortage is often experienced

• In the Sahel, Up to 80% of the protein ration is provided by plants of the Capparaceae family
during the three driest months of the year.

3 important reasons:

• 1. Fodder trees provide a cheap protein source.

“Contain high quantities of protein, ranging from 10-30% of the Dry Matter”

• 2. Fodder tree leaves used as a dry season supplement.

“Deeper rooting system- which can tap water beyond the reach of grass roots”

• 3. Fodder trees also have other uses.

 improve soil fertility

 construction material

 firewood

 shelter

 Shade

 Agro forestry

Suitability:

Not all types of trees and shrubs can be used for fodder production.

• Leaves and pods should have a high nutritive value - contain a lot of protein.

• Trees should produce many leaves and regrow easily after frequent pruning.

• Edible parts of the tree should not contain toxins.

• Tree leaves need to have a high palatability - animals like to eat them and can digest them well.

• Trees must preferably be tolerant to drought, pests and diseases.

 • Trees should not compete too much with other crops.

Fodder tree Ideotype:

• Adaptability: the species should be easily established and maintained in good condition in the
selected environment.

• Palatability: it should readily accepted by animals.

• High nutritive value.

• Growth and productivity: it is economically and practically important that the maximum
quantity of feed is produced on every hectare of land.

• Hardiness and resistance: recover quickly after intense utilization and to form leaves again after
these have been browsed of lopped.

Major fodder trees

1. SUBABUL (Leucaena leucocephala)

Family: Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae) subfamily: Mimosoideae tribe: Mimoseae. Also placed in:
Mimosaceae.

 Also called as “Leucaena” or “ipil-ipil”.

 Origin : Mexico

 Perennial hardy evergreen shrub.

 Best suited for warm regions – 220 C to 30 0 C

 500 – 2000 mm rainfall

 Cannot with stand water logging.

 Deep and strong tap roots

 Leaves are bipinnate – 15 to 20 cm long with 10 – 15 pairs of pinnate leaves.

 Inflorescence – globular and flowers- white.

 Deep well drained neutral soils required

4 types:
1. Hawaiian type: Short bushy, Remarkably drought tolerant, Suited to hilly terrain and drought
prone areas, Prolific seed producer, Good for fodder purpose
e.g.: K- 341.
2. Salvador type: Tall, fast growing, Max bio mass production, Large leaves, pods and seeds, Response
high to fertilizer, Eg : K-8

3. Peru: Tall and extensively branching, Ideal for fodder purpose

4. Cunningham: Cross between salvador and peru types.

Seed treatment

Seed viability is high but dormant- Presence of Hard seed coat. So dipped in concentrated Sulphuric
acid- 4 minutes. Then Wash in hot water at 80 0 C for 4 minutes. Sundry for 1 hour before sowing.

Planting:

Seed rate – 3- 4 kg/ha. Sow during Feb- Mar in nursery or polythene bags at 2-3 cm depth. Provide
irrigation if necessary. Seedlings – 1.5 to 3 months old 6-8 leaves are planted in the main field by the
onset of rains in May- June or September- October.

Spacing :

1m x 1m- Pure crop

1.5 m x 0.2 m- on boundaries and borders of coconut garden

2m x 0.2 m – along boundaries.

• Basal application of 20: 50 : 30 kg/ ha (NPK).

• The early growth is slow – Protect form aggressive weeds  2- 3 inter cultivation is essential.

• Combines well with many grasses like Guinea, Dinanath, Hybrid Napier etc.

• Can grow under a wide range of conditions as a range plant, road side plant, in pastures etc

Harvest and yield:

Starts flowering at 125 – 150 DAP. First cutting – after 5-6 months at a height of 70 – 80 cm from ground
level – 1.75 m. Subsequent harvest- 50 – 60 days interval. 25-30 t/ha/year
@ gravelly soils and low rainfall areas. About 100 t/ha/year @ irrigated crop. 7- 8 cuttings.

Quality:

Nutritive value 55-70% digestibility, 3-4.5% N, 6% ether extract, 6-10% ash, 30-50% N-free extract, 0.8-
1.9% Ca and 0.23-0.27% P. Na levels are generally below requirements for ruminants at 0.01-0.05%.
Leaves also contain 2-6% condensed tannins (CT), phenolic compounds which bind and protect dietary
protein from degradation in the rumen. Highly palatable to most grazing animals.
Toxicity:

Foliage contains an uncommon amino acid- Mimosine: antimitotic and depilatory effects on animals.
Concentrations in young leaf can be as high as 12% and the edible fraction commonly contains 4-6%
mimosine. Normally converted to 3-hydroxy-4(IH)-pyridone (DHP) upon ingestion. DHP is goitrogenic
and, if not degraded ,low serum thyroxine levels, ulceration of the oesophagus and reticulo-rumen,
excessive salivation, poor appetite and low live weight gains, especially when the diet contains more
than 30% leucaena.

2. Hedge Lucerne:
Desmanthus virgatus
Family : Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae) subfamily: Mimosoideae tribe: Mimoseae. Also placed in:
Mimosaceae.

• Small shrub, 2-3 m tall.

• Native of the tropics.

• Palatable, aggressive, persistent and tolerant to heavy grazing.

• Ideal plant for waste land development.

• Small shrub, 2-3 m tall.

• Native of the tropics.

• Palatable , aggressive, persistent and tolerant to heavy grazing.

• 22 % protein in leaves and 10 -15 % in stems.

• Highly productive – 40 – 70 t/ha/year

• No poisonous substance in present.

Soil requirements

Occurs on a range of soil types from sandy and gravely soils to calcareous soils and rocky clays. Will grow
productively on lighter soils of neutral to alkaline reaction.

Moisture

Occurs naturally -wet to those with extended dry seasons. Well-adapted to 550-1,000 mm
average rainfall environments in exotic locations.
Temperature

Occurs over a wide temperature range from coastal to sub-montane environments and from the
equator to 31°N. Defoliated by heavy frosts but will regrow from crowns in spring given adequate
moisture.

3. Agathi
Sesbania grandiflora
Family: Fabacea

Has Extreme fast growth rate. Propagated by direct seeding. Prolific nodulation and extremely large
nodules. Adapted to moist tropics with > 1000mm RF.

Grown throughout the year under irrigation. Comes up in soils with good drainage. Seed rate is 7.5 kg
/ha, sow the seeds at a spacing of 100 cm x 100 cm (100 cm between ridges and 100 cm between plants
within the ridge). First cut after 8 months and subsequent harvests at an interval of 60-80 days. Green
fodder yield of 100 tons per year is obtained from one hectare.

Planted very densely: 3000 stems / ha. It has 36 % protein. Important in pulp and paper wood industries
also. No toxic substance present.

Establishment

Spacing : 100 cm x 50 cm.

Nodulates readily with native rhizobia and inoculation is not generally required. Rapid early growth
generally enables overcome weed competition easily and weed management is generally not required.
Scarification of seed is required to achieve uniform germination, although many publications report no
requirement for scarification. Seed should be acid or abrasively scarified in preference to hot-water
scarification as the latter results in large percentages of non-viable seed.

Soil requirements

Grows in a wide range of soils from loose sands to heavy clays. Tolerates saline soils , soils (pH <10) and
acidic soils, as well as water-logging and flooding. Tolerant of low P, but P application has a positive
effect on growth and nodulation.

Moisture:

Native to monsoonal, semi-arid to sub-humid regions with 500-2,000 mm annual rainfall. Grows best
where periodic waterlogging or flooding is followed by a progressively drier season.

Temperature

Tolerant of cool highland-tropical or sub-tropical conditions. Average annual temperatures ranging from
17-20ºC. Tolerates light frosts, but will be killed by heavy frost.
Harvesting:

Normally used as a cut and carry species. With appropriate cutting management will persist for up to 5
years. Can be cut after the plant reaches 1-2 m height. Delaying cutting until the plant is >4 m tall, and
low cutting at <50 cm, will result in plant deaths. Best results are achieved when cut to 75-100 cm
height and some foliage is retained. Can be defoliated up to 5 times/year depending on use and
environment. More frequent cutting will decrease the lifespan of the plants.

Fertilizer:

Not generally applied, although will respond to added P on deficient soils, especially during
establishment.

Nutritive value:

Crude protein content ranges from 25-30% of DM.

Palatability/acceptability:

Moderately well accepted by ruminants in cut-and-carry feeding systems.

4. Calliandra calothyrsus Meisn.

Family: Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae) subfamily: Mimosoideae tribe: Ingeae. Also placed in:
Mimosaceae.

Native to: Humid/sub-humid regions of Central America and Mexico. A multipurpose species - forage as
a supplement to low quality roughages for ruminant livestock. Well-adapted to moderately acid soils
and highland tropical environments. Highly productive in humid-tropical and highland-tropical locations.

Soil requirements: well suited to the light-textured slightly acidic soils of volcanic origin. It does not
tolerate waterlogged conditions.

Moisture: grows in annual rainfall regimes of 700-3,000 mm with 1-7 dry months. Evergreen in humid
climate but semi-deciduous in areas with a long dry season.

Temperature: Mean monthly maximum temperatures of 24-28ºC, and mean minimum temperatures of
18-24ºC.

Light: Intolerant of heavy shade. It can be planted under banana with moderate shade.

Establishment:

Seed requires scarification. Soaking seed in cold water for 48 hours. Use scarified seed planted at 1-3cm
depth or seedlings raised in nurseries when the plants are 20-50cm tall. Seedlings can be planted 0.5-1.0
m apart in hedgerows spaced 3-4 m apart, or in fodder banks spaced 0.5-1.0 m apart in a grid pattern.
Less responsive to fertilizer than other tree species.
First cut 8-12 months after sowing. For maximum leaf production, cut to a height of 0.5-1.0 m every 2-3
months.Recommended for cut-and-carry feeding. Yield of 3-14 t/ha/year can be obtained.

Nutritive value:

Wide variation in condensed tannin (CT) concentrations has also been reported (1.5-19.4%). Good
source of the vitamin carotene. Highly palatable to ruminants

Limitations:

Low in vivo digestibility/forage quality due to high concentrations of condensed tannins. Cannot be
direct grazed by ruminant livestock.

5. Gliricidia sepium
Family: Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae) subfamily: Faboideae tribe: Robinieae. Also placed in:
Papilionaceae.

Native to: Seasonal dry forest areas of Mexico and Central America.

Soil requirements: Adapted to a wide range of well-drained soils. Often found on highly eroded soils of
volcanic origin with pH 4.5-6.2, but is also found on sands, heavy clays and slightly alkaline, calcareous
limestone soils. Does not grow well on wet or waterlogged soils.

Moisture: Drought tolerant and adapted to an annual rainfall regime of 650-3,500 mm. Largely
deciduous

Temperature: 21-29ºC. Grows to an altitude of 1,200 m.

Establishment: Sowing depth for seeding - 2 cm. Scarification is unnecessary, and germination rates of
>90% are typical. When seeds are not fresh, soaking overnight in hot water is required and planting
should proceed immediately. Establish rapidly- a height of 3 m before flowering at 6-8 months of age.
Cuttings - using stakes of 5-6 months of age, 1.5 m long and with a diameter of 3.5-4.0 cm. For densely
planted protein banks, use stakes 50 cm long and six months of age. Plant populations range from 4,000-
10,000 trees/ha.

Generally planted as a Living fence, Protein bank, Hedgerows with crops or pastures in the inter-row,
scattered individual trees in smallholder forage and open-plantation systems.

Nutritive value:

High nutritive value. Crude protein content 18-30%. In vitro digestibility of 60-65%.

Palatability/acceptability:

Naïve animals seem to refuse leaves on the basis of smell. Wilting leaves for 12-24 hours before feeding
increases intake. Prior experience is the most important attribute of palatability
Toxicity:

Central America – rodenticide due to the conversion by bacteria of coumarin to dicoumerol during
fermentation. Little evidence of toxic effects with ruminants fed either fresh or wilted leaves.HCN
concentrations of up to 4 mg/kg.

Harvest and yield :

For forage, first cut 8-12 months after sowing at 0.5-1.0 m above soil level, and thereafter every 2-4
months depending on rainfall and temperature . Gliricidia tolerates repeated cutting. Annual leaf DM
production varies from 2-20 t/ha/year, depending on a wide range of factors. In fodder plots, annual
yields of 5-16 t/ha of leaf DM, or up to 43 t/ha fresh leaves have been obtained.

“Tree fodders contain high levels of crude protein and minerals and many show high levels of
digestibility. There are abundant niches on small farms where fodder trees can be grown without
affecting crop production. Three kg of fresh fodder of Calliandra calothyrsus has the same effect on milk
production as one kg of commercial dairy meal. Up to about 500 trees (250 m of hedgerow) will produce
enough fodder to supplement one dairy cow for a complete lactation.”

-Paterson et. al. 1998

“Leucaena esculenta forage had the highest (P<0.001) content of nitrogen (38.3 g/kg DM) compared to
L. diversifolia, L. pallida and Calliandra calothyrsus, with 36.3, 34.8 and 34.0 g/kg DM, respectively.

Levels of insoluble proanthocyanidins and soluble phenolics were highest (P<0.001) in C. calothyrsus
forage, moderate in L. esculenta and L. diversifolia and lowest (P<0.001) in L. Pallida.”

Nherera et. al. 1997

“The animals gave first preference to the leaves of Leucaena leucocephala as indicated by 97.86 percent
relative palatability. The foliage of Bauhinia variegata (96.42%) , Grewia opiva (95.76%) and Morus
serrata (95.25)where the next preferred. Melia composita (38.46 %) was least preferred. The order of
the palatability was L. leucocephala > B. variegata > G. optiva > M. serrata > A. catechu > P. floribundum
> O. oojeinensis > C. australis >O. ferruginea > S. tetrasperma > F. roxhburghii > A. chinensis > Q. glauca >
Q. leucotricophora > M. composita.

Leucaena leucocephala was best fodder species with respect to nutrint content and palatability.”

Manasi R.N et al. 2017

“CP (%) content of leguminous in comparison to Non-leguminous tree leaves, out of which highest value
was seen in L. leucocephala (22.02±1.50) followed by B. variegata (15.88±1.38).The NDF content was
the highest (55.03±1.24%) in P. guajava and the lowest (32.62±1.61) in L. leucocephala. Higher gas
production was found in L. leucocephala and B. variegata. Based on the results, the leguminous trees (L.
leucocephala, B. variegata and B. monosperma) could be considered of good quality and among non
leguminous trees, T. tomentosa and A. heterophyllus could be considered of medium quality and others
of poor quality.”

Gupta et al. (2016)

“Six different mixed silages were prepared by using maize fodder and two tree leaves viz jamun
(Syzygium cuminii) and mango (Mangifera indica) each at 75:25, 50:50 and 25:75 ratio (w/w), and
compared with a control (100 % maize fodder). Silage made from 100 % maize had lower (P<0.05) pH in
comparison to tree leaves–maize mixed silages. There were no differences in color and texture among
various silages. The DM content of silages ranged from 28.00±0.20 in pure maize silage to 38.85±3.80 in
25:75 mixed silage. The protein content of maize-tree leaves silages were decreased with increased
proportion of either jamun or mango leaves in the silages. The potential degradability of crude protein
did not follow any pattern irrespective of silages. Mango and jamun tree leaves can be used @ 25 %
level along with maize fodder for preparation silages without affecting quality of silages.”

Khan et. al. 2012

“The potential of incorporating fodder tree foliage in the production of multi nutritional feed blocks
(MNBs) to supplement grazing sheep was evaluated. Leaves from Guazuma ulmifolia Lam., Leucaena
lanceolata S. Watson, Acacia cochliacantha Humb. & Bonpl. Willd, and Brosimum alicastrum Swartz
were used to make 2.5 kg blocks which were offered to test the preference, consumption and weight
gain in sheep during MNB supplementation while grazing.

The best blocks were those made from the foliage of L. lanceolata followed by those made with B.
alicastrum, both of which are considered highly palatable to livestock. The greatest potential for using
the leaves from these trees to make the MNBs is mainly during the dry season.”

Martinez et.al 2012

Incorporation of fodder shrubs and trees into farming systems:

 Planting a living fence around the household: Experience in Thailand shows that the fence can
be established by direct seeding or transplanted seedings at close spacing and be ready for use
in 6–8 months.
 Gliricidia sepium has been extensively used in Indonesia and the Philippines and is easily
established by sticking the stem or branch cuttings into the ground.
 Vegetation on uncropped landsHedgerows in alley cropping.
 Component species in inter-cropping : Trees are pruned once or twice for fodder or to reduce
competition and shading during the growing period of the crops.
 Agro forestry
“Collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms,
bamboos etc) are deliberated used on the same land management units as agricultural crops or animals
in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence.Both ecological and economical interactions
between the different components.”

(Lundgren and Raintree, 1982)

Social forestry: “Forestry outside the conventional forests which primarily aim at providing continuous
flow of goods and services for the benefit of people”.

History:

• In Europe  a system in which pasture (cattle, swine, sheep) is covered by scattered oaks  its
origins dating back 4 500 years.

• In the Americas during the pre-Columbian period practiced multi-story agriculture.

• In Indian peninsula, traditional home gardens have existed for millennia.

• In Africa trees covered ground crops while roots were growing underground  yams, maize,
pumpkins and beans together under cover of trees.

• The term “agroforestry” was coined in the late 1970s.

• In Europe - a syste
origins dating back 4,500 years.

• In the Americas- during the pre-Columbian period practiced multi-story agriculture.

• In Indian peninsula, traditional home gardens have existed for millennia.

• In Africa- trees covered ground crops while roots were growing underground - yams, maize,
pumpkins and beans together under cover of trees.

• The term “agroforestry” was coined in the late 1970s.

Classification of agro forestry systems:
BENEFITS OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM:

Environmental benefits:

i) Reduction of pressure on natural forests.

ii More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees

iii) Better protection of ecological systems

iv) Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion.

v) Improvement of microclimate

vi) Increment in soil nutrients through addition and decomposition of litter fall.

vii) Improvement of soil structure through the constant addition of organic matter from decomposed
litter.

Economic benefits:

i) Increment in an outputs of food, fuel wood, fodder, green manure and timber.

ii) Reduction in incidence of total crop failure

iii) Increase in levels of farm income.

Social benefits:

i) Improvement in rural living standards .

ii) Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food outputs

Iii) Stabilization and improvement through elimination of the need to shift sites of farm activities.
Common Agroforestry-Fodder Production Models

 Fodder bank systems: Trees are planted as close as 1m x 1m and are cut regularly to induce
maximum herbage production. The cut herbage is usually carried to animal feeding stalls,
sometimes allowed to forage on the cut branches of naturally-growing fodder. The system is
called fodder bank, which provides reserve fodder when it is in short supply.
 Protein bank: This is a type of fodder bank which intentionally chooses trees, shrubs legumes
with high protein-containing leaf biomass. Commonly used species include Leucaena
leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium
 Three-strata forage system: Another type of fodder bank, Pasture grasses, vines and herbs
occupy the lower strata; shrubs occupy the middle strata and trees occupy the upper strata.
ensure year-round supply of fodder.

 Live fence or boundary systems

Single or double rows of fodder trees are planted along farm boundaries. The trees have the dual
purpose of providing fodder and serving as live fence posts. If intended to enclose animals, the trees are
usually planted densely, as in hedges, to prevent animals from getting out.

 Hedgerow intercropping systems:

Fodder trees, mostly leguminous are planted as hedges in single, double or triple rows. The spaces in
between hedgerows are planted with pasture grasses. The more common practice is to let the animals
forage on the cut tree branches and pasture grasses.

 Tree plantation + animal grazing systems:

The understory of tree plantations is utilized as grazing area for cattle, sheep and goats.The plantation
may be of forest trees, fruit trees, coconuts, oil palms or rubber. The livestock are allowed to graze
freely on improved pasture grasses planted under trees.

 Indigenous cut-and-carry systems

The fodder is cut and carried to animal stalls. Indigenous legumes such as Ficus, Acacia, Leucaena,
Gliricidia and Albizia are the most preferred fodder tree species.
Agroforestry systems and practices of Kerala

Agroecologically, Kerala has 13 zones based on altitudinal variations, precipitation pattern, soil type and
topographic features. So called as “Mecca” of agroforestry. Tropical home gardens widely practiced ,
most important and unique agroforestry system of Kerala.

Kerala that has about 5.4 million small gardens - mostly less than 0.5 ha in area

Dominant trees include coconut (Cocos nucifera), arecanut (Areca catechu) and para-rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis), besides a large number of multipurpose trees (MPTs) such as Ailanthus triphysa, mango
(Mangifera indica), jack (Artocarpus heterophyllus), teak (Tectona grandis), cashew (Anacardium
occidentale), wild jack (Artocarpus hirsutus), tamarind (Tamarindus indicus), Erythrina spp., Macaranga
peltata, Gliricidia sepium.

Dietary supplies from home gardens do not exceed 3% to 44% of the total calorie and 4 % to 32 % of the
protein intake. In addition to providing food products - non-timber products such as medicinal and
aromatic plants, ornamentals, bamboos, gums, resins, chemical extractives and green leaf manure.
Plantation crop combination of crown architecture and the wide spacing often facilitate growing a broad
spectrum of inter crops

Shade tolerance: Colocasia (Colocasia esculenta) , ginger (Zingiber officinale) and turmeric (Curcuma
longa).

 Coconut-based cropping systems

 Rubber-based cropping systems
 Commercial crops under the shade of planted trees: beverage crops and tree spices
 Commercial crops grown under the shade of trees in the natural forests: Small cardamom
 Commercial crops trailed on support trees: black pepper
 Medicinal and aromatic plants under the shade of trees:

koduveli (Plumbago rosea) Nilappana (Curculigo orchioides), arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea),

chittaratha (Alpinia calcarata), adapathian (Holostemma annulare), thippali (Piper longum), Dioscorea
sp, patchouli (Pogostemon cablin)

 Other tree-based production systems : Apiculture and sericulture

 fodder banks
 Silvopastoral system

The potential of leguminous fodder trees can be seen in their multipurpose nature and their ease of
integration into existing farming systems. Leguminous fodder trees can be used for the improvement of
both crop and livestock production and thus offer a means of linking livestock production with arable
crop production. They are therefore immensely suitable for the improvement of farming systems
through soil fertility maintenance (for crop production) and increased availability of high-protein feed
for livestock. Generally, the inclusion of leguminous trees in tropical land-use systems offers many
advantages at minimum expense. (Jamala et. al. 2013).
National Agroforestry Policy:

• Encourage and expand tree plantation in integrated manner with crops and livestock to improve
productivity, employment, income and livelihoods of rural households, especially the small holder
farmers.

• Protect and stabilize ecosystems, and promote resilient cropping and farming systems to
minimize the risk during extreme climatic events.

• Meet the raw material requirements of wood based industries and reduce import of wood and
wood products to save foreign exchange.

• Supplement the availability of agroforestry products (AFPs), such as the fuel-wood, fodder, non-
timber forest produce and small timber of the rural and tribal populations, thereby reducing the
pressure on existing forests.

• Complement achieving the target of increasing forest/tree cover to promote ecological stability,
especially in the vulnerable regions.

• Develop capacity and strengthen research in agroforestry and create a massive people's
movement for achieving these objectives and to minimize pressure on existing forests.
References:

• Manasi. R. N, Bhardwaj D.R. and Bishist. R. 2017. Palatability And Nutritive Value Of Some
Fodder Tree Species Of Himachal Pradesh. Bioinfolet 14 ( 1 ) : 93 - 96, 2017.

• Dwivedi. A.P. 1992. Agro forestry – Principles and Practices, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd, New Delhi.

• Gupta. R, Dutta T.K, Kundu S.S, Chatterjee .A, Gautam M and Sarkar S. 2016. Nutritional
Evaluation of Tree Leaves of Ayodhya Hills of Purulia District, West Bengal. Indian J. Anim. Nutr.
2016. 33 (4): 404-410.

• http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm

• http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/forestry/agroforestry_index.html

• http://www.fao.org/forestry/agroforestry/89997/en/

• Khan, N., Barman, K., Rastogi, A. and Sharma, R.K. 2012. Chemical composition and digestion
kinetics of mixed silages of maize fodder-tree leaves. Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology, 12:
271-278.

• Martı´nez and Silvia. 2012. Preference, consumption and weight gain of sheep supplemented
with multi nutritional blocks made with fodder tree leaves. Livestock Science 149 (2012) 185–
189.

• Nhereraa F.V., Ndlovua L.R.,Dzowelab . 1997. Utilisation of Leucaena diversifolia, Leucaena

esculenta, Leucaena pallida and Calliandra calothyrsus as nitrogen supplements for growing
goats fed maize stover. Animal Feed Science and Technology 74 (1998) 15±28.

• Paterson R. T., Karanja M.,Roothaert and Kariuki I. W. 1998. A review of tree fodder production
and utilization within smallholder agroforestry systems in Kenya. Agroforestry Systems 41: 181–
199, 1998.

• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257419157_Agroforestry_systems_and_practices_of
_Kerala [accessed Jun 3, 2017].