CHAPTER THREE

ENERGY & FIRST LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS

BY HANAN E.
 Learning Objectives

1. Introduce the concept of energy and define its various

forms.
2. Discuss the nature of internal energy.
3. Define the concept of heat and the terminology
associated with energy transfer by heat.
4. Define the concept of work, including electrical work
and several forms of mechanical work.
5. Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy
balances, and mechanisms of energy transfer to or from
a system.
6. First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed System
7. First Law of Thermodynamics for Open
System/Control Volume
 3-1 Introduction
Motivation
• energy cannot be created nor destroyed
• How do we use this principle to understand how real systems
behave?
Simple Example
▪ Consider a refrigerator
operating with its door open
in a closed, well-insulated
room that is plugged into the
wall outlet.
▪What will happen to the
temperature of the air in
the room over time?
Increase, decrease, or
3 remain the same?
 3-1 Introduction

▪If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator—
as the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since the room is
well-sealed and well-insulated, the only energy interaction involved is
the electrical energy crossing the system boundary and entering the
room
▪ The conservation of energy requires the energy content of the room
to increase by an amount equal to the amount of the electrical energy
drawn by the refrigerator, which can be measured by an ordinary
electric meter.
▪Now if asked to name the energy transformations associated with the
operation of a refrigerator, we may still have a hard time answering
because all we see is electrical energy entering the refrigerator and
heat dissipated from the refrigerator to the room air. Obviously there
is need to study the various forms of energy first.
4
 3-2 Forms of Energy
Energy: can be viewed as the ability to cause changes
Energy can exist in varies forms such as; thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear.

Total Energy: the sum of all forms of energy

Notation
• The total energy of a system is denoted as E
• The total energy on a unit mass basis is denoted as e,
E
e=
m
Energy Differences are Important
• Thermodynamics does not provide a means to evaluate the
absolute value of the total energy
• In common engineering problems, we only need to know the
change in the energy of a system during a process, DE
• Eat reference point=0 (The change in total energy of a system is
independent of the reference point)
 3-2 Forms of Energy
Two forms of Total Energy:
1. Macroscopic
• Those forms of energy that a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame
e.g., kinetic, potential, and electromagnetic energies
2. Microscopic
• Those forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of molecular activity
• They are independent of outside reference frames
Internal Energy
• Sum of all forms of microscopic energy
• Denoted, U
 3-2 Forms of Energy
Internal Energy Portions;

Sensible energy:
• The portion of the internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules

Latent energy:
• The internal energy associated with the phase of a
system

Chemical energy:
• The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds
in a molecule
Nuclear energy:
• The tremendous amount of energy associated with the
strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself
 3-2 Forms of Energy
The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion & external
effects; such as gravity, magnetism, electricity and surface tension.
Kinetic Energy
• The energy a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to
some reference frame 1
KE = mV 2
Potential Energy 2
• The energy a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field
PE = mgz
Total Energy
• In the absence of magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects, the
total energy can be expressed as,
1
E = U + KE + PE = U + mV 2 + mgz
2
 3-2 Forms of Energy
Stationary Systems
• Closed systems whose velocity and elevation remain constant
during a process
• The kinetic or potential energies of these systems never change
• As a result, the total energy change can be expressed as
DE = DU
Flowing fluids
• The energy of a flowing fluid (for open system) is often expressed
in terms of an energy flow rate (energy per unit time), E kJ/s or kw

E = me
Where m is the mass flow rate of the fluid (mass per unit time)
 3-3 Energy Transfer by heat
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed
system in two forms: heat and work

1. Heat Transfer
• The form of energy that is transferred between
two systems (or a system and its surroundings)
by virtue of a temperature difference
• An energy interaction is heat only if it takes
place because of a temperature difference, i.e.,
no heat transfer can take place between two
bodies at the same temperature
• Heat is energy in transition – it is recognized
only as is crosses the boundary of a system
 3-3 Energy Transfer by heat
Notation associated with Heat
• Heat is a form of energy transfer, and thus has energy units; kJ
• The amount of heat transferred between two systems during a
process that moves one system from state 1 to state 2 is denoted
Q12, or just Q
• Heat transfer per unit mass is denoted q = Q / m
• Heat transfer rate(per unit time) is denoted Q = Q (t )
• The amount of heat transferred during a process is given by
Q =  Q ( t )dt
t2

t1
• When Q remains constant during process

Q = Q (t 2 − t 1)
 3-3 Energy Transfer by heat
Adiabatic Process
• A process during which there is no heat transfer

How is a process adiabatic?

1. The system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of
heat can pass through the boundary
2. Both the system and the surrounding are at the same temperature
and therefore there is no driving force for heat transfer

500C
500C
 3-4 Energy Transfer by work
2. Energy transfer by Work
• The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance
• If the energy crossing the boundary of a system is not heat … it must
be work
• Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its
surroundings example a rising piston, a rotating shaft

Notation associated with Work

• Work is a form of energy transfer, and thus has energy units; kJ
• The work done during a process between state 1 to state 2 is denoted
W12, or simply W
• The work done per unit mass is denoted w=W/m (KJ/Kg)
• The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted W (KJ/s
or KW)
 3-4 Energy Transfer by work
Direction of Heat and Work
• Heat and work are directional quantities;
• Hence, a complete description of a heat or work interaction requires
the specification of both its magnitude and direction

Formal Sign Convention

• Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive
• Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative

Negative (–) Positive (+)

Qout Qin

Win
System
Wout
 3-4 Energy Transfer by work
Alternative Sign Convention
• Use the subscripts in and out to
indicate a direction;
E.g., work input = Win,
heat loss = Qout

Relationship Between Sign Conventions

• W = Wout – Win
• Q = Qin – Qout
 3-4 Energy Transfer by work
Characteristics of Heat and Work
• A quantity that is transferred to or from a system during a process is
NOT a property since the amount of such a quantity depends on more
than just the state of the system
• Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and
its surroundings
Similarities Between Heat and Work
1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the
boundaries, i.e., both heat and work are boundary phenomena
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state
4. Both heat and work are path functions, i.e., their magnitudes depend
on the path followed during a process as well as the initial and final
states
 3-4 Energy Transfer by Work
Types of Functions
Path Functions
1. Their magnitude depends on
the path followed during a
process as well as the initial
and final states
2. Have Inexact differentials,
designated by the symbol d
3. E.g., heat, work, distance
Point (State) Functions
1. They depend on the state only,
and not how a system reaches
that state
2. Exact differentials, designated
by the symbol d
3. E.g., volume, pressure,
internal energy, displacement
 3-4 Energy Transfer by Work
Example of Path vs. Point Function
• The volume change during a process 1 → 2 is always the volume at
state 2 minus the volume at state 1, i.e., DV = V2 – V1, regardless of
the path followed
• In contrast, the total work is obtained by following the process path
and adding the differential amounts of work, dW, done along the
process path
2
1
dV = V2 − V1 = DV

2
 1
d W = W12 = W
• Note that the expression DW = W2 – W1 (i.e., the work at state 2
minus the work at state 1) is meaningless since work is NOT a
property and systems do not possess work.
 3-4 Energy Transfer by Work
Examples
1. A candle is burning in a well insulated room.
Take the room (the air plus the candle) as the
system, determine:
(a) if there is any heat transfer during this
burning process?
Q=0
(b) if there is any change in the internal
energy of the system?
DU=0

2. A well-insulated electric oven is being heated

by its heating element. It is to be determined
whether this is a heat or work interaction.
it is caused by electrons crossing the system
boundary and thus doing work. Therefore,
this is a work interaction.
 3-5 Mechanical Forms of Work
Mechanical Work
• The work done by a constant force F on a body displaced a distance
s in the direction of the force is given by,
W = Fs

• If the force is not constant,

2
W =  Fds
1
• The work done by an external force acting in the direction of motion
is negative
• The work done by a system against an external force acting in the
opposite direction to motion is positive
Requirements for a Work Interaction Between a System and its
Surroundings
1. There must be a force acting on the boundary
2. The boundary must move
 3-5 Mechanical Forms of Work
Spring Work
• When the length of a spring changes by a differential amount dx
under the influence of a force F, the work done is,

dWspring = Fdx

• To determine the total work, we need to know the functional

relationship between F and x
• For a linear elastic spring, the displacement x is proportional to the
force F,

F = kx
k → spring constant
• The total work done for a linear elastic spring is then,

Wspring =  kxdx = 12 k ( x22 − x12 )

2

1
 3-5 Non-mechanical Forms of Work
Non-mechanical Work
• Some work modes encountered in practice are not mechanical in
nature
• non-mechanical work modes can be treated in a similar manner by
identifying a generalized force F acting in the direction of a
generalized displacement x
• The differential work is determined from

dW = Fdx
Examples

Nonmechanical Generalized Generalized

Work Mode Force Displacement
Electical Voltage Electrical charge
Magnetic Magnetic field Magnetic dipole
strength moment
 3-5 Non-mechanical Forms of Work
Electrical Work
• In an electric field, electrons in a wire move under the effect of
electromotive forces, doing work
We = VN

We = VI (W)
• Both V and I vary with time
2
Electrical power in terms of resistance R
𝑊𝑒 = න 𝑉𝐼𝑑𝑡
1
• When both V and I are constant: 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼Δ𝑡 kJ
We → electrical work
We → electrical power
V → voltage
N → quantity of electric charge
I → current
 3-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law provides a basis for studying the relationships among
the various forms of energy and energy interactions
• It is based on the conservation of energy principle: energy can be
neither created nor destroyed, it can only change form
• A consequence of the first law is the existence and the definition of
the property total energy E

Energy Balance
• The net change (increase or decrease)
in the total energy of a system during
a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and
the total energy leaving the system
during that process
 3-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Balance (cont.)

Ein − Eout = DEsystem

• This relation is referred to as the

energy balance

• The relationship is valid for any

system undergoing any process
 3-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Change of a System
• The energy change is the difference in total energy between the final
and initial state of the system

DEsystem = Efinal − Einitial = E 2 − E1

• Energy is a property, and the value of a property does not change
unless the state of the system changes
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as internal (sensible, latent,
chemical, and nuclear), kinetic, potential, electric, and magnetic, and
their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system
• In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension effects (i.e.,
for simple compressible systems), the change in total energy of a
system during a process is the sum of the changes in its internal,
kinetic, and potential energies
 3-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Change of a System (cont.)

DE = DU + DKE + DPE

DU = m ( u2 − u1 )

DKE = m (V2 − V1 )
1 2 2

2
DPE = mg ( z2 − z1 )
Stationary Systems
• Systems in which changes in kinetic and potential energies are zero
(DKE = DPE = 0) and therefore the energy change relation reduces to
DE = DU
 3-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
• Energy can be transferred to a system in three forms:
✓ heat (Q)
✓ work (W)
✓ mass flow (Emass)
• Energy interactions are recognized at the boundary
• Taking the three forms of energy transfer into account, the energy
balance can be written as
Ein − Eout = (Qin − Qout ) + (Win − Wout ) + (E mass, in − E mass, out ) = DEsystem
• Or, more compactly as

Ein − Eout = DEsystem

Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic,

by heat, work, and mass potential, etc. energies
 3-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout (cont.)
• In the rate form
E in − E out = DE system

Rate of net energy Rate of change in

transfer by heat, internal, kinetic,
work, and mass potential, etc. energies

• Per mass ein − eout = Desystem

• Per unit time

• Differential form dEin − dEout = dEsystem

 Example-1
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a
paddle wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ.
During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the
paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final
internal energy of the fluid. Neglect the energy stored in the paddle
wheel.
 Example-1
Assumptions
1) The tank is stationary and thus the kinetic and potential
energy changes are zero, KE=0 PE=0. Therefore, E and U and internal
energy is the only form of the system’s energy that may change during
this process.
2) Energy stored in the paddle wheel is negligible.
 Example-2
Water is being heated in a closed pan on top of a range while being
stirred by a paddle wheel. During the process, 30 kJ of heat is
transferred to the water, and 5 kJ of heat is lost to the surrounding
air. The paddle-wheel work amounts to 500 N ·m(0.5kJ) . Determine
the final energy of the system if its initial energy is 10 kJ.
Example-1
 3-7 First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems
Moving Boundary Work
• Form of mechanical work, associated with the
expansion or compression work.

• Consider compression or expansion of gas in a

piston cylinder device where the inner face of
the piston (part of system boundary) moves
back and forth, thus, is called moving
boundary work

• Simply known as Boundary or PdV work

• Commonly encountered in automobile engines,

compressors, e.t.c.
 3-7 Moving boundary work
For real engines(compressors):-
• The process is very fast consequently, the process path can not
be specified
• Work, being a path function, cannot be determined analytically
without a knowledge of the path
• Thus, the boundary work can not be predicted exactly from
thermodynamics alone.
• It can be determined by direct measurement.
 3-7 Moving boundary work
• For quasie-equilibrium process, a process
during which the system remains nearly in
equilibrium at all times,

• If the piston allowed to move a distance ds,

the differential work done at initial pressure
of gas P, total volume V and cross-sectional
area of A; the boundary work is:-

• The Total Boundary Work during the entire

process is:-
 3-7 Moving boundary work
+ Ve during expansion process , sine ∆V is +Ve
• The B.W.
- Ve during compression process, since ∆V is - Ve
• P is the absolute pressure, which is always positive
• If, P = f(V) , which is the equation of the process path on a P-V
diagram, is known, can be obtained from the integral

• the area under the process curve on

a P-V diagram is equal, in
magnitude, to the work done during
a quasi-equilibrium expansion or
compression process of a closed
system .
 3-7 Moving boundary work

• Since work is a path function,

different paths followed by the
system b/n two states associates
with different work
• E.g., Car engines, power plants

• A cyclic process will have a net

work out put
– Area under A: work done by the
system (Expansion)
– Area under B: work done by the
system (Compression)
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝑨 − 𝑾𝑩
 3-7 Moving boundary work
Polytropic Process
• A process by which P and V of a gas during
compression and expansion processes for
actual processes are related by:-
𝒏 −𝒏
𝑪
𝑷𝑽 = 𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑷 = 𝑪𝑽 = 𝒏
𝑽
*n is the polytropic index, and C is a constant
a) If n=0? b) if n =1? c) for an ideal gas?
• And the vales of C? for each…?

• For Polytropic process 𝑾𝒃 will be:-

 3-7 Moving boundary work
EXAMPLES
1. A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150°C. As a result of
heat transfer to the surroundings, the temperature and pressure
inside the tank drop to 65°C and 400 kPa, respectively.
Determine the boundary work done during this process.
 3-7 Moving boundary work
EXAMPLES
2. A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100
kPa and 80°C. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way
that the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant.
Determine the work done during this process.

Tablel A-1

𝑇𝑐𝑟 = 132.5𝐾
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 3.77𝑀𝑃𝑎
3-7 Moving boundary work
 3-8 Energy Balance for Closed System
• Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of
process:-

• In rate from

• Per unit mass basis

• In differential form
 3-8 Energy Balance for Closed System
• For a closed system undergoing a cycle:-

• Thus the energy balance becomes

• The energy added to be net heat transfer to the closed system and
the energy leaving the closed system to be net work done by the
closed system.
• The general energy balance equation considering the sign
convention ( the first law of thermodynamics) will be:-
 3-9 Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Enthalpy (H):
• It is a property and defined as the sum of the internal energy U and
the pressure-volume product, PV.

i.e., 𝐇 = 𝐔 + 𝐏𝐕
• The enthalpy divided by the mass, m; is the specific enthalpy:

𝟏
(𝐇 = 𝐔 + 𝐏𝐕)
𝐦

𝒉 = 𝒖 + 𝑷𝒗
 3-9 Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Specific heats:
• Property that enables us to compare the
energy storage capabilities of various
substances.
• It is the energy required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of a substance by
one degree

• This energy depends on how the processes is

executed

• If the process is executed as the volume is

maintained constant , it will be specific heat
at constant volume; 𝐶𝑣

• If the process is executed as the pressure is

maintained constant , it will be specific heat
at constant pressure; 𝐶𝑝
 3-9 Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Specific heats:
1. At constant pressure, P=constant: for example piston cylinder
device
𝟏 δQ
𝑪𝑷 =
𝒎 𝒅𝑻 𝑷
From first law of thermodynamics:
dU= δQ - δW
dU= δQ - PdV
δQ = dU+PdV dH = dU+PdV δQ = dH
Substitute to the above equation:
d𝒉
𝑪𝑷 =
𝒅𝑻 𝑷
 3-9 Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Specific heats:
2. At constant volume, V =constant: for example a rigid tank adding
heat to a substance, measure the temperature at one degree
𝟏 δQ
𝑪𝑽 =
𝒎 𝒅𝑻 𝑽
From first law of thermodynamics:
dU= δQ - δW but δW = 0, because δW = PdV = 0
dU= δQ
Substitute to the above equation:

d𝒖
𝑪𝑽 =
𝒅𝑻 𝑽
??? For ideal gas and the relationship between 𝑪𝑽 and 𝑪𝒑
??? For solids and liquids
 3-9 Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific heats
Some points about 𝐶𝑉 and 𝐶𝑃

• Since 𝑪𝑽 and 𝑪𝑷 are expressed in terms of other properties, they

must also be properties themselves.

• Hence they are property relations and thus are independent of the
type of processes

• 𝑪𝑽 is a measure of the variation of internal energy of a substance

with temperature, and 𝑪𝑷 is a measure of the variation of enthalpy
of a substance with temperature
• 𝐶𝑃 >𝐶𝑉 : why?
• Because, some of the heat will spent to move the piston,. But for
rigid tank the heat is added only to the substance.
 Energy Balance for Closed System
EXAMPLE
• A piston–cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that
is maintained at a constant pressure of 300 kPa. A resistance heater
within the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5
min from a 120-V source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ
occurs. (a) Show that for a closed system the boundary work Wb and
the change in internal energy U in the first-law relation can be
combined into one term, H, for a constant pressure process. (b)
Determine the final temperature of the steam.
Energy Balance for Closed System
Energy Balance for Closed System