EDU 103: Development and Resources in Educational Technology

Module 1: 1.1 - Educational Technology- Concept, Approach and Scope

What is Technology?
The word ‘technology’ is derived from two Greek words namely ‘techne’ which means art, skill and ‘logia’
which means science, study. Thus, technology is the ‘science of art or skill (the ability to do something
very well)’. It is the collection of techniques (the way of doing things), skills, methods and processes used
in the production of goods, services, for the accomplishment of specific objectives. Technology is the
collection of techniques, humanity’s knowledge of the ways to combine resources to produce desired
products to solve problems, fulfil needs and satisfy needs.
Definitions
1. Hierra, A. (1973): Technology is the set of instruments and skills which are used to satisfy the needs
of the community.
2. Romizowski, J. Alexander (1980): Technology describes a ‘process’, something that people do to solve
problems or to achieve aims and ‘products’ such as instruments and tools, something tangible that exists
and can be used to satisfy the needs of the community.
In short, technology refers to any means or mechanism that minimises input and maximises output. Every
age has had its own mechanisms to satisfy its needs. Technology has therefore existed right from the time
humans learned to convert natural resources into simple tools. The earliest use of technology is stone tools,
fire (energy source), clothing (from animal fur), shelter, wheel, etc.
The software and hardware of technology
Technology comprises both the hard and the soft components. The term technology refers to both the
techniques (strategies) as well as the technical devices (gadgets, tool, machine). Techniques are the
software of technology. The equipment is the hardware of technology. The systematic way of applying
the techniques (skilful way of doing things) to achieve an objective is as important as the use of the
technical equipment (tool) for the same. Technology results in new designs and devices as also new ideas
and processes. Each new physical device is accompanied by a new set of procedures and techniques. For
example, the computer, the chalk board, the pencil, the chart, etc. is the ‘hard’ component (physical
device) and the skilful use of these or the methodologies of using them to satisfy the needs, is the ‘soft’
component.
What is Educational Technology?
1.1 Concept, Meaning, Definitions, Significance of Educational Technology
Concept of Educational Technology- The term Educational Technology comprises two components
namely, Education and Technology. Education is the act or process of acquiring and imparting knowledge.
It is crucial to the development of the learner, for his/her participation in the transformation of the world
for a better tomorrow. Learning and understanding are basic to the definition of education. Technology is
the collection of techniques, humanity’s knowledge of the ways to combine resources to produce desired
products to solve problems, fulfil needs and satisfy needs.
Educational technology is concerned with identifying the most suitable, appropriate and developed
technology (both hardware and software) for serving the educational needs and purposes of the students
and the society at a particular time and place.
Definitions
1. Shiv K. Mitra: Educational Technology can be conceived as a science of techniques and methods by
which educational goals could be realised.
2. G.O.M. Leith: Educational Technology is the systematic application of scientific knowledge about
teaching-learning and conditions of learning to improve the efficiency of teaching and training.
3. I.K. Davies: Educational Technology is concerned with the problems of education and training content
and it is characterised by the disciplined and systematic approach to the organisation of resources for
learning.
Meaning and Nature of Educational Technology- There exists a wide difference of opinion
regarding the definitions of the term of educational technology. However, the views of the different definitions
help us to conclude about the meaning and nature of educational technology as follows:

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 1. Educational technology is concerned with the systematic application of science and technology in the
field of education to further the cause of education.
2. Educational technology makes teaching and learning effective.
3. Educational technology provides technical guidance and solution to the problems of education.
4. Teaching is communicating and educational technology can play an effective role in improving the
communication between the teacher and the student.
5. Educational technology involves the total teaching and learning process including the following
elements like:
• Specification of goals and behavioural objectives
• Analysis of the characteristics of the learner
• Selection and organisation of the content or subject matter to be learned
• Methods and strategies of the presentation of the content
• Use of aid-material, software and hard ware, mass media and communication techniques
• Effective arrangement of learning situations and learning environment
• Effective classroom control and management
• Continuous feedback and evaluation of the results
6. Educational technology is not limited to the use of audio-visual aids and does not symbolise merely
educational hardware such as the sophisticated gadgets and mechanical devices used in education. It is
also not limited to the use of psychological principles and instructional theories for bringing
improvement in education. It covers all that happens during the planning, implementation, and
evaluation of the teaching-learning process. It devises ways and means to explore and utilise all the
resources to bring improvement in the teaching-learning process.
In short, educational technology stands for a wise application of the available human and non-human resources
for providing solution to the educational problems and to improve the processes and products of education.
Educational technology and other related concepts
Educational Technology is not a simple combination of these two words. It is much more than the sum of the
following two interpretations: Technology in Education and Technology of Education
No Technology in Education Technology of Education
1. The term has a narrow meaning. It refers to the use The term has a broader meaning. It refers to the
of technological inventions such as various total process of teaching-learning by carefully
equipment, mechanical aids or devices for analysing its components, problems and
educational purposes. For example, T.V, reorganising all available resources in an
projectors, films, computer aided instructions for economic way for obtaining the optimum
individualised and group learning, etc. results.

2. Its origin lies in the application of physical
sciences or engineering to education. The
inventions in these branches of science are
incorporated in the field of education.
2. The term ‘Technology in Education’ is a service
concept like technology in the service of farming
or agriculture or science in the service of mankind.
It refers to the service rendered to teachers, by
educational technology in the following ways:
1. It explains the purpose and functions of
different equipment, mass media, audio-
visual material and training learners to
overcome their reluctance in the use of new
equipment, media and material.
2. Provides training in acquiring the material and
handling the equipment to overcome their
reluctance to use the new media and material.
Its origin lies in the application of behavioural
sciences to the problems of learning and
motivation.
It is not limited to the use of audio-visual aids in
education.
It is concerned with an understanding of the
psychology of learning, significance of
communication in the teaching-learning process,
different methods of teaching, designing
evaluation of learning, etc. all which help the
teacher to teach effectively.
It involves the 5 M’s – namely, Man, Machine,
Material, Media, and Method.

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 3. Helps in individualised and group learning,
formal and non-formal education.
3. It is the hardware approach to education. It is the software approach to education.

Approaches of Educational Technology

Educational technology is a multifaceted concept. There are different approaches to educational technology.
They are as follows: 1. Hardware approach, 2. Software approach, 3. Systems approach 4. Multi-Sensory or
Multi-Media approach

Hardware approach Software approach

1. This approach is a byproduct of the scientific
and technological developments of the 20th
century. Hardware approach has its origin in
physical sciences and engineering in education.
This approach has brought about a mechanical
and technical revolution in the field of
education.
2. It adopts a product-oriented approach. It is
concerned with the production of audio-visual
aids, instruments, and mass media for helping
the teacher and learners in their tasks.
Software approach has its origin in behavioural
sciences and their applied aspects concerned with
the psychology of learning.
It adopts a process-oriented approach. It is
concerned with the process of using the hard ware
in teaching and learning. It is concerned with the
effective utilization of hard ware through well
designed learning materials, psychologically based
strategies of teaching and learning.

3. It is based on the concept of service, that is using
technology or instrumentation in the process of
education. It is just like the telephone, electric
heater, bulb etc. that serves us in our day to day
life.
Software technology does not provide direct
services to its users as the hard ware. However, it
helps in the production of software material which
is used by the hardware applications and gadgets for
delivering their service to teachers and learners.

4. Examples of hardware technology service - Examples of the material produced through

radio, television, tape recorder, video, slides and software technology are learning materials,
film projectors, teaching machines and teaching learning strategies based on psychology of
computer, etc. learning, tools of evaluation, software packages,
etc.

5. It has helped in the induction of mass media Software technology has no such wide application
approach to education which helps in countering and appeal to the masses
the population and knowledge explosion. This
type of education technology helps in reaching
out to large numbers and hence helps in
reducing expenses. It also leads to an overall
efficiency in the system.

Systems Approach
Definition of system:
A system is a set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an interconnecting network, a complex
whole. The characteristics of a system may be explained with the help of an example – various parts of the
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digestive system may be called as components of the digestive system. Every component of the digestive
system contributes to the functioning of the digestive system as a whole.
The System approach- This approach stands for a systematic way to design, carry out and evaluate the total
process of education in terms of specific objectives.
This approach takes education as a system. It incorporates all the aspects and parts of the teaching -learning
process, namely, pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and evaluation of instructional objectives
This type of technology is related to the concept of systems engineering. It originated from computer science.
It represents the latest concept in technology of education.
The System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course content, learning experiences and
effective media and instructional strategies. Such a system incorporates within itself the capability of
providing continuous self-correction and improvement. In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has
to plan completely the utilization of selected resource material and the classroom activities. The teacher should
have a good overall view of the subject, know his/her limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the
individual differences in their learning capacities and plan accordingly. The system approach involves
continuous evaluation of learning outcomes and utilization of knowledge gained by analysis of results of
evaluation to suitably modify the plan of approach to achieve the stated objectives.
Major steps in the systems approach in education are:
1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to be achieved and defining instructional goals,
2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals,
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements,
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective learning to take place,
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from available alternatives,
6. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required,
7. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers, students and supporting staff,
8. Implementing the programme,
9. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original objectives measured in student performance and
10. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to improve students’ learning.
Advantages of Systems Approach
1. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource material to achieve the specific goal.
2. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of machines, media and people for attaining
the defined goal.
3. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and other
factors.
4. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems success in terms
of student learning.
5. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial changes to be made.
Limitations of Systems Approach
1. Resistance to change. Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always resistance to any new method or
approach.
2. Involves hard work. Systems approach requires hard and continuous work on the part of school personnel.
Some are not prepared for the extra load.
3. Lack of understanding. Teachers and administrators are still not familiar with systems approach. Though
it has been successfully implemented in industry, it has still to make headway in education.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is understood that system approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all
aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. In education, this means planned and organised use of all
available learning resources, including audio-visual media, to achieve the desirable learning objectives by the
most efficient means possible.

Multi-sensory and multimedia approach

Experiments and researches in the field of teaching-learning have established that teaching-learning process
is best organised or facilitated through the use of multi-senses or multimedia instead of a single or routine type
of media or techniques. Senses are the gateways of knowledge. For example, if a teacher while lecturing uses
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audio-visual aids, charts and maps, writes on the black board, he is sure to communicate better than a teacher
who simply lectures.
This has given birth to a new approach namely the multi-sensory or the multimedia approach consisting of
the use of multiple senses through the use of carefully selected media for the realisation of the teaching-
learning objectives in the best possible way. According to this approach, it is always better to employ as many
senses as possible in the process of teaching for the best possible outcomes.
Characteristics of the multi-media or multi-sensory approach
1. It consists of the use of a number of media, devices and techniques for teaching –learning.
2. It is the result of the numerous researches going on in the field of educational technology for improving
the act of teaching-learning.
3. The variety of media involving multiple senses is carefully selected to provide the desirable learning
experiences to the learner.
4. The multi-senses and multimedia are selected and planned in the most appropriate economical
combination to yield the best possible results.
5. It involves the judicious and planned use of the hardware and software available in the field of
educational technology.
Uses and advantages of the multi-sensory approach
1. Makes educational process interesting, purposeful and effective – makes teaching-learning a lively
process.
2. Provides opportunity for utilisation of a number of senses- sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste – for
gaining the direct and lively experiences.
3. Teacher and students are involved in diverse activities.
4. Makes teaching easy, subject matter quite clear, self-explanatory and well digestive.
5. Useful in teaching of various skills
6. Changes in the behaviour of the learners in all domains- cognitive, affective and psych-motor can be
easily brought out.
7. Meets the individual needs of the learners – teacher can use the most suitable medium for the learner and
make learning effective – This can help the backward, slow learners, problem children, delinquents, etc.
to learn according to their specific needs.
8. Makes learning highly individualised and self-dependent- multi-media approach helps the individual
learners to proceed on his learning path with his own pace according to his own needs, interests and
abilities.
9. Reduces the load and tension of the teachers with regard to the different roles. It may relieve them from
many of their duties. Radio, educational films, computerised instructions, CDs, programmed packages,
etc. can take the place of the teacher.
10. Caters to the needs of the masses – mass media like radio, television, newspapers, motion pictures have
the tremendous power and capacity to appeal to the masses.
11. Advantageous for individual as well as group learning- Multimedia is equally competent for
individualised instruction and group learning. Programmed instructional packages, teaching machines,
computer-assisted instruction, etc. help the learner to learn individually and independently. The other
media like lecturing, seminar, workshops, video, film demonstration, etc. facilitate group learning.

Scope and Significance of Educational Technology

The scope of educational technology can be summarised as follows:
1. Analysis of the process of teaching and learning- Educational technology is concerned with the various
aspects related to teaching and learning, the relationship between teaching and learning, the integration
of the theories and principles of teaching as well as learning for attaining optimum educational purposes.
2. Defines the educational goals or objectives- Educational technology discusses the topics such as
identification of educational needs and aspirations of the community, survey of the resources available
for the satisfaction of these needs and aspirations, broad educational objectives, specific classroom
objectives of teaching and learning, etc.
3. Development of curriculum- Educational technology is concerned with the design of a suitable
curriculum for the achievement of the stipulated objectives. It describes the ways and means for the
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 selection of suitable learning experiences or contents, designs effective instructional strategies and
devices of evaluation, etc.
4. Development of teaching-learning material- This area of educational technology is concerned with
production and development of suitable teaching-learning material with respect to the stipulated
objectives, designed curriculum and available resources. It develops software and instructional material
like programmed learning material, computer assisted learning material, mass media instructional
material, personalised system of instruction, planning for the teaching and learning and preparation of
lesson plans, etc.
5. Teacher preparation or teacher-training- Teacher is the key figure in any process of teaching and
learning. Therefore, educational technology takes care of the proper preparation of teachers for
exercising their complex responsibilities. Educational technology therefore, includes topics like, micro-
teaching, classroom interaction, modification of teacher behaviour, interaction analysis, etc.
6. Development of teaching-learning strategies and tactics- Educational technology is concerned with
the development of suitable strategies of teaching keeping in view the availability of different types of
teaching methods, for the optimum results.
7. Development, selection and use of the appropriate audio-visual aids- Teaching-learning is greatly
benefitted by the use of appropriate audio-visual aids. Educational technology is concerned with the
development of suitable audio-visual aids keeping in view the available resources, problems faced in a
teaching-learning act, cost-effectiveness and effective utilisation.
8. Effective utilisation of the hardware and mass media- Various sophisticated instruments, equipment,
gadgets and communication devices brought through mechanisation and electronic revolution play an
effective role in the attainment of educational objectives by helping the teachers and learners in their
respective roles. Educational technology describes these resources in terms of their functions,
applicability, in a particular teaching-learning situation, proper handling, and maintenance, preparation,
development, their optimum use, etc.
9. Works for the effective utilisation of the system of education- Educational technology considers
education as a system operating in a systematic and scientific way for the achievement of educational
objectives. It is concerned with the effective organisation and management of the system in an effective
way by specifying the respective roles of the man, machine and media in relation to the purposes of
teaching and learning.
10. Provides essential feedback and control through evaluation- Educational technology is concerned
with the planning and devising of suitable tools and devices for the continuous evaluation of the process
and products of the teaching-learning activities. Such evaluation provides an appropriate feedback to the
teachers as well as learners for bringing about improvement in their activities.
Thus, educational technology is concerned with all the variables, phases, levels, and aspects of the teaching-
learning process. It works for the overall planning and organisation of the system or subsystems of education.
It helps all those who are connected directly or indirectly to the processes and products of education.

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Module 1: 1.2 – Audio-Visual aids: Educational significance of audio-visual aids, its
merits and demerits, classifications and Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience.
Audio-Visual aids
The teaching-learning process essentially involves the transfer of learning. Learning involves newly
acquired skills, knowledge, perception, facts, principles, new information, etc. Sense organs are the gateways
of knowledge and learning. Sensory experiences form the foundation for any intellectual activity. These
experiences can be provided in the classroom using a number of devices called ‘teaching aids’. There are
numerous teaching aids, both audio and visual, that can stimulate, motivate as well as capture learners’
attention during the instructional process. They reinforce the spoken or written word with concrete image,
which forms a strong base for learning.
Audio literally means hearing and visual means that which is found by seeing. So, all such aids which
help to make the knowledge clear to us through our senses are called Audio-Visual aids. Audio-Visual aids
are also called instructional /learning material. All these learning materials make the learning situation as real
as possible and give us first-hand knowledge through the organs of seeing and hearing. The basic assumption
underlying the use of audio-visual aids is that learning i.e., clear understanding stems from sense experience.
There is a popular saying on audio-visual aids, "I hear I forget, I see I remember, I do I understand". Retention
of what is learned is likewise related to sense experience. Vicarious experience can be gained from various
audio-visual aids. The more concrete and realistic the vicarious experience the more effective is learning.
Definitions
Burton - “Audio-Visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and reinforce
learning."
Edgar Dale - “Audio-Visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas between
persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped."
Kinder S. James - "Audio-Visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience
more dynamic."
McKean and Roberts - “Audio visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher, through the
utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and correlate concepts, interpretations
and appreciations”.
Educational Significance of Audio-Visual Aids
• Audio-Visual aids are added devices that help teacher to clarify, establish, correlate and coordinate
accurate concepts, interpretations and appreciations and enable him to make learning more concrete,
effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid.
• They provide significant gains in informational learning, retention and recall, thinking and reasoning,
activity, interest, imagination, better assimilation and personal growth and development.
• According to Gandhiji, "True education of the intellect can only come through a proper exercise and
training of bodily organs- hands, feet, eyes, ears, and nose".
• Commenting on the use of Audio-Visual aids, the Kothari Commission (1964-1966) observed, that
the use of audio-visual aids should indeed bring about an ‘educational revolution’ in the country. It
further stated that the supply of teaching aids to every school was essential for the improvement of
the quality of teaching.
• The national policy on education 1986 and as modified in 1992 has laid a great stress on the use of
teaching aids, especially improvised aids, to make teaching- learning more effective and realistic.

• Use of all senses organs: Senses are the gateways of knowledge. Clear images are formed when we
see, hear, touch, taste and smell as our experiences are direct, concrete and more or less permanent.
• Based on maxims of teaching: They help the teacher to base his activities on the maxims of teaching,
like 'concrete to abstract', 'known to unknown' and 'learning by doing'.
• Helpful in drawing attention: Concentration and attentiveness are two key aspects of the Teaching-
Learning process and enable the teacher to capture the attention and sustain interest in classroom
activities.

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 • A good motivating force: The students work with more interest and zeal and are more attentive.
Antidote to the disease of Verbal instruction: They help in giving clear concepts and thus help to bring
accuracy in learning.
• A good substitute for direct experience: Substituted experience (vicarious experience) can be provided
when it is not possible to give first-hand experience.
• Freedom: There is great scope for children to move about, talk, laugh and comment upon, and in such
a situation they work because they want to work. They offer opportunities to handle and manipulate
things.
• Retention - Facilitates quick comprehension and retention of concepts. Contributes to increased
retention of learning as they stimulate response of the whole organism to the situation in which learning
takes place.
• Provide clarity in subject matter
• Meet the individual difference requirements
• Helps in the development of higher order faculties - Verbalism promotes memorization. Use of audio
visual aids stirs the imagination, thinking process and reasoning power of the students and calls for
creativity, inventiveness and other higher mental activities on the part of the students.
• Helps in positive transfer of learning
• Solves the problems of verbalism
• Promotion of scientific temper- In place of listening facts students observe demonstrations and
phenomena and thus cultivate scientific temper.
Principles in the Use of Teaching Aids
Principle of selection: Teaching aids prove effective only when they suit the teaching objectives and
the characteristics of the special group of learners. Following points may be kept in mind in this regard.
• They should suit the age level, grade level and other characteristics of the learners.
• They should help in the realization of the desired learning objectives.
• They should have specific educational value besides being interesting and motivating.
• They should be true representatives of the real things.
Principle of preparation: This point requires the following points should be attended to;
• As far as possible locally available material should be used in the preparation of a teaching aid.
• The teachers should receive some training in the preparation.
• The teachers themselves should prepare some of the aids.
• The students may be associated with the preparation of the aids.
Principle of proper presentation:
• Teachers should carefully visualize the use of teaching aids before their actual presentation.
• They should fully acquaint themselves with the use and manipulation of the aids to be, shown in the
classroom.
• Adequate care should be taken to handle an aid in such a way as no damage is done to it.
• The teaching aid should be displayed properly so that all the students are able to see it, observe it and
derive maximum benefit from it.
As far as possible distraction of all kinds should be eliminated so that full attention may be paid to the aid.
Principle of response: This principle demands that the teachers should guide the students to respond
actively to the audio- visual stimuli so that they derive maximum benefit in learning.
Principle of evaluation: There should be continuous evaluation of both the audio-visual material and
accompanying techniques in the light of the realization of the desired objectives.
Principle of physical control: this principle relates to the arrangement of keeping aids safely and also to
facilitate their lending to the teachers for use.

Characteristics of Good Teaching Aids

• They should be meaningful and purposeful.
• They should be accurate in every respect.
• They should be simple.
• They should be cheap.
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 • As far as possible they should be improvised.
• They should be large enough to be properly seen by the students for whom they are meant.
• They should be up to date.
• They should be easily portable.
• They should be according to the mental level of the students.
• They should motivate the learner.

Merits of using Audio-Visual aids

• Helpful in effective perceptual and conceptual learning
• Helpful in capturing and sustaining attention of students
• Arouse interest and motivates students to learn
• Helpful in new learning
• Help in saving energy and time of both the teachers and students
• Provide near realistic experience
• Can meet individual demands
• Are useful in for education of masses
• Concretise experience and reduce verbalism

Limitations in the effective use of audio-visual aids

• Apathy of teachers: Man is rather inertial when it comes to accepting change and teachers are no
different. A vast majority of teachers still prefer to use chalk talk method through which they were
taught. Hence, they are generally change resistant.
• Indifference of students: Judicious use of teaching aids will arouse interest but otherwise it will
enhance boredom and indifference at times.
• Financial problems: The one-time investment in these aids is costly and may not be affordable by all
schools.
• Absence of infrastructure: Some schools lack basic facilities like electricity and projectors.
• Language barriers: Sometimes the software used may be in English and hence not suitable to regional
medium schools.

Classification of Teaching Aids

Teaching Aids can be classified on various bases.
1. Based on the use of two major organs: eyes and ears, teaching aids are classified as:
1) Audio Aids (gaining knowledge only through the sense of hearing
2) Visual Aids (gaining knowledge only through the sense of sight)
3) Audio-Visual Aids (gaining knowledge through both the sense of hearing and seeing.)

Audio Aids Visual Aids Audio-Visual Aids

1. Radio 1. Chalkboard 1. Lecture,
2. Tape Recorder 2. Bulletin Boards Demonstration
3. Linguaphone 3. Charts 2. Films
4. CD’s 4. Drawings 3. Sound Film Strips
5. Microphone 5. Posters/pictures 4. Television
6. Dictaphone 6. Exhibits 5. Computers
7. Head Phone 7. Flash Cards 6. Videotapes
8. Flannel Cards 7. VCD’s & DVD’s
9. Flip Books 8. LCD’s
10. Illustrated Books
11. Album/Scrap Book

2. Based on the mode of projection or non-projection, teaching aids (visual aids) are classified as projected
and non-projected aids respectively.
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 • Projected-Aids: those aids which help in projecting visual on to a screen.
• Non-projected Aids: Visual aids which do not help in their projection on to a screen.
Projected Aids Non-Projected Aids
1. Silent motion pictures 1. Chalk boards, flannel board, magnetic
2. Film strips board, peg board, etc.
3. Magic Lanterns 2. Photographs, posters, maps, charts.
4. Micro-Projections Graphs
5. Slide Projections 3. Models, specimens
6. Opaque and overhead projectors 4. Book, illustrations

3. Teaching Aids are classified on the basis of motion into static aids and dynamic aids.
Static Aids- aids which do not move- visuals which are at rest
Dynamic Aids- aids which are capable of being moved by mechanical principles
Static Aids Dynamic Aids
1. Flash cards 1. Working models
2. Charts 2. Motion pictures
3. Slides 3. Television
4. OHP’s Epidiascope 4. Computers
5. Microscope

4. Teaching Aids are classified on the basis of dimension of objects into Two Dimension Aids (only length
and width are visible) and 3-D Aids (all three dimensions, length, breadth and height are visible).
2 Dimensional Aids 3 D Aids
Charts/graphs/maps Models/globes/objects
Pictographs Mock-ups
Boards of different types Specimens
Puppets

5. The NCERT classifies the teaching aids into six types. They are projected aids, graphic aids, display
aids, 3 dimensional aids, audio aids and activity aids
Projected Non-Projected Aids
Aids
1. Films Graphic Aids Display Boards 3-D Aids Audio Aids Activity Aids
2. Film
Strips
3. Opaque 1. Cartoons 1. Blackboard 1. Models 1. Radio 1.
projects 2. Charts 2. Bulletin 2. Mock ups 2. Demonstratio
4. OHP 3. Comics 3. Flannel board 3. Objects Recordings n
5. Slides 4. Diagrams 4. Magnetic 4. Specimen 3. 2.Dramatics
5. Flash cards board s Television 3.Experiments
6. Graphs 5. Peg board 5. Diagrams 4. Field trips 4.Computer
7. Maps 6. Puppets Assisted
8. Photographs Instruction
9. Pictures 5.Programme
10. Posters d Instruction
6.Teaching
Machines

6. Teaching –aids are classified on the basis of the size of media into two types
Big Media – computer, T.V.,
Little media- Radio, filmstrips, graphics, visuals, CD’s

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7. Teaching-Aids are classified into two on the basis of the number of sense organs used
• Uni-modal Aids: aids in which only one type of sense organ, that is, either eye or ear are used: 1. Audio-
Aids, 2. Visual Aids
• Bi- modal Aids: Aids in which both the sense organs, eye and ear are used: Audio-Visual Aids

Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experiences

Edgar Dale was a famous American educationist. In his book Audio-Visual Methods of Teaching
(1946) he introduced the ‘Cone of Experiences’. Through the ‘Cone of Experiences’, Dale presented
his famous classification of teaching aids from the point of view of the young learners. His
classification is based on the experiences gained by the students from the use of the various teaching
aids. He arranged the learning experiences gained from the teaching aids in the order of increasing
abstractness or decreasing concreteness of experience. For this, he used a pictorial device, ‘the cone’.
He divided the cone into eleven bands. The band at the broad round base of the cone represented the
most concrete experience and the band at the pinnacle of the cone represented the most abstract
experience. The bands were thus arranged in the order of increasing abstractness or decreasing
concreteness.

Dale’s ‘Cone of experiences’ consists of the following eleven bands:

1. Real Direct experience: This forms the base of the cone and represents reality. These experiences have
the least abstractness and maximum concreteness. A learner experiences these by coming in contact with
the actual happenings in a real life. It is the experience gained through direct involvement on the first-
hand basis: handling, tasting, touching, smelling, seeing, and hearing. For example, the best way to know
about a flower is to see, touch and smell a flower. Thus, according to Dale experiences gained by us in
real life through our direct involvement may always be the best means or channels for teaching and
learning. Therefore, teachers should always aim to provide real life practical experiences to the students
by showing real objects or by coming in contact with the realities of the life on their own.
2. Contrived experience: It is not always possible to present a real object/event. In such cases, a contrived
(deliberately created or artificial) experience can be given. This refers to an imitation of reality. For
example, the teacher can use a model / replica of a solar system, or laboratory experiments. These
experiences are carefully planned to give the closest alternative to real experience.
3. Dramatic participation: This classification includes the experiences gained by the students through
their active participation and role playing in dramatic activities. We cannot experience the things of the
past. Through dramatic participation certain real events of the past can be represented so that we can get
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 as close to reality as possible. Experiences gained through such activities may prove effective in the
teaching and learning of many subjects like history, political science, language and literature. E.g.:
through puppet shows, tableaux, role-play, mime, etc. real events can be reconstructed. The experience
is more meaningful when one actively participates in it rather than merely watches it.
4. Demonstration: Here, the students get an experience by observing the teacher’s demonstration of the
working of a water pump, or explanation of functioning of the working models of eyes, lungs, heart, etc.
Here, the students are mere observers. They do not actively involve in the demonstration.
5. Field trips: A field trip is an on-the-spot-study of something. It brings the students face-to-face with
reality. For example, a visit to a dam site, factory or parliament, etc.
6. Exhibits/ Museums: It is not always possible to go to places for experiencing the reality. In such cases,
the teacher can give students useful experiences through the observation and organization of
educationally significant exhibitions. This kind of experience is less concrete or direct when compared
to the experience gained from field trips. For example, an exhibit of the Pyramids of Egypt
7. Motion pictures: Arranging exhibitions may not always be practicable. Therefore, Dale suggests the
use of motion pictures (audio-video device). Motion pictures present an abstract version of the real event.
Television is one step ahead of motion pictures since it can bring the real event live. The motion pictures
are artificial representation of the realities of things, persons, events (past, present and future). But they
can give audio-visual experiences that are alternative to direct first -hand experiences.
8. Still pictures: All types of projective materials such as pictures, posters, slides or film strips come under
this category. These provide only visual experience. These provide abstract artificial representation of
reality (only visual and no movement) in comparison to motion pictures which give both audio-visual
and movement experience.
9. Radio and recordings: They may provide valuable auditory experience to the learners through certain
specially arranged talks and discussions and information broadcast by the radio stations. These can also
be taped or recorded and used afterwards in classroom situations. These provide artificial audio
representation of reality. They fall in higher category of abstract and indirect representation in
comparison to audio-visual or even visual representation of reality.
10. Visual symbols: These include use of visual graphic material like charts, maps, graphs, diagrams,
sketches, cartoons, black board drawings, etc. Visual symbols are free of the use of language. They are
abstract substitutes of reality.
11. Verbal symbols: They provide the most abstract learning experience. Verbal symbols refer to the use
of any language in its written or spoken forms or both. They come under this category of most
abstraction. The spoken words are more abstract than the written words. The lecture or chalk and talk
method comes under this category.

Conclusion
• ‘The Cone of Experiences’ is a visual aid to explain the interrelationships of the various types of
audio-visual aids as well as their individual position in the learning process.
• Dale arranged the learning experiences gained from the use of audio-visual aids from the point of view
of the young learners in the order of increasing abstractness or decreasing concreteness (starting from
the base of the cone).
• It is a ‘pictorial device’ for showing the progression of learning experiences from direct first-hand
participation to purely abstract, symbolic expression.
• He gave a solid psychological base for the use of methods, materials and equipment related to hardware
and software technologies. The ‘Cone of Experiences’ is based on the maxim of teaching; when we
teach we should proceed from concrete experiences to abstract experiences.
• The Dale’s Cone of Experience describes the ways in which both direct and indirect experiences can
be acquired.
• At the lower levels of the cone there is more of student participation and active involvement of students
in the learning process.
• The higher levels compress information and provide more data and at a faster rate for those who are
able to process it.
• There is lesser learner involvement as we go higher the cone.
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 • The upper levels of cone need more instructional support than the lower levels.
• As we go up the cone, abstractness increases and is the highest at the pinnacle. i.e. verbal symbols
• As we go down the cone, concreteness increases and is at the maximum at the base.
Criticism against the ‘Cone of Experiences’
• The various bands are not perfect. E.g. Field trips are sometimes sources of experiences nearly equal
to direct experiences. But, it has been placed at a higher band.
➢ Edgar Dale answers this by saying that the bands are not rigid or inflexible. That is, the experiences
gained from one kind of teaching aids is not strictly compartmentalised.
➢ Again, Dale does not argue that the concrete experiences are better than the abstract. It depends on the
situation and needs of the learners (age, interests, learning styles, etc.)
➢ The ‘Cone of experiences is the oldest classification of teaching aids. However, it is significant because
it gives a psychological base for the use of teaching aids.
Implications of the ‘Cone of Experiences’
• Teachers should know about the kind of experiences that the use of each teaching aid provides.
• They should look at teaching aids from the learner’s point of view.
• Teacher should use the appropriate teaching aid – suited to the age and needs of the learners.
• Knowledge of the psychology of the learners is essential for using teaching aids effectively.
• ‘The cone’ gives the teacher an idea of the different teaching aids that can be used for teaching.

Bibliography
Mangal, S.K. & Mangal, U. (2012). Essentials of Educational Technology. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
Aggarwal, J.C. (1996). Essentials of Educational Technology: Teaching Leaning Innovations in Education. New Delhi: Vikash Publishing House
Pt. Ltd.
https://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com/2015/01/22/approaches-to-educational-technology/

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