Concrete:

Flexural strength =0.7*sqrt (fck) N/mm2 fck= compressive strength of concrete(N/mm2)

Allowable characteristic(Flexural) strength= 0.3N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity(Ec)= 5000*sqrt(fck) N/mm2
Shrinkage strain= 0.0003
Compacting factor=0.75 to 0.8
Dead Loads =IS875 (part1)
Imposed (Live) Loads = IS875 (part2)
Wind Loads = IS875 (part2)
Snow Loads = IS875 (part2)
Earthquake load= IS 1893 :2002/2016
Shrinkage, creep and temperature effects = IS875 (part5) (ignore for low rise dwellings
length <45m)
Load combination = IS875 (part5)

Beam
Span to depth ratio for span up to 10m
Cantilever=7
Simply supported=20
Continuous=26 cl 23.2.1
Development length of a bar= cl 26.2.1
Design bond strength for plane bars= cl 26.2.1.1
Bars bonded in contact = cl 26.2.1.2
Lap splices = cl 26.2.5.1
Nominal (Clear ) Cover =
Column=40
Footing =50
Reinforcement requirement = cl 26.5

Stress-Strain Curve for concrete:

Stress strain curve of concrete is a graphical representation of concrete behavior under load. It is produced
by plotting concrete compress strain at various interval of concrete compressive loading (stress). Concrete
is mostly used in compression that is why its compressive stress strain curve is of major interest. The
stress and strain of concrete is obtained by testing concrete cylinder specimen at age of 28days, using
compressive test machine. The stress strain curve of concrete allows designers and engineers to anticipate
the behavior of concrete used in building constructions. Finally, the performance of concrete structure is
controlled by the stress strain curve relationship and the type of stress to which the concrete is subjected
in the structure. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 shows strain stress curve for normal weigh and lightweight concrete,
respectively. There is a set of curves on each figure which represents the strength of the concrete. So,
higher curves show higher concrete strength. Fig. 3 shows how the shape of concrete stress strain curve
changes based on the speed of loading. Despite the fact that, speed of testing and concrete density
influences the shape of the stress-strain curve, but it can be noticed that, all curves show nearly the same
character. i.e. they undergo the same stages under loading. Various portions of concrete stress stain curve
are discussed below:
Stress-Strain Curve for steel:

When steel is curved, it is important to keep the stress-strain curve ratio for mild steel in mind.
Below is a stress-strain graph that reviews the properties of steel in detail.

If tensile force is applied to a steel bar, it will have some elongation. If the force is small enough,
the ratio of the stress and strain will remain proportional. This can be seen in the graph as a
straight line between zero and point A – also called the limit of proportionality. If the force is
greater, the material will experience elastic deformation, but the ratio of stress and strain will not
be proportional. This is between points A and B, known as the elastic limit.
Beyond the elastic limit, the mild steel will experience plastic deformation. This starts the yield
point – or the rolling point – which is point B, or the upper yield point. As seen in the graph,
from this point on the correlation between the stress and strain is no longer on a straight
trajectory. It curves from point C (lower yield point), to D (maximum ultimate stress), ending at
E (fracture stress).
Mandatory rule of thumb

What is a Pre-Engineered Building?

A pre-engineered building is one which uses the sizes and detailing of structural and non-
structural elements, including the amounts of reinforcement, which have been pre-established
using standard design procedures for a given condition. All buildings constructed by following
the requirements of this MRT (Mandatory rule of thumb) could, in future, be called pre-
engineered buildings.

Restrictions on the Structural Layout

For a structure to be built to the requirements of the MRT, it shall comply with the restrictions
below.
 Neither A nor B shall exceed 6 bays in length nor 25 meters. Each bay shall not exceed 4.5 m
 A shall be not greater than 3 B nor less than B/3.
 Neither H/A nor H/B shall exceed 3.
 The area of a slab panel shall not be more than 13.5 square meters.
 The maximum height of a structure is 11 m or 3 storeys, whichever is less. Within an 11 m
height, there may be an additional storey of smaller plan area. The area of this shall not exceed
25 % of the area of a typical floor. If this limit is exceeded, it shall be considered as an additional
storey and not permitted.
 The length of wings on the structure shall be restricted such that K1 and K2 shall be less than the
lesser of 0.25 A or 0.25 B. The plan shape of the building excluding wings shall be rectangular.
 All walls and columns resisting lateral load shall be vertical and shall continue on the same
centerline down to foundation level. The top storey may, however, be smaller or have a
different geometry.
 All infill walls resisting lateral load shall be constructed from the same grade of masonry and
shall have the same quality of plaster finish.
 Only infill wall panels with openings having a total area less than 10 % of the gross panel area
shall be considered as resisting seismic loads. Such openings shall be located outside the middle
two-thirds of the panel and the restricted zone.
 In no case shall the opening be more than 10 % of the gross panel area and be in the restricted
zone.
 No walls except a parapet wall shall be built on a cantilevered slab. Such walls shall be
constructed only if the cantilevered slab is framed with beams.
 At each particular level in the direction under consideration, the wall thickness must be such
that :
Σ tei > 125 Σ (Ii / Hi3) (4-1)
where :
tei is the effective wall thickness including plaster stiffness at
level i given by
tei = ti (1 + tpi Ep /(ti Eb))
Portable water:
“Potable water” simply means water that is safe to drink, and it is becoming scarcer in the
world. Increasing use is stressing freshwater resources worldwide, and a seemingly endless list
of contaminants can turn once potable water into a health hazard or simply make it
unacceptable aesthetically. It is suitable for public water supply.
Wholesome Water:
Wholesome water is that water which is not chemically pure, but does not contain anything
which can be harmful to human health. It is fit to use for drinking, cooking, food preparation or
washing without any potential danger to human health.
Polluted water:
The water that contains excessive impurities such as minerals, salt, gases, etc is called polluted
water. It should not be used for any purpose without purification.
Contaminated water:
The water that contains microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, worms, etc is called
contaminated water. They may look clear but they are not potable. Contamination introduced at
the land surface may infiltrate to the water table and flow through the point of discharge either
the lake, stream or well. Even if the water may look clean or tasteless it may have bacteria, algae,
fungi, arsenic lead etc. which may harm our health. So proper treatment must be done before
using the water.

How can we clean the Ground Water?

1. Bioremediation:
It is the way of treating the water in the aquifer. Microorganisms are bioengineered to eat the
pollutant.
2. Chemical remediation:
It can also treat water in the aquifer. A chemical is pumped into the aquifer. The chemical
destroys the contaminant.
3. Eliminate the pollution source:
An underground tank must be pumped dry and then the dug out from the ground. A factory
must be required to stop releasing toxic chemicals.
4. Extraction of plunge:
Holes are drilled to the underground spaces to extract out the plunge floating if possible.
5. Afforestation: Trees acts as a natural filter to clean the ground water.
Components of water supply system:
Intake:
It is the device or structure constructed at the water source for the purpose of drawing water
from the source and conveying to the other components of the water supply system.
Pump:
It is the device to lift the water from the source. It is required when the consumer area is at the
higher elevation than the source. It should be avoided as far as possible to minimize the cost.
Transmission main:
It is a pipe laid to convey water from source to the reservoir.
It is designed for the flow equivalent to the maximum daily demand. The transmission mains
and all other components located in it are designed for the average flow as daily peak factor is
considered to be one in Nepal.
Collection chamber:
It is provided either at the intake or nearer the intake site to collect the water from one of the
more sources. It breaks the incoming water pressure into atmospheric pressure which prevents
the backflow of water from one source to another.
Distribution Chamber:
It is a tank provided at the junction of the pipeline. It is provided when water has to convey in
more than one direction at atmospheric pressure. It breaks the incoming water pressure into
atmospheric pressure.
Interruption Chamber:
It is a tank present in the transmission mains to break the accessive internal water pressure built
in the pipeline.
Reservoir:
It is a tank or a basin which is used to store water.
1. Clear water Reservoir:
Stores water after treatments has been done and is used for water supply purposes.
2. Service water reservoir:
Store water that is used for firefighting purposes.
Water Treatment System:
Several processes like screening, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection, aeration, softening
are to be done before public supply.
 Distribution system:
It is the network of pipeline that conveys the water from the service reservoir to the
consumer. It is designed for maximum or peak flow.
Classification of pipelines:
 Main
 Sub-main
 Branches, and
 Laterals

Sources of Water:
There are two main sources of water: surface water and groundwater. Surface Water is found
in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. Groundwater lies under the surface of the land, where it travels
through and fills openings in the rocks. The rocks that store and transmit groundwater are called
aquifers.