Main Jjsms Vol.2 No.1

Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page i-v
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EDITORIL BOARD MEMBERS

Editor-In-Chief: Prof. Emeka D. Oruonye, Department of Geography,
Taraba State University, Jalingo.
Editor: Dr Chiakaan G. Jacob, Department of Mass

Communication, Taraba State University, Jalingo.
Deputy Editor: Dr Jev Amos Asongo, Department of Public

Administration, Taraba State University, Jalingo.
Associate Editors: Professor Abel A. Adebayo, Department of Geography,

Taraba State University, Jalingo
Prof. Joseph S. Rishante, Department of Mass

Communication, Taraba State University, Jalingo.
Dr. Akombo I. Elijah, Department of History, Taraba State

University, Jalingo
Secretary: Prof. Patrick Oromareghake Oroborome, Department of

Political Science, Taraba State University, Jalingo
Assistant Secretary: Gabriel Iornumbe Yina, Department of Political Science,

Taraba State University, Jalingo
Editorial Advisory Board
i. Prof Abdulsalam Jibril Dept of Business Administration, Adamawa State

University, Mubi
ii. Prof Sam Tende Dept of Mass Communication, Nasarawa State University,
Keffi
iii. Prof Mrs Madueme, I.S. Dept of Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
iv. Prof Umaru Pate Dept of Mass Communication, Bayero University, Kano
v. Prof Ada Okau Dept of Sociology, Kogi State University, Anyigba
vi. Prof Abbas Bashir Dept of Geography, Modibbo Adama University of
Technology, Yola
vii. Prof John Sambe Dept of Mass Communication, Veritas University, Abuja
viii. Prof David Irefin Dept of Economics Federal University, Lokoja
ix. Prof Terkura Tarnande Dept of Political Science, Benue State University, Makurdi
x. Prof Ayuba Haruna Kuje Dept of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi
xi. Prof. Vitalis Torwell Dept of Mass Communication, Benue State University,
Makurdi
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EDITORIAL NOTE
The Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences (ISSN 2659-0131) is a bi-annual
peer-review publication of the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Taraba State
University, Jalingo.
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iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General 1-12

Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria. Atando D. Agbu PhD, Isa Mohammed
and Mbave J. Garba
2. Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika 13-31
and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria. Prof.
Mohammed Isa Bazza, Adole Raphael Audu, PhD and Fatima Inuwa
Usman, PhD
3. The Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in 32-54
Nigeria, 1986-2017. Yahaya, Salihu Emeje Ph.D and Apeh, Ajene
Sunday Ph.D
4. Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in 55-73
Nigeria Amos Asonge Jev, Ph.D and Hamisu Hamzat Yakubu
5. Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A 74-85
Pragmatic Approach. Isa Mohammed
6. Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: the Need for Rehabilitation 86-100
to Cope With Life After Insurgency in Yobe State.
Adamu Saleh Usman, Ali Umaru and Idriss Usman
7. Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of 101-119
Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria Nwosu
Chinedu Everest Ph.D
8. The influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on 120-135
Access to Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State
Nigeria. Abigail Embwa Moses, PhD, Yakubu Danladi Fwa and John
Moses Maikomo PhD
9. External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy For CAATs Usage: A Study Of 136-148
The Effect Of Gender Barnabas Onyejiaka Agochukwu, PhD.
10. Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology 149-159
and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development. Adegbola Adetayo
Jacob, Obarein Obozokhai, Akor Sunday, Oriowo Praise, Lijoka Kehinde
Osemawe
11. Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers 160-168
in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria. Alhaji Mukhtar, Prof. M.A
Iliya, Dankani, I.M. Ph.D and Prof. Yakubu, A.A.
12. Land Resources Management and Sustainable Agricultural land use 169-184
Around Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria.
Abubakar Bashir, Dasin, M.S., Joel Mari Bwala and Esther Ibrahim
iv
13. Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of 185-199
Internal Revenue, Nigeria Babayo Jamilu and Suleiman Shatima
14. Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic 200-221
Paulina Ada Akpa, PhD and Sunday Igah
15. Attitudinal Change: Overcoming Lethargy in the Nigerian Civil Service 222-230
Buetna’an M. Bassi
16. The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic 231-244
Development of Taraba State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National
Park Akombo Elijah, I., Joseph John & Evelyn A. Nwagu
v
Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria.
Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General

Elections in Taraba State, Nigeria.
1
Atando D. Agbu PhD, 2Isa Mohammed and 3Mbave J. Garba
1Department of History & Diplomatic Studies, Taraba State University, Jalingo.

2Department of Political Science & International Relations, Taraba State University, Jalingo.
3Department of Sociology, Taraba State University, Jalingo.
Email: atandodauda@gmail.com
Abstract
Political campaigns are synonymous with political and electoral violence in Nigeria and
Taraba State in particular. The 2019 general elections came with a character of its own in
the context of prevailing political dynamics and the security atmosphere exacerbated by
kidnappings, farmers/herders conflicts, rising youth restiveness and political thuggery in
the State. This paper examines the links between political campaigns and electoral
violence. The paper further argues that political parties lack ideologies and manifestoes
which make candidates to base their campaigns on primordial sentiments of region,
religion and ethnicity as core campaign factors rather than issue-based approach. Lack of
ideologies and manifestoes are identified as being responsible for electoral violence or the
use of political thugs, ethnic militia, INEC officials and manipulation of security agencies
by the political gladiators during political campaigns and elections to capture power. The
methodology adopted in gathering data was survey while data analysis was qualitative.
Both primary and secondary sources of data were used. Findings reveal that most cases of
political violence emanate from the electoral process, particularly political campaigns.
The problem was more pronounced in the 2019 election in Taraba State. The study reveals
that the major causes of the phenomenon include ethno-religious and regional issues
exacerbated by voter illiteracy, unhealthy campaign slogans and utterances, intimidation,
among others. The paper therefore recommends that for electoral violence to be eschewed
in our politics, political parties must be ideological and articulated in their manifestoes,
campaigns of issue-based, respect for the provision on campaigns as contained in the
Electoral Act 2010, punishment of electoral offenders and banning of political thuggery
in the electoral process.
Keywords: Democracy, Election, Political campaigns, Political violence, Taraba State.
Introduction
Nigeria as a country has been experiencing electoral/political violence since
independence, which has serious consequences on the lives and property of the people and
threat to democracy. For instance, the electoral/political violence of 1964 and 1965 in the
country contributed to the military takeover of Nigeria’s nascent democracy in 1966
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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page 1-12
(Anifowase, 1983; Osaghae, 1998; Human Right Watch, 2007). Similarly, in 1983, the
Shagari led government organized a general election, which was characterized by massive
rigging and violence in many parts of the country, leading to another military takeover on
31st December, 1983 (Obakhedo, 2011). In a similar vein, in June 1993, President Ibrahim
Babangida annulled what was considered the most credible election in Nigeria’s history
and the consequence was the June 12, 1993 post–election violence that brought about the
emergence of the Interim National Government (ING) led by Chief Ernest Shonekan in
1993 which lasted a few months (Ukase, 2011).
Nigeria’s political and electoral experiences since 1999 up to the most recent general
elections in 2019 have remained sad memories of political violence. In fact, violence has
saturated the political atmosphere in the country. For instance, the 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011
and 2015 elections were marred by widespread fraud and unprecedented political
violence. The election violence in 2007, 2011 and 2015 led to severe damage to the
political atmosphere in Nigeria, including loss of lives and property worth billions of Naira
(Abah and Nwokwu, 2015).
Even though elections are supposed to be the legitimate way of transferring political
power from one democratic regime to another through the ballot box, the reverse has
remained the case in Nigeria (Ugoh, 2004). Electoral violence has featured in all elections
conducted in Nigeria since independence. Hence, issues surrounding the electioneering
campaigns potentially relate to violence, and violation of the rights of individuals. Thus,
rather than serve as a means and a process of exercising legitimate political rights,
elections in Nigeria have, since independence, turned out to be a serious political liability,
causing serious political turmoil and threatening the survival of corporate existence in
Nigeria (Abah and Nwokwu, 2015).
In the light of the foregoing, whenever elections draw near in Nigeria, there are usually
palpable fears engulfing the well-meaning citizens of the country over the serious dangers
that may trail the process. This is because elections are always characterized by cases of
high incidences of political thuggery and uncontrollable violence always resulting in
wanton destruction of lives and property. According to Sesan (2012), cited in Kalu and
Gberevbie (2013), electoral violence has really discouraged citizens’ participation in the
political process in many states in Nigeria, and this development portends serious danger
to Nigeria’s democracy because without sufficient turnout, elections would not reflect the
people’s preference. It is against this background that it becomes imperative for this paper
to isolate Taraba State and evaluate the causes, impacts and issues of political campaigns
and political violence in the State.
Conceptual Clarifications
Some key concepts are used in this paper prominent among which are Democracy,
Election, Political Campaign and Political/electoral Violence. These concepts are
explained in accordance with how they are used in this paper.
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The Concept of Democracy

There is no universally accepted definition of democracy. Various scholars have different
definitions and interpretations on the conceptualization of democracy. The term
democracy is derived from two Greek words: “demos” meaning ‘people’ and “Kratos”
which means ‘rule of’ (Falade, 2014). Put together, democracy is the rule of the people.
In his classic definition of democracy, Lincoln (1868) defines the concept as “the
government of the people by the people and for the people”. That is to say, people are
central in any democratic process. Without giving people the power to decide who become
their political leaders, as well as hold their political leaders responsible, democracy would
be a mirage.
According to Appadorai (2004), democracy is a system of government under which the
people exercise the governing power either directly or through representatives
periodically elected by themselves. Democracy demands from the common man a certain
level of ability and character; rational conduct and active participation in the government;
the intelligent understanding of public affairs; independent judgment, tolerance and
unselfish devotion to public interest, democracy believes in the principles of mutual
discussion and persuasion. In a democracy, there is equality for all; every man has one
vote; the opinion of everybody counts (Mahogan, 2017). Diamond, Liuz and Lipset (1989)
believe that democracy as a system of government entails healthy competition between
parties for an all effective positions of governance, devoid of violence for all
encompassing levels of political participation in the selection of leaders through the
conduct of periodically free and fair elections, and the observation of fundamental human
rights. The foregoing definitions and conceptualizations imply that democracy is
essentially a people-centered form of government.
Concept of Election
According to Abah and Nwokwu (2015), election, no doubt, is one of the defining features
of representative democracy. It paves way for citizens who are within the voting age in a
country to exercise their franchise in determining who govern them. Casting of votes
during an election is a powerful weapon to either select those contestants adjudged to have
good tract records or to vote out those leaders who fail to fulfill their campaign promise.
In the words of Heywood (2000), the election is a device for filling an office or post
through choices made by a designated body of people called electorates. Similarly, Dye
(2005) defines election as a major instrument for the recruitment of political leadership in
democratic societies; it is the key to effective participation in a democratic dispensation
and the means through which people give their consent to government.
Election simply means the process through which eligible electorates cast their votes in
order to choose from among political contestants that vie for various elective positions for
the purpose of sound leadership, quality representation and good governance. In most
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developing countries such as Nigeria, elections mostly always degenerate into violence
(what is always referred to as electoral violence.
Political /Electoral Violence
Several attempts have been made by scholars to conceptualize electoral violence. Fisher
(2002) defines electoral violence as any random or organized act that seeks to determine,
delay or otherwise influence an electoral process through threat, verbal intimidation, hate
speech, disinformation, physical assault, forced “protection”, blackmail, destruction of
property or assassination. Nwolise (2007) citing Albert, sees political/electoral violence
as all forms of organized acts or threat - physical, psychological and structural geared
towards intimidating, harming, blackmailing a political stakeholder before, during and
after an election with a view to determining, delaying or otherwise influencing an electoral
process.
In view of the foregoing, Abah and Nwokwu (2015) state that, political/electoral violence
is the use of force or threat of it to change the voting behavior pattern of electorates during
elections. In modern times, electoral violence generally involves political parties, their
supporters, journalists, and agents of government, election administrators and the general
public and includes threats, assault, murder, destruction of property and physical or
psychological harm (Fisher 2002; IFES, 2011).
In Nigeria, elections have been accompanied with election violence since independence.
It may be physical, emotional/psychological and otherwise with the sole intent to
intimidate and harass voters to change their minds before, during and after voting. This
suggests that, electoral violence cuts across different segments of the electoral process
commencing from the registration period to post-election period. Most often, electoral
violence is always aimed at altering, influencing or changing, by force, the voting pattern
or manipulating the electoral results in favor of a particular candidate or political party
(Ugoh, 2004). Electoral violence is one major problem that has affected the Nigeria’s
democratic sustainability and achievement of good governance (Gberevbie, 2014).
Electoral violence, particularly in Nigeria, is essentially an elitist phenomenon arising
from the inordinate struggle for places in the structure of power. This has often
degenerated into open violence among ethno-religious and communal groups or
individuals who are deceived into believing that their interest is about to be imperiled
(Michael, 2012).
Concept of Political Culture

The concept “Political Culture” first appeared in modern empirical Political Science in
the late 1950s or early 1960s and is chiefly associated with the American political
scientist, Gabriel Almond. Almond (1956) states that, “every political system is embedded
in a particular pattern of orientation to political actions”. Consequently, Almond and
Verba (1963) define political culture as “the specifically political orientations and
4
attitudes toward the political system and its various parts, and attitudes toward the role of
the self in the system”. More broadly, Almond and Verba (1963) view the political culture
of a nation as “the particular distribution of patterns of orientation toward political objects
among the members of the nation”.
Almond and Verba (1963) identified three modes of political orientation viz; the
cognitive, the affective, and the evaluative. According to them, these three major kinds of
belief influence the character and policy outcomes of political systems. Thus, political
culture refers to something like the psycho-sociological limits or conditions within which
individual political agents act. More generally expressed, it refers to the belief structure
of a given polity, outside of which structure, political action would be incoherent (Bove,
2002). Hence, political campaign is conditioned by the culture of the people in a political
system.
Generally, political culture simply means a set of shared views and normative judgments
held by a population regarding its political system. The notion of political culture does not
refer to attitudes toward specific actors, such as a president or prime minister, but rather
it denotes how people view the political system as a whole and their belief in its
legitimacy.
Historical Evolution of Political Violence in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic

One of the key elements of modern representative democracy is election. Without election
or periodic elections, the modern representative democracy would be impracticable.
Invariably, election is indispensable to the practice of modern representative democracy
that is guided by the principles of participation, representation and contestation.
In any democratic process, the right of the citizens to choose their leaders freely is only
guaranteed through the electoral process (Przeworski, 2003). Hence, election is the right
to choose freely from available alternatives and it ensures peaceful change of government
through the ballots. The most interesting aspect of the electoral process is the political
campaign. Political campaigns are those activities carried out by political parties and their
candidates or independent candidates for furthering their prospects in an electoral
competition (Ikeanyibe et al, 2018).
Since the return of civil rule in 1999, Nigeria’s democracy has witnessed changes in the
electioneering process characterized by unhealthy political campaigns prone to political
violence. The 2019 general election was the sixth in the series of elections conducted
under the Fourth Republic. However, the most disturbing feature of the 2019 elections
was that they were held despite the volatile security challenges exacerbated by Boko
Haram, farmer/herders clashes and rampant kidnappings across the country, and Taraba
State in particular.
5
One worrisome phenomenon in Nigeria is that political parties and their campaign
approaches are not based on ideologies and issues. Rather, they are directed at individuals,
and specifically to misinform and to utter hate speeches for the purpose of confusing or
diverting the attention of the electorates and to cause disaffection between and among
party supporters. Consequently, in the last two decades, most, if not all, of Nigeria’s
elections have been affected by political violence. The “do or die” attitude of the Nigerian
political class always triggers violence during and after campaigns which usually results
in several deaths and loss of property.
Most elections in Nigeria are characterized by violence, intimidation, harassment, killings
and the snatching of ballot boxes (Human Rights Watch, 2007). There are several actors
that are involved in political violence in the electoral process prominent which include
government, political thugs, ethno-religious and regional militias, party leaderships and
support groups. However, the major cause of political violence in Nigeria is the attitude
of the political class, especially as it relates to utterances and conduct during campaigns.
The fact that political parties in Nigeria have always lacked ideologies makes them resort
to the politics of identity, intimidation, thuggery and violence during campaigns
(Omotola, 2009). This unfortunate feature has continued to produce ethno-religious and
regional politics founded essentially on hate speeches, political violence, especially during
and after elections. Experiences have shown that since 1999, the question of who wins in
any election in Nigeria has remained how one is able to mobilize and harness ethno-
religious and regional sentiments based essentially on very parochial primordial factors
sustained mostly by political intimidation and all manner of electoral frauds. Little wonder
that elections are always accompanied by violence and litigations as asserted by Iyayi
(2006). For instance, in both the 23rd February, 2019 Presidential and 9th March, 2019,
Gubernatorial elections in the country, very disturbing electoral violence was reported in
Lagos, Zamfara, Kebbi, Kano, Nasarawa, Benue, Plateau, Ekiti, Bauchi, Kwara and Oyo
States with scores of lives lost and property destroyed (CSSR, 2019).
One of the controversial aspects of political campaigns in Nigeria is the lack of
understanding and observance of campaign laws as stipulated in the Electoral Act. These
issues include campaign funding, permission to hold rallies, commencement of
campaigns, use of abusive language, and use of private security during the electioneering
process. This informed the reason why the Electoral Act 2010, as amended, in Section 96
(1) says:
No candidate, a person or group of persons shall directly or indirectly
threaten any person with the use of force or violence during any political campaign
in order to compel that person or any other person to support or refrain from
supporting a political party or candidate.
In Section 102, the Act further says:
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Any candidate, person or association who engages in campaigning or broadcasting

based on religious, tribal or sectional reason for the purpose of promoting or
opposing a particular political party or the election of a particular candidate is guilty
of an offense under this Act and on conviction shall be liable to a maximum fine of
N1m or imprisonment for 12 months or to both.
To corroborate the Electoral Act, the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999,
as amended, in Section 277 says:
No person or association shall retain, organize, train, or equip any person or group
of persons for the purpose of enabling them to be employed for the use or display
of physical force or coercion in promoting any political objective or interest or in
such manner as to arouse reasonable apprehension that they are organized and
trained or equipped for that purpose.
On expenditure ceilings by candidates, Section 91, subsections 2-7 and Section 91 (2) say:
The maximum election expenses for a candidate at a Presidential level is (N1,
000,000,000), for Governorship election is (200,000,000), for Senatorial is
(40,000,000), and the seat in the House of Representatives shall be (20, 000, 000).
It can be deduced from the foregoing that, there are regulations under Nigerian law
guiding the conduct of the electoral process in order to prevent political violence in the
political process. However, the challenge has been applying the provisions of the law in
the electoral process, particularly when it comes to punishing offenders.
Political/Electoral Violence in Taraba State in the Fourth Republic
Since the commencement of democratic process in Taraba State, elections have always
been conducted in the atmosphere of varying degrees of electoral violence. This was
evident, for instance, in the 2007, 2011 and 2015 at the gubernatorial campaigns and
elections. The case of the 2019 elections was, however, more glaring. There were alarming
cases of intimidation, harassment and killings during and after the 2019 gubernatorial
election (Provide source of your information to substantiate your claims).
A review of political and electoral violence in Taraba State since creation, especially in
the 2019 elections, shows that, the major causes of electoral and political violence are
ethno-religious and regional factors, exacerbated by youth restiveness. This phenomenon
became pronounced during the 2007 gubernatorial election. Since then, the phenomenon
keeps assuming new dimension in each election. Mohammed (2018) laments that there is
the emergence of a new phenomenon of youth restiveness known as “Base Boys”. This
development has direct negative implications on the political process in the state,
particularly in Jalingo, the state capital.
Among the major factors associated with political and electoral violence are the
followings:
i. Ethno-religious and regional politics.
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ii. Volatile security situation/inadequate security.

iii. Use of political thugs in the electoral process.
iv. Lack of internal party democracy.
v. Poor voter education.
vi. Politics as a zero sum game.
vii. Poverty and unemployment
Table 1: Reported Cases of Violence during Campaigns in Taraba State, 2019
S/N Nature of Violence Place Date

1. Assassination attempt on APC Ibi round-about, Wukari LGA. 17th Jan., 2019
Gubernatorial candidate resulting in
five (5) deaths.
2. Violent APC Presidential Campaign Jalingo Metropolis 7th & 8th Feb.,
Rally resulting in deaths, destruction 2019
of billboards, cars, etc.
3. Harassment of PDP Gubernatorial Baissa, Kurmi LGA. 21st Feb.,
Candidate at a Campaign Rally. 2019
4. Post-Presidential election violence Amar/Kambari, Karim- 24th Feb.,
resulting in three (3) deaths. Lamido LGA. 2019
5. Harassment on PDP Gubernatorial Nyamusala, Jalingo LGA. 7th March,
candidate. 2019
6. Violent clash between PDP and APC Nyamusala, Jalingo LGA. 8th March,
supporters. 2019
7. Violent clashes between political Kashimbilla, Takum LGA. 9th March,
opponents resulting in one (1) death. 2019
8. Violent clashes between political Lissam II, Ussa LGA. 21st March,
opponents resulting in one (1) death. 2019
Source: Field Survey, 2019.
The above table presents the major instances of political and electoral violence and
number of deaths during the 2019 elections in Taraba State. The nature and dynamics of
the political violence vary. While some instances occurred during campaigns, others took
place during and after elections. Generally, however, the level of violence in the state was
not as glaring as was the case in other states of the federation.
8
Table 2: Reported Violence & Deaths from Post-Election Violence in Jalingo, the
Taraba State capital
S/N Place Death (s) Date

1 Anguwan Kassa, Jalingo LGA. NIL 9/03/2019
2 Main Market Area, Jalingo LGA. 2 13/02/2019
3 Water Board Area, Jalingo LGA. 5 12-14/02/2019
4 Sabon Gari, Jalingo LGA. 1 13/02/2019
5 Nyamusala, Jalingo LGA. NIL 12-13/02/2019
6 Tella, Gassol LGA. NIL 12/02/2019
Source: Field Survey, 2019
The tension that accompanied the gubernatorial campaigns in Jalingo, the Taraba State
capital, signalled the upsurge of post-election violence. Consequently, on the 11th of
March, 2019, the Taraba State government imposed a dusk to dawn curfew in Jalingo
Metropolis in order to prevent post-election violence. However, when the gubernatorial
election result was announced by INEC on 12th March, 2019, with Governor Darius
Dickson Ishaku of the PDP re-elected with the highest votes of 520, 432 against Alhaji
Sani Abubakar Danladi of the APC who came second with 362, 735 votes, there were
reported cases of violent clashes between supporters of PDP and APC in the Jalingo
Metropolis. The occurrences were partly as a result of the celebration by PDP supporters.
The post-election violence claimed eight (8) lives and over fifty-six (56) people were
arrested for various offenses. The table above presents the major incidences, places and
dates they occurred.
Conclusion
This study investigates the dynamics associated with elections and political violence in
Taraba State. The paper starts with a general review of the phenomenon in Nigeria since
in the First Republic. However, the 2019 elections form the specific focus of the study.
The study reveals that most cases of political violence emanate from the electoral process,
particularly political campaigns. Among the factors highlighted as the major causes of the
phenomenon include ethno-religious and regional issues exacerbated by voter illiteracy,
unhealthy campaign slogans and utterances, intimidation, among others.
The study reveals that the foregoing phenomenon was more pronounced in the 2019
elections in the state, resulting in the loss of lives and destruction of property worth
millions of Naira. It is also revealed that violence occurred even before, during and after
the elections, which resulted in the imposition of twenty four (24) hour curfew in Jalingo
Metropolis. The paper identifies the nature of political campaigns as the major factor that
instigate election and post-election violence in Nigeria and Taraba State in particular,
especially, during the 2019 elections.
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Recommendations
Deduced from the foregoing findings, the following recommendations are made:
i. Political campaigns should be issue based.
ii. Political parties should ensure internal party democracy.
iii. Candidates/contestants should have manifestos as a policy guide.
iv. Identity politics should be replaced by merit.
v. Inculcation of democratic culture in the people.
vi. Punishment of electoral offenders.
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12
Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State,
Nigeria
Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and

Madagali Local Government Areas of Adamawa State, Nigeria
1
Prof. Mohammed Isa Bazza, 2Adole Raphael Audu, PhD and 3Fatima Inuwa Usman, PhD
1Department of Business Administration, University of Maiduguri, Borno State.
2Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Maiduguri Borno State, Nigeria
3Department of Business Administration Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Maiduguri,Borno State,
Nigeria.
Email: moharnmedbazza59@gmail.com adolecabs@yahoo.com fatimahinnuwaUSman@Yahoo.com
Abstract
This study examines local government administration and the question of minority rights
in Madagali and Michika Local Government Areas of Adamawa state, Nigeria. The study
utilized both primary and secondary sources of data, using survey method and available
documents. The objective is to interrogate management strategies for even development
among local government areas in Adamawa State. The method of data collection was the
field method involving primary and secondary sources. The data collected were analyzed
using simple statistical tools, cross tabulation, tables, multiple regression equation (Y = a
+bx1+ bx2…..bxn+E) and partway coefficient to determine the effect of management of
minority issues on local government development as an independent variable against
dependent variables like; minority issues in the local government such as decision making
on minority issues; opinions and responses of communities on minority issues: Inter-
governmental relations on minority issues and minority participation in decision making
process for even development. The result indicated that, minority issues are impediments
to local government administration and development among newly created local
government areas in Nigeria now and in the future. The study recommends that, key
minority issues/persons at local government level should participate in the art and process
of management, administration, developmental programs and hence periodic review of
policies on the management of minority issues among local government councils in
Nigeria.
Keywords: Development, Local Government Administration, Madagili, Michika,
Minority rights issues
Introduction
The boundary of what is today known as Nigeria was defined in 1914 following the
amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates. Then, Nigeria became a
federation of three regions at independence in 1960. She then evolved into a federation
comprising, at one time or the other 12, 19, 21, 30 and now 36 states with 774 local
government councils. Since Nigeria came into being as a political entity, the re-
organization of the Nigerian nation has been an ongoing phenomenon in response to two
13
main factors; Willink (1957) reported that it was in the quest for even development at the
grassroots and the desire to meet the yearnings and aspirations of the various ethnic and
sub-ethnic minorities for local autonomy. This has continued to be actualized through the
break-up and re-constitution of local government councils.
The restructuring and reconstitution of local government councils, though simple

and routine, is in reality a complex process. It can be bedeviled with intrigues, especially
when dealing with minority issues at the level of local government councils. It is against
this backdrop that this paper examines and analyzes minority issues in relation to the
creation of local government councils vis-à-vis meaningful development at the local
government councils with special attention on Michika and MadagaliLocal Government
Councils of Adamawa state. The objective is to come out with strategies for addressing
minority issues among ethnic and sub-ethnic groups for even development in the study
area.
Adebayo (1989) reports that the structuring of countries and nations into territorial
administrative units of states and local government councils for political and administrative
purposes has a historical trend. When a new state or local government council is created
out of an old one, the decision on minority issues has always been the first to be addressed.
The standing trend in Nigeria has been for the government of the day to set up a committee
to determine how the issue will be resolved, especially when it comes to the issues on how
to tackle minority issues of the defunct units among the new entities. According to
Adekanye (1989), most of these exercises, especially in the recent past, took place under
military regimes. While it has been easier to carry out the exercise under a military rule
because of the dictatorial nature of military regimes, it is always a difficult exercise during
a democratic/civilian period due to the rancorous interaction and processes associated with
minority issues under a democratic setting. Among the thorny issues associated with this
is to manipulation for selfish reasons which often led to dissatisfaction of people in the
affected areas. The dissatisfaction is usually borne from the procedures and or methods by
which the minority issues are addressed, all related to employment, administrative
positions and even admission into schools at all levels.
In the wake of the creation of new local government councils in Adamawa State
vide decree number 21 of 1991; Michika Local Government Area was split into two local
government units consisting of Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils.
Hitherto, the two local government areas were under what had been named Michika Local
Government Area. Given the background of the area as being made up of fairly literate
communities, different ethnic groups with different socio-cultural values, etc., It was
expected that problems will certainly arise, leading to the contentious issues on minority
issues between the two Local Government Councils as they break up. Accordingly,
committees were inaugurated with terms of reference to determine how the minority issues
14
Nigeria
of the parent local government should be determined between the emergent Local
Government Councils. It is important to note that the major tribe in Michika local
government is HIGGI while that of Madagali is MARGI. The minority tribes of Sukur.
Mahakam and Fulani are common to the two Local Government Areas. This paper
identifies and examines the local government administration and minority issues in
Madagali and Michika Local Government areas of Adamawa State.
Creation of Local Government in Nigeria: Historical perspective

Historically, in many societies, a dominant group of people exercises greater
influence over government, business, and culture than other groups. Okpu (1977) states
that, minority groups differ from the dominant group in some ways, and they often suffer
from discrimination and have less political power. Traditionally, minority groups are
defined on the basis of cultural differences, such as language or religion. In practice,
however, minority groups are defined by both physical and cultural differences. Examples
of minority groups in the United States include African Americans, Asian Americans and
Native Americans.
In Nigeria, minorities have a lower average socioeconomic status than the dominant
group in their society. According to Willink, Philip and Sheerer (1958), this is the case of
the major tribes like the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba’ against minority tribes like the
Kanuri, Tiv and many other tribes in Nigeria. Minorities also often face barriers, for
instance, the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria provides that, a minister must
come from each state of origin which consists of many Local Government Areas.
However, the minority groups are not always given chances to produce a candidate. In the
same way, in the admission into higher educational institutions, especially State owned
schools, where minority tribes are not always given little or no consideration when it comes
to catchment areas.
In recent times in Nigeria, there seems to be a continuous conflict between the

major and sub-ethnic groups due to the inability of the government of the day to address
the minority issues. This has serious setback on the development of communities at the
grassroots.
Awolowo (1947) reports that on a political map, the biggest red patch on the West
Coast of Africa is Nigeria. It covers a land area of 923,773 square meters. Similarly, Lugard
and Kirk-Green (1965) remark that, it is one third of British India or the size of France,
Belgium and the United Kingdom put together. Its population is estimated at over
120,000,000 people as per the 1991 population census figures. Today, the estimated
population is 160,000,000.
15
Nigeria consists of different ethnic and sub-ethnic groups. Each group has certain
generic and political features common to all in the group, but each has certain differential
characteristics peculiar to it and thus their needs and wants are based on similar political
values. A country with these varied characteristics and features entails restructuring for
better governance, improved efficiency and equity among the groups and sub-ethnic
groups. Oliver (2001) reports that, specific factors led to the adoption of a federal system
in Nigeria among which include; diversity of the country, desire for political unity in spite
of ethnic and religious differences, shared colonial experience since 1914 amalgamation
by the colonialists, problems associated with the emergence of tribal nationalism and ethnic
based political parties, desire for economic and political viability as a country and general
disenchantment with experimenting the unitary constitutions and the eventual breakdown
of the Macpherson Constitution. Until today, these factors form the basis for the creation
of states and local government councils in Nigeria. The re-structuring exercise continued
with the creation of more states from nineteen in 1987 to thirty-six in 1997.
Further changes in the administrative composition of the country where the

redefinition of the political regions as local government councils and the creation of Abuja
Federal Capital Territory (FCT) in 1991. With this, Lagos ceased to be the Federal Capital,
a position it held right from before independence. There are at present 36 states with a total
of 774 local government councils in the country. According to Dlakwa (1997), this is an
indication that the creation of administrative units would be deemed a continuous process
in Nigeria as various ethnic and sub-ethnic groups continue to press for the creation of
more states and local government areas for obvious socioeconomic and political
conditions. Okoli (1986) states that, the demand for, and creation of local government
councils could be traced as far back to the advent of the McPherson Constitution in 1950
when an attempt was made to democratize administration at the local government level.
Seeing that local governments are very important in the life of the entire community, there
were more agitations by ethnic and sub-ethnic nationalities to have their own Local
Government Areas for economic, cultural and sociopolitical development of their areas.
Since then, there has been the creation of more and more States and Local Government
Councils in Nigeria to serve the yearnings of the diverse ethnic and sub-ethnic nationalities
in the areas of social, economic and political development.
It is imperative to note that, the existing structures of local government councils in

Nigeria have come a long way through different administrations. This could be referred to
as a circumstantial structure of local government councils in Nigeria. In 1985 the Ibrahim
Babangida’s military administration ordered the replacement of the Muhammadu Buhari’s
“Sole Administrator” system with a five-man committee system of which one must be a
woman. Most of the programmesof Babangida’s regime gave credence to the wishes and
aspirations of the people as reported by Adebayo (1989) that the program put in place
public political debate and discussion as the bases for reforming the federal structure. It
16
Nigeria
was also to ensure collective participation in governance, motivate the physical and
economic development and create the conditions for employment opportunities and to
provide social services that will improve the well-being of rural people. For these reasons,
many communities and or ethnic groups sought for the creation of more local government
areas. Thus, between 1976 and 1996, 774 local government councils were created in
Nigeria, as shown in Table 1
Table 1: Local Government Councils between 1976 and 1996
Years Number of local governments

1976 301
1989 449
1991 589
1996 774
Source: Augustus Adebayo, 2000
The gains of local government under the military deduced from Table 2.1 show that
774 local government areas were created within 20 years in Nigeria (301 + 473 = 774).
Until this time, local government areas were created in pursuance of the same reasons given
before, that is, even or equal socio-cultural development of the ethnic and sub-ethnic
groups that existed in the 774 local government councils in Nigeria. The strategic question
is: how has the creation of local government councils addressed the minority issues/rights?
Methodology
This study adapted survey design. Data were collected from both primary and
secondary sources. Questionnaires were structured in both open and close-ended forms to
obtain the desired information from the respondents. This created a provision for more
uniformity of ideas and thoughts for easy assessment of the intrigues involved in the
minority issues related to employment, administrative positions and employment at the
level of local government councils. One hundred and twenty (120) copies of the
questionnaire were distributed to respondents. The population for this study was 1200 for
Michika and Madagali Local Government Areas jointly put at (600+600) that is, 300
people for major tribes and minority tribes from each local government of the study. This
was to enable a cross sectional coverage of local government staff and stakeholders that
take decisions, fully employed and have full participation in development programs of the
local government.
A sample size of 120 (60+60) that is, 30 for major and minority tribes from each of
the local government of study was used. This figure consisted of 5 directors of the local
government areas. 5district heads, 5 ward heads, 5 youth leaders, 5 voluntary organizations,
5 women representatives and 60 members of the public from each of the local government
17
areas were utilized as sample size for the study. Thus, 120 copies of questionnaires were
distributed to respondents in the two local government councils of study. The purpose is to
obtain information on how minority issues, participation and employment in the two local
government councils of Adamawa state were dealt with.
A purposive random sampling method was used to select the respondents. The
sampling method was based on the number of local government staff and stakeholders that
take decisions, fully employed and have full participation in development programs in the
local government areas. The number consisted of the major and sub-ethnic groups in the
localities of study.
The study made use of secondary information involving published books,
committee reports on assets and liabilities sharing, Committee Reports and government
White paper on minority rights in Adamawa State. The methods of data analysis for this
study were simple statistical tools using percentage tables, multiple regression equation (Y
=a+ bx1 + bx2….bxn + E) and partway coefficient to determine the effect of minority issues
on development at the local government level. The objective is to assess whether factors
like minority issues, decisions taken, and opinions of the communities and inter-
governmental relations affected meaningful development in the areas of study.
Data Presentation
For the purpose of gathering and presentation of data, four relevant objective
questions were formulated as a guide for the study. Each set of questions formed a section
of its own. One hundred and twenty sets of questionnaire were designed and distributed in
the local governments of study. Out of this figure, only 95 copies of the questionnaire were
completed and returned to the researchers. This represents 79.1 7% response to the
questionnaires distributed.
Table 2. Distribution of questionnaire
Local No. of distributed No. of returned No. of Unreturned
Government Area questionnaire questionnaire questionnaire
Madagali 60 44(73.3%) 16(26.7%)
Michika 60 51(85%) 9(15%)
120 95 25
Source: Fieldwork, 2018.

From Table 2, there has been a positive response to the questionnaires distributed.
This could be attributed to the simplified design of the questionnaires, which made it easy
to read and to understand by the respondents. The outcome of the responses from the two
local government councils shows that, there were good responses from the local
18
Nigeria
governments under study (with Madagali and Michika) forming 73.7% and 85% response
to questionnaires distributed respectively.
Previous participation in minority issues
Taking the right decision demands skill, experience and previous participation in a
similar exercise. In the same way, the researcher wanted to find out if the respondents had
previous experience and participation in taking decisions on minority issues. The outcome
is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Previous participation in minority issues

S/No. Responses Frequency Percentage
a. Yes 89 93.7
b. No 6 6.3
Total 95 100.0%
Source: Field work 2018
Table 3 shows that, most of the respondents participated in one capacity or the other
in the art or process of taking decisions in a similar exercise on minority issues from other
localities in Adamawa State. It therefore means that respondents had the relevant skill and
hence the skill and experiences in dealing with minority issues.
Decision Implementation
At times, when decisions are taken, they serve as a guide for carrying out a task,
especially implementing the decision taken on minority issues. The researcher tried to find
out if the decisions that were taken on minority issues were implemented as expected. The
result is presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Decision implementation

a. Partially implemented 58 61.1
b. Fully implemented 37 38.9
c. Not implemented 0 0.0
Total 95 100.0%
Source: Field work; 2018
19
Table4shows that the decision on minority issues were partially implemented as

indicated by 58 respondents out of the 95 responses received. The case here will be
reactions from the minority groups in the two localities which may not be good for
meaningful development of the two localities.
Settling disagreements from inability to implementing decisions on minority issues
Since minority issues involve intrigues; disagreements are bound to arise from the
exercise over the criteria used. In this situation, the researcher sought to find out how these
disagreements were resolved. The outcome is shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Settlement of disagreement

a. Third-party Adjustment 7 7.4
b. Compromise 15 15.8
c.
Petitions 72 75.8
d.
Government intervention 1 1.1
Total 95 100.0%
Source: Field work; 2018.
Table 5 indicates that, the resolution by compromise among the minorities in the
localities is the major criterion used for settling a disagreement arising from settling
minority issues. Other reasons deduced were that, the new local government entities did
not want to waste time and resources when other methods to seek redress through petitions,
intervention of a 3rd party and adjudication are used for the settlement of disagreements
among the entities.
Satisfaction with minority issues exercise.
The fact that almost the entire community was aware of the minority issues
exercise. The need to find out if the communities were satisfied with the process by which
the issues were settled is very important. The researcher sought to know if they were not
satisfied by the way minority issues were settled among the minority groups in Michika
and MadagaliLocal Government Councils. The report of the responses could be seen in
Table 6.
20
Nigeria
Table 6: Satisfaction with minority issue exercise

S/ No. Responses Frequency Percentage
a. Yes 81 85.3
b. No 14 14.7
Total 95 100.0%
Source: Field work; 2018.
From Table 6, it can be seen that, people were satisfied with the outcome of the exercise
on minority issues in the two localities. Though the result portrays a positive response, one
can rightly say that, people had some reservations on how minority issues were treated in
Michika and Madagali Local Government Councils. However, the community satisfaction
means an indication of meaningful development in the area of study.
Analysis and implication of findings
This section analyses the implication of the opinions and responses of the
communities on settling minority issues on how the committees took advantage of local
government creation to amplify the struggle over resource allocation in the area of study.
Regression analysis was used as a tool to examine the relative importance of the parameters
that constituted tools therein:
i. Decision making on minority issues in the local government councils of study;

ii. Minority issues in the local government of study;
Results based on their multiple regressions that present the magnitude of each
variable and their percentage equivalents are covered in Tables 8 — 10. They are presented
in the order by which they were raised by the aims and objectives of the study.
Madagali and Michika decision-making on minority issues
Decision-making process and procedures relating to the topic of study were
considered to find out which variables were considered as the most important, using the
multiple regression equation which was earlier mentioned as Y = a + bx1 ± bx2bxn + E.
The combined result is presented in Table 8.
21
Table 7: Decision-making process for Madagali and Michika on minority issues

S/NO ITEMS Coefficient Standard T-Values Significance
of error
regression
(b-value)
Intercept .113 .213 .529 .598
1. Involvement in .366 .032 31.078 .000
final decision
2. Implementation .257 .045 21.601 .000
of decision
3. Decision .556 .020 49.888 .000
making
procedure
4. Predominant .594 .210 50.853 .000
way of making
a decision
5. Community .217 .052 18.713 .000
satisfaction
Dependent variable: Local government Development
Combined results from the two local governments of study on decision process
indicated that, the predominant way of decision-making’; ‘decision procedure’, ‘decision
implementation’, ‘final decision’, and ‘community satisfaction’ were ranked in that order.
The researcher attempted to know the percentage contribution of the variables to determine
which of the variables is rated high to decision making on minority issues among the local
government of study, and hence the outcome presented as follows:
LD = f(x1 + x2 + x3 + x4+ x5
Where:
LD = Local government development

x1 = Final decision on minority issue
x2 = Decision implementation on the minority issue
x3 = Decision procedure for minority issue
x4 = Predominant way of decision making on minority issue
x5 = Community satisfaction on minority issues
22
Nigeria
Operationalizing the formula, the coefficients of the regression (b-value) as seen in

table 8 is substituted to find out which of the variables is ranked highest for decision-
making on minority issues in the two in the two local governments under investigation.
LD = 0.366 x1 + 0.257 X2+ 0.556 x3 + 0.594 x4 + 0.217 x5 1.99.

It is assumed here that, acceptable decision process on minority issues among the local
government of study is a function of the ‘final decision made’, ‘implementation of the
decisions’, decision procedures, the predominant way of decision-making’ and
‘community satisfaction’ in the exercise of the minority issues among the local
governments of study. The coefficients of regression for the variables (items) enlisted in
their order of appearance and their individual percentage contribution equivalence to the
final decision on minority issues is as indicated below.
i. Final Decision on Minority issue (FD) 18.39%

ii. Implementation of Decision (ID) on minority issue 12.92%
iii. Decision Procedure (DP) on minority issue, 27.94%
iv. Predominant Way of Decision Making (PW) on minority issue 29.85%
v. Community Satisfaction (CS) on minority issue, 10.90% 100%
The combined ratings for five parameters for both Madagali and Michika local
government range from 10.90 - 29.85% as seen above. Among the decision variables,
decision procedures’ and predominant ways of decision making’ topped the ranks as the
most important features in decision making, ‘community satisfaction’ and
‘implementation’ were viewed as less important. From the combined results of the two
local government councils, the decision-making variables contributed positively (b-values)
to the total minority issues in the decision-making process. However, the negative intercept
(a = -0.113) indicates that, decision-making process was not strictly followed on minority
issues in the two local government councils. Thus, the negative intercept -0.113. The error
margin of 0.213 indicates the contribution of other extraneous factors, not considered by
the study.
Terms of Reference and Committee’s Decisions

The fact that, terms of reference guides committees during the exercise of minority
issues is not to be disputed. Variables affecting the impact of the terms of reference on
committee’s decision were compared using the regression coefficient that explains the
magnitude of each variable. Out of the four variables offered to test the impact of terms of
reference on the committee’s decision. Effect on community opinions’ of the local
government councils was the overall deciding factor (37.22%). This was followed by
‘effect of terms of reference’ and ‘effect of decision making’, which in turn significantly
overshadowed ‘terms of reference’ in importance as shown below for both local
government councils.
23
Table 8. Effect of Terms of Reference on Committee’s Decision on Minority Issues.

S/NO ITEMS Coefficient of Standard T-Value Significance
regression (b- error
VALUE)
Intercept 1.477E- 02 .341 .043 .966
1. Terms of Reference .123 .164 6.292 .000
2. Impact of term of .477 .043 24.845 .000
Reference
3. Effect on Decision .456 .042 22.697 .000
Effect on com. .626 .029 33.203 .000
Opinions.
Dependent Variable: Local government development

The combined result from Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils
indicated that, the decision leading to the opinions of the communities affected localities
witnessed ‘serious impact’ and hence rated as the highest variable affected by the terms
of reference that guided the committee’s decisions. Other factors like ‘final decision’
were also affected. When this situation was analyzed from the percentage contribution,
the outcome is presented as follows.
LD =F(X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 +X5)
Where: LD = Local government development

x1= Terms of reference on minority issues
X2 = Committees Decisions on the minority issue
x3 = Extent of impact on decisions on minority issue
x4 = Impact of decisions on community opinions on minority issues
Substituting the values of the variables from table 5.9.1 we have the following:
ITRD = 0.123 x1+ 0.477 X2 + 0.456 x3+ 0.626 x4 = 1.682. The coefficients of regression
for the various variables (items) enlisted in their order of appearance and the individual
percentage contribution equivalence is as indicated 7 below.
Terms of Reference (TR) on minority issue, 07.31%
Committees Decisions (CD) on minority issue, 28.36%
Effect of Decision (ED) on minority issue, 27.11%
Impact on Take-off (ET) on minority issue, 37.22%
Total 100%
24
Nigeria
The outcome of the combined contribution indicates that, the terms of reference’
given to the committees had a serious impact on the community opinions of the localities.
The order of importance placed on the features or variables ranged from 7.3l%-37.22% for
Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils. From the combined results of the two
local government councils, the variables for terms of reference contributed positively (b-
values) to the committee’s decision-making process on minority issues exercise. However,
the positive intercept (1.477 E-02) shows that, the terms of reference on minority issues
were strictly followed by the committees. The error margin of.341 indicates the
contribution of other extraneous factors, not considered by the study. Thus, the positive
intercept 1.477.
The opinions and responses from the community

The aftermath of an exercise similar to that of the minority issues could be the
opinions and responses on how best the exercise would have been done. Variables affecting
opinions and responses from both local government councils of the study were compared
to explain the magnitude of each variable. Similarly, assessment was done for individual
local government and hence the overall combined result as indicated on Table l0.
Table 9. Effect of decision acceptability on local government development.
Coefficient of Standard
Items. T-value Significance
regression (b-value) Error
Intercept. 1.1 bE-IS .000 - -
Awareness .209 .000 - -
Satisfaction. .283 .000 - -
Acceptable
.890 .000 - -
basis
Dependent variable: Local government development
Combined results from Madagali and Michika Local Government Councils
indicated that the communities were more concerned about acceptable basis on minority
issues. Other factors like ‘community satisfaction’ and ‘awareness’ were among the factors
rated high by the community as to how best the exercise should have been done. To find
out the percentage contribution of each variable, the result is presented as follows.
LD =COR = f(x1+ x2 + X3)
Where: LD = Local government development
COR = Community opinions and responses on minority issue
x1 Community awareness on minority issues
X2= Community satisfaction on minority issues
X3= Acceptable basis for consideration of minority issues
25
Substituting the values of each of the variables from the coefficients of the
regression (b-value) on Table 10, we have the following; COR 0.209 x1 + 0.283 X2 +
0.890 x3 = 1.382. The coefficients of regression for the variables (items) enlisted in their
order of appearance and the individual percentage contribution equivalence is as
indicated below.
Community Awareness (CA) on minority issue = 15.12%
Community satisfaction (C S) on minority issue = 20.48%
Acceptable basis (AB) on minority issue = 64.40%
Total = 100%
The combined result of the two local government councils shows that, ‘acceptable
basis for minority issues was rated highest variable as a true reflection of the opinion and
responses from the Michika and Madagali communities. The order of importance placed
on the features or variable ranged from 15.12%-64.40% for Madagali and Michika Local
Government Councils.
Result of the Findings
This section deals with the issues arising from minority issues as the Nigerian
nation continued to be restructured. As more states and local government councils are being
created. Minority issues must be addressed for development. However, minority issues are
not an easy task as it involves some contentious issues relating to administrative positions,
employment, school admission and dissatisfaction on decisions taken on minority issues in
the two local governments of study.
Previous Participation of Committees in the Determination of Minority Issues.
The determination of what constitute minority issues varies with the localities and
skill and experience of the committee members. From Table 3; the committees are said to
have participated in a similar exercise as the responses indicated 93.7%. This is an
indication that the minority issues among the two localities of study were adequately
determined. This view is acceptable as most Nigerians know the minority issues between
the ethnic and sub-ethnic tribes in Nigeria. Thus, the determinations of minority issues are
not a problem and hence have little significance on the development of the local
government councils of study.
Decision-making process for Madagali and Michika on minority issues
Effective decision-making requires a rational selection of a course of action, which
is seen as part of every one’s livelihood. In the same way, problems relating to minority
issues among local government councils or the community must be decided upon.
However, some decisions are rational while some are irrational in the sense that they follow
the conventional methods and otherwise respectively of the ways of making a decision.
Whichever method adopted by either the individual or the committee members, there must
26
Nigeria
be a decision. However, the concern of this study is who takes the final decision on minority
issues at the local government level, and of what relevance has it on the development of
the localities of study?
Table 8 indicates 18% on final decision which is an indication that, decision may
be taken at the local level, but the white paper (final Decision) will be taken by the state
government. The case here is that, decisions will have little or no impact on development
at the local government areas as the committees set up sub-committees at the local
government level and then refer all issues to the terms of references without reflecting on
the provisions of the constitutional powers of the state and local government on the
minority issues.
Decision implementation
This is the art and process of putting into action the decision that was taken. This
requires competent administrators that must come from a combination of the tribes who
will be able to understand and interpret the decisions taken. From Table 4, it can be seen
that, the right decision was taken on minority issues, but the implementation was very
partial 61.1% as compared to full implementation 38.9%. This is not good for meaningful
development at the local government level. The reason, according to Adejo (2006), is that;
Nigerian governments have had very good decisions/plans that can transform the Nigerian
nation, but the problem of implementing the decisions/plans is always the cause of concern.
When this occurs over a period of time, there cannot be any development. The reason for
this could be deduced from disagreements among ethnic and sub-ethnic tribes in the area
of study.
Generally, there are a number of problems facing most local government councils
when it comes to decision implementation. According to Ikoiwak (1994), the problems are
categorized into, conceptual, institutional and operational. It is conceptual if the newly
created and reconstituted local government councils do not possess the adequate capacity,
requisite skill and aptitude for addressing such issues involving minority issues between
local government councils concerned. Similarly, implementation of a decision
encompasses those actions by public and private individuals that are directed at the
advancement of the objectives set forth. Successful implementation requires that decisions
be clearly stated and understood by the implementers. Any misinterpretation can lead to
undesired outcomes. Clarity of decision objectives helps in the evaluation of the
implementation of the decisions made.
The relationship between various committees both at the state and local government
levels brings about institutional problems in tackling minority issues for a good decision.
It needs to be cordial or with some degree of cooperation. This is rarely achieved at the
local government level as the committees are not the only organs involved in the
27
implementation of the decision. On the operational problems, decisions as well as their

implementation require participation of individuals, decision makers, the decision
implementers and the decision enforcing bodies, which are the executive, the council and
the law enforcement authorities. Where such participation is weak or not forthcoming, the
decision will remain ineffective and hence its implementation becomes subtle.
Settling disagreements from inability to implement decisions on minority issues
Communities comprise of people who are linked together with some common ties
like history, economic and social interests. In the same way, interest groups are hatched in
the event of such an exercise that has community interest at stake. These groups, usually
political leaders, youths and elders, have ‘concern’ for the community. The intrigues here
are that, while the interest groups are not conversant with constitutional and administrative
provision in such exercise and have no knowledge of regional and local government
experience in addressing minority issues, they insist on having an influence on how the
minority issues were ascertained at the two local government areas. Specifically, village
heads or district heads are part of the interest groups, who seek to influence their subject
not to disclose the existence of minority issues in the community. The point here is that,
the district head can be biased on his advice to the committees.
From Table 5, disagreement over non-implementation of decision on minority

issues was full of petitions to 75.8%. To deal with petition cases requires time, which
otherwise should have been used for development of the local government areas. For these
reasons, the roles played by the interest groups (as sub-committee members at local
government level) become matters of contention arising from minority issues among local
government councils.
Satisfaction with the mode of minority issues’ exercise

The researcher wanted to find out whether the localities under study were satisfied
with the decisions taken as well as the implementation of the decisions on minority issues.
The answer to this was based on the politics of minority issues in the localities of study.
The politics of minority issues have a bearing on the system of governance of an era. Within
a given community, a group of politicians would want to fulfill their political aspirations.
When voted into office they ensure that, there is good bargaining, compromise, persuasion
and reconciliation in their dealings as they try to fulfill their party promises. In the same
way, when dealing with the minority issue, they would want to apportion more blame on
the majority tribes of that area.
Table 6 indicated that the level of satisfaction is 85.3%, while those that were
satisfied are 14.7% which is due to political reasons. As a result of this, instead of being
persuasive, compromising and good bargaining in their manner of approach, they create
28
Nigeria
rancor between the Local Government Councils concerned. Where this exists, it becomes
a problem that may lead either to a slow decision or incorrect decision for effective and
smooth development in the affected local government councils. When this occurs, there
are more intrigues affecting minority issues in the local government council leading to
more disagreement between the parties responsible for making the final decision for
meaningful development in the localities.
Terms of reference of minority issues

Decisions on the terms of reference on minority issues were strictly followed by
the committees as indicated on table 9. This is because members of committees were
appointed by the state government to represent the interest of the various communities. In
view of their representative capacity, appointed members may have little or no knowledge
of minority issues in the area of study. In this case. They may work strictly on the
provisions of the terms of reference to carry out the assignment they were asked to
accomplish subject to a white paper by the state government.
Conclusion
After a series of cross-examination, analysis, findings and discussions based on the

objectives of the study raised earlier on, the study concludes on the followings: Firstly, the
determinations of minority issues are not a problem and hence have little significance on
the development of the local government councils of study. Secondly, decisions based on
the provisions of the constitutional powers of the state and local government on minority
issues will have an impact on the development of the local government. Thirdly, Decision
implementation requires competent administrators that must come from a combination of
the tribes who will be able to understand and interpret the decisions taken. Fourthly,
disagreement over non-implementation of decision on minority issues was full of petitions
to 75.8%.
To deal with petition cases requires time, which otherwise should have been used
for development of the local government areas. There are more intrigues affecting minority
issues in the local government council leading to more disagreement and dissatisfaction
with the outcome of minority exercise. The need for adequate information about cases
dealing with minority issues is required as minority issues have and stand as impediments
to local government administration and development among newly created local
government areas in Nigeria now and in the future. The terms of reference that served as a
guide for minority issues affected the process of arriving at a decision for tackling minority
issues in the affected local government councils.
29
Recommendations
A study of this nature has serious implications on the political, social, economic
and cultural development of the affected communities. Already, results from the study have
indicated the items listed in the conclusion. Given these conclusions, the study
recommended the following:
1. Minority participation in decision making on minority issues among local government
councils should be promoted and encouraged for meaningful development at the
grassroots.
2. Minority issues should be harmonized with the opinion and wishes of minority groups
in the community at the local government councils for meaningful development in Nigeria
as seen in Madagali and Michika Local government areas.
3. There should be adequate, implementation of the decisions reached on minority issues

by improving on the ability, skill and experience of the committees and the staff involved
in the execution of minority issues exercise.
4. The relationship between tiers of government on minority issues must be improved.
References
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Educational Books Limited.
Adejo, U. (1994). “Local Government as Third Tier of Government: Roles, Functions and
Challenges”, Being a Paper Presented at the National Orientation Workshop for
Local Government Care Taker Committees, Abuja, Ministry of State and Local
Government Affairs, Abuja
Adekanye, B. (1989). Politics in Military Context in Nigeria since Independence: The first
25 years; Ibadan, Heinemann Educational Books Limited.
Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian and Comparative
Perspectives, Administrative staff college of Nigeria (ASCON), Ikeja-Lagos,
Longman Nigeria Ltd.
Awolowo, O. (1947). Path to Nigerian Freedom. Forwarded by Perham Magrey. London,
Faber and Faber Ltd.
Dlakwa, H. (1997). “Decision Making Theory” Unpublished Material. Department of
Political Science and Administration, Maiduguri; University of Maiduguri.
Federal Government of Nigeria (1972). Report on the work of the interim commission
service agency, Kaduna.1st April 1968 to 31st March 1972 Government Printer.
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Federal Government white paper on the interim administration council’s work 1968
Kaduna. Government printer.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1975). Report of the Panel Appointed by the Federal Military
Government to Investigate the Issue of the Creation of More States and Boundary
Adjustment in Nigeria; Lagos Government Printer.
Gboyega, A. (1987). Political Values and Local Government in Nigeria. Lagos, Malt house
Press Limited. George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Kirk-Greene, A.H.M. (1965). The Principles of Native Administration in Nigeria. London,
Oxford University Press.
Kirk-Greene, A.H.M. (1971). Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Source Book
1966-1990, Vol. I. London, Oxford University Press.
Okoli, F.C. (1986). “The Place and Role of Local Government in Nigeria’s National
Development”, In the “intergovernmental system and Alternative Political Order
for Nigeria in the 1990’s and beyond”, Maiduguri, Department of Political Science
and Administration, University of Maiduguri.
Oyediran, O. and Gboyega, A. (1979). “Local Government and Administration” In
Oyeleye Oyediran (Ed), Nigeria Government and Politics under Military Rule.
London, Macmillan Press.
Willink, H. G., Philip, H. M. and Sheerer J.B. (1958). Report of the Commission
Appointment to Inquire into Fears of Minorities and the Means of allaying them,
London, Her Majesty’s Stationeries Office.
31
Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-

2017.
1
Yahaya Salihu Emeje Ph.D and 2Apeh, Ajene Sunday Ph.D
1Department of Economics, Taraba State University Jalingo, Taraba State, Nigeria.

2Department of Economics and Management Science, Nigeria Police Academy Wudil, Kano
Email address: seyahaya@gmail.com&apehsunday96@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper examines the impact of exchange rate on selected macroeconomic variables in
Nigeria. The paper covers the period of 1986 to 2017 taking into consideration the trade
liberalization policy (SAP era) and Export Promotion Policy (post SAP era) (1999 to date).
The aim is to analyze the extent to which exchange rate affects selected macroeconomic
variables. The data for this study were analyzed using analytical tools. The analytical tools
involved the use of Vector Error Correction Model, Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test,
stability test, Lag Order Selection Criteria, and the Johansen Co-integration Test. The result
revealed that the coefficients of GDP, inflation rate, money supply and trade openness
conformed to a priori expectation while interest rate did not. This implies that as GDP rises,
the exchange rate will appreciate. This is because as the country produces more goods, it
means there would be an increase in exports, which boosts the exchange rate of a country.
Similarly, an improvement in exports will also increase the level of openness of the
economy, which affects the exchange rate positively. Conversely, as inflation rises, the
value of money erodes, which leads to a depreciation of the exchange rate, because the
exchange rate is computed using relative commodity prices of different countries. The
study found that GDP, trade openness and inflation rate significantly affect exchange rates,
while interest rate and money supply do not significantly affect the exchange rate in
Nigeria. The study, therefore, concludes that while some macroeconomic variables are
instrumental to exchange rate appreciation, others are detrimental to it and leads to
exchange rate depreciation. On the basis of these findings, the paper recommends that the
government of Nigeria should focus on expanding productive activities so as to improve
the exports of the nation which can lead to a reduction of exchange rate depreciation, It
also recommends that the monetary authorities should avoid rapid variations in the growth
of money so as to avoid frequent increases in the rate of inflation which is detrimental to
exchange rate appreciation.
Keywords: Exchange rate, Interest rate, Inflation, Money supply, Gross domestic product,
Nigeria.
32
Impact of Exchange Rate on Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria, 1986-2017.
Introduction
The exchange rate is an important macroeconomic variable used as a parameter for
determining international competitiveness and it serves as an indicator of competitiveness
for any country’s currency. In view of that, the lower the value of this indicator in any
country the higher the competitiveness of such currency of that country. Exchange rate
system includes set of rules, arrangement and institutions under which nations effect
payments among themselves.
The exchange rate is said to be an important element in the economic growth and
development of a developing nation. Exchange rate policies influence the economic
activities and to a large extent, dictate the direction of macroeconomic variables in the
country. The mechanism of exchange rate determination is different systems of managing
the exchange rate of a nation’s currency in terms of other currencies and this should be
properly done in a way that will bring about efficient allocation of scarce resources so as
to achieve growth and development.
In Nigeria and indeed many developing countries, the price of foreign exchange
plays a critical role in the ability of the economy to attain optimal levels in production
activities. In the wake of policy change, occasioned by the introduction of structural
adjustment programs (SAP) in July, 1986, led to the emergence of the flexible exchange
rate as oppose to fix the exchange rate as a regime that was in place before the policy
change. During the fixed exchange rate regime, the supply of foreign exchange was highly
subsidized through the overvaluation of domestic currency. The essence of the policy was
to maintain a relatively cheaper cost of importation of industrial raw-material and
equipment, so as to sustain the policy of import substitution industrialization strategy
(Obadan, 2015).
To further consolidate the period of the oil boom of the 1970s, the government
continued to sustain overvaluation of domestic currency, so as to douse the inflationary
pressure arose from the monetization of the oil windfall gains through the Udoji committee
known as “Udoji Awards” of 1975. But in the wake of persistent balance of payment deficit
caused by the downward trend in the oil price in the international market led to the jettison
of the fixed exchange rate, and emergence of flexible exchange rate through second-tier-
exchange rate market (SFEM). This policy led to the downward trend in exchange rate and
the impact of overvaluation of the exchange rate came with the massive importation of
foreign goods because they are cheaper and while exports are relatively expensive and
uncompetitive in the international market and led to the importation of large volumes of
consumer goods and thereby worsen the country’s balance of payment deficit (Gbosi,
2015). In view of the above anomaly, it is important to investigate the impact of exchange
rate on macroeconomics variables for the period of 1986-2017; a sample size of 31 years,
a period long enough for time series analysis. However, several studies on the impact of
exchange rate on macroeconomic variables have been conducted, but most of these studies
33
either focused on the impact of exchange rate on trade or on growth or were done outside
the shore of this country. In addition, the majority of the studies on exchange rate did not
consider the possibility of the long run relationship between exchange rate and their
macroeconomic variables. Suffice it to say that most of their time frames are too short to
access the long run behavior of exchange rates and its macroeconomic variables. The
choice of this period is due to the fact that Nigerian economy has practiced different types
of exchange rate regimes within the given period. All these constitute the gap other studies
have not been able to bridge that this paper has succeeded in filling. The main objective of
this paper is to examine the impact of exchange rate on selected macroeconomic variables
in Nigeria. Apart from the introduction, the rest of the paper is organized into section 2,
literature review, section 3, is the materials and methods used, section 4 is the data
presentation and discussion of the results, finally section 5 is conclusion and policy
recommendations.
Conceptual Clarification
Exchange Rate
According to Oriavwote and Oyovwi (2012), the exchange rate is defined as the
rate at which one country’s currency is exchanged for the currency of another country. This
implies that the exchange rate is the price of one country’s currency relative to other
countries’ currency. Furthermore, Bakoulas, Baum and Caglayan (2012) defined exchange
rate as the price at which exchange between two countries take place. They stated that the
modality to determine the exchange rate is an issue that has taken the center stage of
monetary and international economics. Monetary policy authority in Nigeria is faced with
the problems of having a stable and realistic exchange rate, which is in consonance with
other macroeconomic fundamentals. This is because exchange rate instability can have
serious adverse consequences on prices, investments and international trade decisions. A
realistic exchange rate is one that reflects the strength of foreign exchange inflow and
outflow, the stock of reserves as well as ensuring equilibrium in the balance of payments
that is consistent with the cost and price levels of trading partners (Ojo, 2012).
More so, Nouri and Samimi (2012) define exchange rate as the amount of local or
home currency required to purchase one unit of a foreign currency. They opined that
exchange rate is determined by the demand and supply of foreign currency, trade balance,
current account balance and capital account balance. GDP per capita is often considered as
an indicator of a country's growth. Changes in the exchange rate translate directly into
changes in domestic collections from imports and exports. For a given level of imports or
exports, a more depreciated real exchange rate would increase the base of trade taxes in
domestic currency terms, which would in turn increase trade tax collections.
Oladipupo and Ogheneov (2014) perceive exchange rate as the price of one
currency in terms of another. The increase or decrease of real exchange rate indicates the
strength or the weaknesses of the currency in relation to foreign currency, and it is a
34
standard for illustrating the competitiveness of domestic industries in the world market.
When there is deviation of this rate over a period of time from the benchmark or
equilibrium, the exchange rate is said to be volatile. It also indicates that the misalignment
of the exchange rate has occurred where there is a multiplicity of markets parallel with the
official market. It is of a general belief that the appreciation of a currency expands imports
and reduces exports while the depreciation of currency increases the cost of importation;
thereby discouraging imports and encouraging export. Risk adverse investors invest in
exports so as to worry less about the changes in the exchange rate and prevent a sudden
loss of revenue (Olowe, 2015).
Masha and Adamgbe (2015) have defined exchange rate as the rate at which one
currency exchanges for another. The exchange rate is said to depreciate if the amount of
domestic currency requires buying a foreign currency increases, while the exchange rate
appreciates if the amount of domestic currency require buying a foreign currency reduces.
An appreciation in the real exchange rate may create current account problems because it
leads to overvaluation. Overvaluation in turn makes imports artificially cheaper while
exports relatively expensive, thus reducing the international competitiveness of a country.
Ehinomen and Oladipo (2015) define exchange rate as the price of one currency
(the domestic currency) in terms of another (the foreign currency). The exchange rate plays
a key role in international economic transactions because no nation can remain in autarky
due to varying factors endowment. Movements in the exchange rate have ripple effects on
other economic variables such as interest rate, inflation rate, unemployment, money supply
and so on. These facts underscore the importance of the exchange rate to the economic well
being of every country that opens its doors to international trade in goods and services.
Concept of Interest Rate
In the views of Rasaq (2016), interest can be defined as the return or yield on equity
or the opportunity cost of deferring current consumption in the future. This definition
clearly shows that interest is a concept which can mean different things depending from
the perspective it is viewed. The interest rate can therefore be seen as a nebulous concept,
a position affirmed by the availability of different types of this rate. Some of which are
savings rate, discount rate, lending rate and the Treasury bill rate. Apart from this, the
interest rate can also be categorized as nominal or real.
Also, Oriavwote and Oyovwi (2012) note that interest rates are the cost of
borrowing money. Interest rates are normally expressed as a percentage to the total
borrowed. The rate of interest is the amount of interest per unit of time, typically one year.
There is no one rate of interest, but, rather, a myriad of rates. Interest rates vary to reflect
the ability and willingness of borrowers to meet their obligations and the ease with which
a borrower’s promissory note or bond, mortgage, debenture or other evidence of
indebtedness can be turned into money (Attah-Obeng, Enu, Osei-Gyimah and Opoku,
2013).
35
In addition, Eze and Okpala (2014) defines the interest rate as the returns a lender
expects by positing and parting with his/her liquidity. The interest rate is a double-edged
sword in that if it is high, holders of surplus funds will part with some since they expect
higher returns in the future. On the other hand, higher interest rates discourage borrowing.
In a state of equilibrium, interest rate equates demand, investment and supply, saving into
the capital market.
Inflation
According to Opaluwa, Umeh and Ameh (2016), inflation refers to the general
increase in the price of commodities over a given duration. Inflation tends to push up the
price of commodities without a corresponding increase in their real value. The inflation
rate in Nigeria was recorded at 3.10 percent in January of 2015 and averaged 6.24 percent
from 1997 until 2015. Nigeria’s consumer price index (CPI), the main gauge of inflation,
increased by 2.1 per cent year –on- year during the month of December 2014 compared to
3.6 per cent the previous year, a report indicated. The concept of inflation has been defined
as a persistent rise in the general price level of broad spectrum of goods and services in a
country over a long period of time. Inflation has been intrinsically linked to money, as
captured by the often heard maxim, inflation is too much money chasing too few goods.
Ojo (2012) describes the term inflation as a general and persistent increase in the
prices of goods and services in an economy. Inflation rate is measured as the percentage
change in the price index (consumer price index, wholesale price index, producer price
index and so on). Mussa (2014) opine that the consumer price index (CPI), for instance,
measures the price of a representative basket of goods and services purchased by the
average consumer and calculated on the basis of periodic surveys of consumer prices.
Owing to the different weights the basket, changes in the price of some goods and services
have an impact on measured inflation with varying degrees. There are several
disadvantages of the CPI as a measure of the price level. First, it does not reflect goods and
services bought by firms and/or government, such as machinery. Secondly, it does not
reflect the change in the quality of goods which might have occurred over time. Thirdly,
changes in the price of substitutable goods are not captured. Lastly, CPI basket usually
does not change often. Despite these limitations, the CPI is still the most widely used
measurement of the general price level. This is because it is used for indexation purposes
for many wage and salary earners (including government employees).
Money Supply
As submitted by Ogunmuyiwa and Ekone (2012), money supply is the total stock
of monetary media of exchange available to a society for use in connection with the
economic activity of the country. According to the standard concept of money supply, it is
composed of the following two elements: Currency with the Public and Demand deposits
with the Public. Two things must be noted with regard to the money supply in the economy.
36
First, the money supply refers to the total sum of money available to the public in the
economy in a given time period. That is, the money supply is a stock concept in sharp
contrast to the national income which is a flow representing the value of goods and services
produced per unit of time, usually taken as a year. Secondly, money supply always refers
to the amount of money held by the public (Ogunmuyiwa & Ekone, 2012).
Money supply more or less influences or affects economic growth positively or negatively.
From 1959, there have been two major phases in the pursuit of monetary policy, namely:
direct monetary control phase and the market mechanism phase. These phases were all
aimed at regulating the supply and cost of money optimally, such that certain desired
national objectives (such as increased and sustainable output) were achieved. It has been
observed that the quantity of money supplied in an economy influences the gross domestic
product, or output over time (Odusola & Akinlo, 2012).
Literature Review
Given the potential impact of exchange rate on inflation, prices, investment,
balance of payment, and interest rate, the issue of determination of optimal exchange rate
becomes imperative for the successful implementation of development programs in the
country. Yaqub (2014) argues that the objectives of exchange rate policy are to increase
output and its optimal distribution. A necessary condition for the achievement of the above
objectives is that the exchange rate should be as stable as possible. According to him,
stability permits viability of the rate in response to changes in relative prices, international
terms of trade and growth factors (Yaqub, 2014).
The exchange rate policy involves choosing an exchange rate system and determining the
particular rate at which foreign transaction will take place. The exchange rate policy affects
growth by determining capital flow, foreign investment and external balance for most
developing countries. The inadequacy of foreign exchange constitutes a bottleneck in the
process of development. In the course of development, the rate of growth of national output
and the demand for imports tends to exceed export based capacity (Ojo, 2012).
Therefore, there is a conflict between accelerating internal development and
maintaining external balance. This conflict is resolved by a realistic exchange rate policy.
Exchange rate policy by devaluation or overvaluation has an implication for an economy.
Devaluation helps to improve the external competitiveness either through a contraction in
imports or expansion in exports and this influences both consumption and investment
decisions. Overvaluation of foreign exchange exacerbate external borrowing, balance of
payments disequilibrium and the distortion of the economy, while undervaluation results
in income distortion detrimental to labor, trade, current account surpluses, standard of
living and the growth of the economy (Akinlo and Lawal, 2014).
The basic element of efficient exchange rate system is the assumption that exchange
rate reflects the relative productivity of an economy (Obadan, 2015). In the long-term, the
devalued Naira protects domestic industries, encourages domestic production, reduction in
37
the cost of imported raw materials and makes domestically produced goods competitive.
Several factors influencing the choice of a particular exchange rate regime in a country, a
major consideration is the internal economic conditions or fundamentals, the external
economic environment and the effect of various random shocks in the domestic economy.
Thus, countries like Nigeria which are vulnerable to unstable internal financial conditions
and external shocks, (including terms of trade shocks, and excessive debt burden), which
require real exchange rate depreciation, tend to adopt a regime which ensures greater
flexibility (Obadan, 2015).
Rasaq (2016) examined the impact of exchange rate volatility on macroeconomic
variables and with the help of Correlation Matrix, Ordinary Least Square (OLS) and
Granger Causality test, the findings of the study show that exchange rate volatility has a
positive influence on gross domestic product, foreign direct investment and trade openness,
but with negative influence on the inflationary rate in the country. It was suggested by the
author that there is a need for the country to improve their revenue base in term of
increasing number of items meant for export and reduce over reliance on petroleum sector
and also to reduce the importation of nonessential items, so as to improve their terms of
trade. Also, an increase in domestic production will reduce the problem caused by
exchange rate volatility.
Shehu and Aliyu (2016) estimated the long run behavioral equilibrium exchange
rate in Nigeria. They used quarterly data from 1984 to 2014 and derive a Behavioral
Equilibrium Exchange Rate (BEER) and a Permanent Equilibrium Exchange Rate (PEER).
Regression results show that most of the long-run behavior of the real exchange rate could
be explained by real net foreign assets, terms of trade, index of crude oil volatility, index
of monetary policy performance and government fiscal stance. On the basis of these
fundamentals, four episodes each of overvaluation and undervaluation were identified and
the antecedents characterizing the episodes were equally traced to the archive of exchange
rate management in the country within the review period. Among others, for instance, large
inflow of oil revenues into the country and stable macroeconomic performance were
discovered to account for undervaluation of the real exchange rate between 2001 and 2014
in Nigeria. The results further suggest that deviations from the equilibrium path are
eliminated within one to two years.
Jimoh (2016) examines the Nigerian data from 1980 to 2014 to see what support it
provides for the traditional theory of real exchange rate. The author used the well-known
Johansson’s (1992) methods for estimating models whose variables are non- stationary but
co integrated. The study found that the decisive trade liberalization program of 1986 – 87
led to about 13 per cent depreciation in the Nigerian real exchange rate and made the real
rate more responsive to changes in its terms of trade. Result established that less decisive
changes in the trade regime produced no significant changes in the real exchange rate.
38
Onuoha (2015) examine the impact of exchange rate variation and inflation in the
economic growth of Nigeria. Ordinary least square method was adopted to analyze the time
series properties of the variables under consideration so as to determine the trend of the
variations using annual data set on real GDP and inflation rate spanning 1980 to2010. The
objective of this study among others is to examine the effect of exchange rate variation and
inflation in the economic growth of Nigeria. The data sources were mainly from twenty-
three years financial indications of exchange rate variations and inflation. The data sources
were mainly from CBN Statistical Bulletin (various issues), CBN Annual Report (various
issues), International Monetary Fund and International Financial Statistics Year Book
(various issues). The interest rate variations were measured by three years, moving average
of the standard deviation of the nominal exchange rate. The empirical analysis revealed
that export and import showed a positive relationship, but not statistically significant at
3.4%. The coefficient of Exchange rate showed a positive relationship, but is statistically
significant at 3.4%. This implies a positive relationship between inflation and exchange
rate. This is because an increase in the volatility of exchange rate will lead to increase in
inflation. Only economic growth recorded a negative relationship. The study contends that
while the high rate of inflation and inconsistent exchange rates is detrimental to economic
growth, moderate and stable inflation rate supplements return to savers, enhances
investment and therefore economic growth of a country. Based on the strength of these
findings, the researcher submits that macroeconomic policies aimed at enhancing
sustainable economic development should not over concentrate on fighting inflation, but
should on other areas of economic development such as factor input productivity and
human capital development.
Devereux and Engel (2015) investigate the choice of exchange-rate regime fixed or
floating in a dynamic, inter-temporal general equilibrium framework. They used an
extended Devereux and Engel (2015) framework for investigating the implications of
internationalized production. They examine the role of price setting, whether prices are set
at the currency of producers or the currency of consumers in determining the optimality of
exchange-rate regimes in an environment of uncertainty created by monetary shocks. They
find that when prices are set in producers’ currencies, floating exchange rates are preferred
when the country is large enough, or not too risk averse. On the other hand, floating
exchange rates are always preferred when prices are set in consumers’ currencies because
floating exchange rates allow domestic consumption to be insulated from foreign monetary
shocks. The gains from floating exchange rates are greater when there is an
internationalized production in this case.
From the above literature reviewed, the following issues have been observed. First,
most studies on exchange rates either focused on the impact of exchange rate on trade or
on growth. Second, the majority of the studies were done outside the shore of this country.
This led us to venture into the research. Third, majority of the studies on exchange rate did
not consider the possibility of long run relationship between exchange rate and their
39
macroeconomic variables. Although, Shehu and Aliyu (2016) estimated the long run
behavioral equilibrium exchange rate in Nigeria using quarterly data from 1984 to 2014.
Suffice it to say that this period is too short to access the long run behavior of exchange
rates and its macroeconomic variables since most time series econometricians suggest the
minimum of 25 years' observation of time series data.
Materials and Methods
The kinds of data required for this study were secondary data. This study used time
series data from Nigeria. The data required in achieving the objective of the study are as
follows: Nominal Exchange Rate (EXR), Lending Interest Rate (INR), Growth Rate of
Money Supply (MS), Rate of Inflation (INF), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and Trade
Openness (TOP)
The data were sourced from several publications of the Central Bank of Nigeria
(2013 and 2014) particularly the statistical bulletin. The data for this study were analyzed
using both descriptive statistics and analytical tools. The descriptive statistics shows the
mean of the variables, their standard deviations, the median, maximum and minimum
values as well as the normality test. The analytical tools involved the use of vector error
correction model, Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test (Dickey and Fuller, 1981),
stability test, lag order selection criteria, Johansen co-integration test, impulse response
analysis and the variance decomposition.
Following the argument of Williamson (1994) that a country’s optimal exchange
rate is determined by its macroeconomic variables and that the long-run value of the real
exchange rate is determined by suitable values of these fundamentals, this study adopted
the model used by Williamson (1994) as:
EXR F INTR, INF, MOS .........................(1)
However, this study has modified the model by including trade openness and GDP. The
empirical model is stated as:
𝐸𝑋𝑅 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝐺𝐷𝑃 + 𝛼2 𝐼𝑁𝐹 + 𝛼3 𝐼𝑁𝑅 + 𝛼4 𝑀𝑆 + 𝛼5 𝑇𝑂𝑃 + 𝜇..............(2)
Where
EXR = Exchange Rate
GDP = Gross Domestic Product
INTR = Interest Rate
INF = Inflation Rate
Ms =Money Supply
Top = Trade Openness
40
α0 = the constant term

α1-α5 = the parameters to be estimated
Dependent variable response to the set of the explanatory variables in the above model may
not be automatic, in other words, it is rarely instantaneous. Sometimes, the dependent
variable responds to the explanatory variables with a lapse of time (Gujarati, 2004). Hence,
equation (2) is transformed into a dynamic model as follows:
EXRt 0 1 GDPRt i 2INFt i 3INRt i 4Mst iα5TOPt i
..(3)
Where t-i = the lag length. We shall use Akaike Information Criteria (AIC) to determine
the optimal lag length of the model. This method has gained prominent recognition among
econometricians. There may be a possibility of the model processing nuisance lag length
after applying the AIC. If that occurs, the study shall introduce Granger–marginalization
procedure so as to drop the redundant lag(s). On apriori ground, it is expected that the
independent variables should have positive impact on the dependent variables.
Symbolically it is as:α1,α2 α3,α4, α5>0.
Results of the Findings
This section highlights the data used in analyzing the impact of macroeconomic variables
on exchange rate in Nigeria. The data presented is in harmony with the stated objectives of
the study. The data set identifies the variables that proxy the relationship between exchange
rate and macroeconomic variables in Nigeria. Subsequent sections present the results of
the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) and other statistical estimations including pre-
estimation and post-estimation techniques. The dataset was collected for a 31 year period
spanning 1986 to 2017 and was sourced from Central bank of Nigeria (CBN) statistical
bulletin.
Data on Exchange Rate and Macroeconomic Variables in Nigeria

The summary of the time series data is presented on the various proxies of exchange rate
and macroeconomic variables in Nigeria. They include: Nominal Exchange Rate (EXR),
Lending Interest Rate (INR), Growth Rate of Money Supply (MS), Rate of Inflation (INF),
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and Trade Openness (TOP). Nominal Exchange Rate,
Lending Interest Rate, Growth Rate of Money Supply, Rate of Inflation, and Trade
Openness are expressed in rates while Gross Domestic Product is expressed in billions of
Naira. GDP was therefore transformed into logarithmic form to harmonize the units of
measurement. The data are shown in table 4.1.
41
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics

EXR GDP INF INR MS TOP
Mean 97.21 26,206.10 20.21 23.19 24.52 0.24
Maximum 305.95 113,711.6 76.80 36.09 57.88 0.50
Minimum 2.02 134.60 0.20 12.00 1.20 0.07
Skewness 0.73 1.27 1.58 0.50 0.41 0.42

Kurtosis 3.24 3.09 4.34 3.73 2.22 2.50
Jarque-Bera 2.91 8.63 15.70 2.05 1.72 1.29

Probability 0.2329 0.0134 0.0004 0.3594 0.4237 0.5248
Observations 32 32 32 32 32 32
Source: Eviews 10 Output, 2019.
Table 1 shows the mean, maximum and minimum values of exchange rate and
macroeconomic variables. The skewness, kurtosis and Jarque-Bera test of normality of the
variables are also presented. It reveals that the exchange rate has an average exchange value
of $1=N97.21 within 1986 and 2017. The maximum exchange rate for Nigeria was
N305.95 in 2017 while the minimum was N2 in 1986. Similarly, GDP also recorded its
maximum and minimum values in 2017 and 1986 which are found to be N113.71 trillion
and 134.6 billion respectively. On average the value of domestic production in Nigeria is
26.20 trillion in the past 32 years.
There is a wide disparity between the maximum and minimum rate of inflation
recorded within the study period. In 1995, the rate of inflation was 70.80%, which the
highest ever recorded in the country. Conversely, the least recorded was 0.2% in 1999. On
average, the mean inflation rate is 20.21% within the study period, which is still high for a
developing country like Nigeria. Interest rates have been quite high with the highest seen
to be 36.08% in 1993 while the least was 12% in 1986. Currently, interest rates still stands
at 30% and averages 23.19% during the study period.
Money supply has also been wobbling. In 2008, money supply grew by 57.88%,
while in 2013 it grew by 1.20%, which represents the maximum and minimum values
respectively. The average growth of money supply is 24.52%. Trade openness in Nigeria
has been low with the highest index of openness as 0.50 in 2005 and the least as 0.07 in
1986. Trade openness is measured as the ratio of exports and imports (total trade) divided
by GDP. The average level of openness of 0.24 shows that Nigeria’s trade levels are still
low.
The Jarque-Bera test of normality is conducted to determine the normality condition
of the parameters under the assumption that the skewness has a value of 0 and kurtosis of
42
3. It is a necessary condition for the adoption of further testing to ascertain the statistical
and econometric validity of the parameter estimates of the variables of interest. If K < 3,
then it is platykurtic (flat or short-tailed), If K > 3 then it is leptokurtic (slim or long-tailed)
and if K = 3, then it is mesokurtic (normal distribution). Since these conditions are not met
from the above values, there is a need for further testing. From the above computation;
exchange rate, GDP, inflation rate and interest rate are leptokurtic while money supply and
trade openness are platykurtic.
In addition, all the variables are positively skewed. The test of normality also indicates that
exchange rate, interest rate, money supply, and trade openness are normally distributed
while GDP and inflation rate are non-normally distributed.
Data Analysis
Long-Run Impact of Macroeconomic Variables and Exchange Rate in Nigeria
Unit Root Test
In order to avoid nonsensical regression estimates which may lead to spurious
results, the data are subject to unit root test to examine the stationarity of the data series.
The unit root is used to examine the stationarity of the data series and since the data is time
series, the ADF test is employed. It is important because it enhances validity of results and
is also a prerequisite for further analytical tools. The result of the Augmented Dickey-Fuller
(ADF) test is presented in Table 2:
Table 2: Stationarity Test
Variables ADF 1% 5% 10% Prob. Order of
Test Critical Critical Critical Integration
Statistic Value Value Value
EXR -4.84 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0005 1(1)
GDP -3.65 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0105 1(1)
INF -5.26 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0002 1(1)
INR -6.10 -3.68 -2.97 -2.62 0.0000 1(1)
MS -7.14 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0000 1(1)
TOP -5.50 -3.67 -2.96 -2.62 0.0001 1(1)
Source: Eviews10 Output, 2019.
The ADF statistic values for EXR, GDP, INF, INR, MS, and TOP are -4.84, -3.65,
-5.26, -6.10, -7.14, and -5.50 respectively. The result also shows that, the ADF test statistic
is less than the critical values at all significant levels at 1%, 5%, and 10% for all the
variables, which is evidenced further by the low probability values. Thus, the variables
attained stationary at first difference series.
43
Blank Order Selection Criteria

An optimal lag of 1 was chosen for the empirical model based on Schwarz
Information Criterion (SC), Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Sequential Modified LR
Test Statistic (LR), Final Prediction Error (FPE) and Hannan-Quinn Information Criterion
(HQ) and the result is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Lag Order Selection Criteria
Lag LogL LR FPE AIC SC HQ

0 -805.2550 NA 1.24e+16 54.08 54.36 54.17
1 -693.5759 171.24* 8.42e+13* 49.04* 51.00007* 49.67*
2 -666.7274 30.43 2.12e+14 49.65 53.29 50.81
* indicates lag order selected by the criterion
LR: sequential modified LR test statistic (each test at 5% level)
FPE: Final prediction error
AIC: Akaike information criterion
SC: Schwarz information criterion
HQ: Hannan-Quinn information criterion
Johansen Cointegration Test

The finding that macroeconomic time series contains a unit root has spurred the
non stationary time series analysis. Engle and Granger (1987) pointed out that a linear
combination of two or more non stationary time series may be stationary. If such a
stationary linear combination exists, the non-stationary time series is said to be co-
integrated. The stationary linear combination may be interpreted as a long run equilibrium
relationship between the variables. The Johansen system framework is employed to test
for the presence of co-integrating relationships among the non-stationary variables.
The Johansen co-integration is analyzed via the Trace statistic and Maximum Eigen
value. The decision rule is that if either is greater than the 5% critical value, we reject the
null hypothesis of no co-integration among the variables. Their respective results are
displayed in Table 4.4:
44
Table 4: Co-integration Test

Null Trace 0.05 Critical Null Max-Eigen 0.05 Critical
Hypothesis Statistic Value Hypothesis Statistic Value
r = 0* 97.78 95.75 r = 0* 45.90 40.08
r ≤ 1* 61.89 69.82 r≤1 21.92 33.88
r≤2 39.96 47.86 r≤2 17.41 27.58
r≤3 22.55 29.80 r≤3 13.20 21.13
r≤4 9.35 15.49 r≤4 6.48 14.26
r≤5 2.87 3.84 r≤5 2.87 3.84
r≤6 97.78 95.75 r≤6 45.90 40.08
r≤7 61.88 69.82 r≤7 21.92 33.88
Source: Eviews10 Output, 2019.
Note: Both Trace statistic and Max-Eigen statistic indicates 1 co-integrating equation each. *
denotes rejection at 0.05 significance level.
The Trace test and Max-Eigen value test shows a long run equilibrium relationship between
the variables. Thus, the null hypothesis of no co-integrating equation is rejected since their statistics
are greater than their respective critical values of the co-integrating equations at 5% significance
level. This implies a stationary linear combination, as such the non stationary time series are co
integrated. The application of the VECM technique will therefore yield informative, non-spurious
and dependable results.
Vector Error Correction Estimates
The long run relationship and its accompanying short run relationship are presented
in Table 5.
Table 5: Long and Short Run Error Correction Model
Variables Coefficient Standard Error T statistics
Long Run Model
GDP (-1) 0.002 0.0003 -7.76
INF (-1) -2.30 0.34 6.80
INR(-1) -0.09 1.63 0.06
MS(-1) -0.23 0.57 0.40
TOP(-1) 2.89 0.66 -4.35
C -30.48
Short Run Model

CointEq1 -0.52 0.14 -2.58
D(EXR(-1)) 0.27 0.22 1.20
D(GDP(-1)) 0.0008 0.0009 -0.86
D(INF(-1)) -0.42 0.35 1.20
D(INR(-1)) 0.78 1.02 -0.77
D(MS(-1)) -0.08 0.28 0.28
D(TOP(-1)) 1.12 0.75 -1.49
C 10.16 5.73 1.77
R2 = 0.72, Adjusted R2 = 0.60, F statistic = 8.81, F0.05 =2.36

45
From table 5, the results show that in the long run, the coefficient of GDP reveals
that with the influence of INF, INR, MS and TOP held constant, as GDP increases say, by
1%, the exchange rate will appreciate by 0.002%. Similarly, the exchange rate will
appreciate by 2.89%, holding other variables constant, as trade openness increases by 1%.
Conversely, as inflation changes by 1%, the exchange rate will depreciate by 2.30% other
things being equal. Furthermore, a change in the coefficient of interest rate of 1% shows
that the exchange rate will depreciate by 0.09%, holding all other variables constant.
Similarly, the exchange rate will depreciate by 0.23% if ceteris paribus, growth of money
supply increases by 1%.
The result further reveals that the coefficients of four of the explanatory variables
conform to a priori having the expected signs, implying that GDP and trade openness have
a positive relationship with exchange rate while inflation and money supply have a negative
relationship with exchange rate. The coefficient of interest rate does not conform to a priori
expectation, having a negative relationship instead of postulating a positive relationship
with exchange rate. Also, the result shows that the coefficients of GDP, inflation and trade
openness are statistically significant (i.e. ½bi> S.E.) while money supply and interest rate
are not statistically significant (i.e. ½bi< S.E.).
From the results of the short run estimates of the VAR model in the table above, the
coefficients of all the variables conform to a priori expectation – with GDP, interest rate
and trade openness having the expected positive signs showing the presence of indirect
relationship between the variables and exchange rate; while inflation and money supply
postulates the expected negative signs. Unlike the long run model which shows four
significant variables, none of the parameter estimates are statistically significant in the
short run. The result also reveals that in the short run, a 1% change in GDP in the previous
year will lead to an appreciation in EXR by 0.0008%. Similarly, a 1% change in INR and
TOP in the previous year will improve the exchange rate by 0.78% and 1.12% respectively.
Conversely, a 1% change in INF and MS in the past year will lead to depreciation in EXR
by 0.42% and 0.08% respectively.
The error correction parameter is statistically significant and is also negative as
expected. The magnitude of the co-integration term indicates that if there is any deviation,
the long run equilibrium is adjusted moderately, where about 52% of the disequilibrium
may be removed in each period. This shows that the speed of adjustment to where the
exchange rate will equilibrate even when there is initial disequilibrium is at the rate of 54%.
The adjusted R2 value of 0.60 means that about 60% of the variations in EXR is
explained by GDP, INF, INR, MS and TOP. This is high and shows that our regression line
fits the data due to the fact that the maximum value of R2 can at most be 1. The study also
finds out that GDP, INF, INR, MS and TOP are jointly significant. The F statistic shows
the overall significance of the estimated model. The result reveals that the likelihood of
obtaining an F value of as much as 8.81 or greater is simultaneously less than zero, leading
46
to the rejection of the hypothesis that together GDP, INF, INR, MS and TOP have no effect
on exchange rate in Nigeria. This buttresses the overall goodness of fit of the models. Thus,
the overall prediction power of the econometric model is statistically significant.
Response of Exchange Rate to Shocks from Macroeconomic Variables

Impulse Response Analysis
A shock to the i-th variable not only directly affects the i-th variable but is also transmitted
to all other endogenous variables through the dynamic (lag) structure of the VAR. An
impulse response function traces the effect of one-time shock to one of
the innovations on current and future values of the endogenous variables. This is shown in
Figure 1:
Response of EXR to EXR
30
20
10
-10
-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Response of EXR to MS
30
20
10
-10
-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
47
Response of EXR to GDP

30
20
10
-10
-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Response of EXR to INF
30
20
10
-10
-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Response of EXR to INR
30
20
10
-10
-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Response of EXR to TOP
30
20
10
-10
-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
48
Figure 1: Response of Exchange rate to Macroeconomic Variables

Figure 1 reveals that exchange rate responds positively to its own shock. The impact
of the shock also appears to be permanent as there is no evidence of long run convergence
to equilibrium. Exchange rate responds positively to the shocks from GDP. The impact of
the shocks also appears to be permanent implying that an increase in productive activities
has the tendency to lead to an appreciation in the exchange rate. The impulses from interest
rate and inflation have a negative impact on exchange rate in all the periods. The impact of
interest rate appears to be temporary and will fizzle out in the long run; however, that of
inflation to be permanent and long lasting. The innovations from the money supply and
trade openness have a negative impact on the exchange rate. The impact is however not
permanent.
Variance Decomposition Analysis

While impulse response functions trace the effects of a shock to one endogenous
variable on to the other variables in the VAR, variance decomposition separates the
variation in an endogenous variable into the component shocks to the VAR. Thus, the
variance decomposition provides information about the relative importance of each random
innovation in affecting the variables in the VAR. The summary of the variance
decomposition is presented in a table 6.
Table 6. Variance Decomposition

Variabl S.E. EXR GDP INF INR MS TOP
e
1 25.09 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 36.77 98.29 0.03 0.24 1.002 0.05 0.39
3 44.06 93.65 0.31 4.69 0.81 0.19 0.34
4 50.62 85.94 1.76 10.33 0.62 0.26 1.09
5 56.72 81.85 3.33 12.66 0.52 0.25 1.41
6 62.35 81.47 4.04 12.53 0.46 0.20 1.30
7 67.54 81.99 4.19 12.06 0.44 0.17 1.14
8 72.20 81.92 4.25 12.21 0.42 0.16 1.06
9 76.52 81.18 4.43 12.78 0.39 0.15 1.07
10 80.65 80.46 4.69 13.25 0.37 0.14 1.28
The table format displays the variance decomposition of RGDP to the endogenous
variable. The second column, labelled “S.E.”, contains the forecast error of the variable at
49
the given forecast horizon. The source of this forecast error is the variation in the current
and future values of the innovations to each endogenous variable in the VAR. The
remaining columns give the percentage of the forecast variance due to each innovation,
with each row adding up to 100.
Table 6 reveals that the shock exerted by EXR to itself is 100.00% in the first
period. In the 10th period, EXR exerts a shock of 80.86% to itself. The innovations from
GDP, inflation, interest rate, money supply, and trade openness account for the remaining
19.14% of shocks affecting exchange rates. Amongst the explanatory variables, inflation
accounts for the highest (13.25%) proportion of the shocks affecting the exchange rate
while the least is money supply accounting for 0.14% of the shocks affecting exchange
rates. GDP accounts for 4.69% of the shocks affecting the exchange rate, interest rate
accounts for 0.37% of the shocks while trade openness accounts for 1.28% of the shocks.
Discussion of Findings
The paper evaluated the impact of exchange rate on selected macroeconomic
variables in Nigeria. Six variables were used to estimate this relationship and are: exchange
rate, interest rate, inflation rate, gross domestic product, money supply and trade openness.
Moreover, GDP, interest rate and trade openness were expected to have a positive
relationship with exchange rate while inflation and money supply is expected to have a
negative relationship. The result revealed that the coefficients of GDP, inflation rate,
money supply and trade openness conformed to a priori expectation while interest rate did
not. This implies that as GDP rise, i.e. An increase in productive activity, the exchange rate
will appreciate. This is because as the country produces more goods, it means there would
be an increase in exports, which boosts the exchange rate of a country.
Similarly, an improvement in exports will also increase the level of openness of the
economy, which affects the exchange rate positively. Conversely, as inflation rises, the
value of money erodes, which leads to a depreciation of the exchange rate, because the
exchange rate is computed using relative commodity prices of different countries. Inflation
arises as a situation of too much money chasing too few goods, thus when there is an
increase in money supply, inflation increases which also affects exchange rate, hence the
negative sign. The study found that, GDP, trade openness and inflation significantly affect
the exchange rate in Nigeria. Interest rate and money supply do not significantly affect the
exchange rate in Nigeria. These results corroborated the work of Rasaq (2016) which
showed that exchange rate volatility has a positive influence on Gross Domestic Product,
Foreign Direct Investment and Trade Openness, but with negative influence on the inflation
rate in the country. It was suggested by the author that there is a need for the country to
improve its revenue base in terms of increasing number of items meant for export and
reduce over reliance on petroleum sector and also to reduce the importation of nonessential
items, so as to improve its terms of trade. Also, an increase in domestic production will
reduce the problem caused by exchange rate volatility.
50
The result of the impulse response shows that exchange rate responds positively to
shocks from GDP, money supply, trade openness and itself. Meanwhile, it responds
negatively to shocks from inflation and interest rate. The variance decomposition analysis
revealed that exchange rate responds to 80.86% of the shocks emanating from itself with
the other macroeconomic variables accounting for 19.14%. Out of the 19.14%, inflation
accounts for the highest impulses while money supply accounts for the least.
The VECM result shows that there is a strong positive relationship between
macroeconomic variables and exchange rate. It also buttresses the overall goodness of fit
of the model, implying that the explanatory variables are jointly significant.
Conclusion
The summary of the findings revealed that macroeconomic variables significantly
affects the exchange rate in Nigeria. Out of these macroeconomic variables, GDP and trade
openness affects the exchange rate positively. While inflation exerts a negative effect on
the exchange rate. On the other hand, money supply and interest rate do not significantly
affect exchange rates. Furthermore, apart from exchange rate itself, inflation accounts for
the highest shocks that affect exchange rates while money supply accounts for the least of
such innovations. The study, therefore, concludes that while some macroeconomic
variables are instrumental in exchange rate appreciation, others are detrimental to it and
leads to exchange rate depreciation.
Recommendations
On the basis of these findings, the following recommendations are hereby made:
i. The government of Nigeria should focus on expanding productive activities so as
to improve the exports of the nation which can lead to a reduction of exchange rate
depreciation.
ii. The monetary authorities should avoid rapid variations in the growth of money so
as to avoid frequent increases in the rate of inflation which is detrimental to
exchange rate appreciation.
iii. Furthermore, the government should curtail the interest rate which is so high as to
encourage investors to borrow funds for investment purposes; this will boost
productive activities and reduce exchange rate fluctuations.
51
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Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in Nigeria
Interrogating the Concept of Poverty and Challenges of Development in

Nigeria
1
Amos Asonge Jev, Ph.D and 1Hamisu Hamzat Yakubu
Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Taraba State University, Jalingo-
Nigeria
Email: amosjev@yahoo.com, hhamzate1yakub@gmail.com
Abstract
Poverty has become an intractable social phenomenon affecting almost all the nations of the world,
especially in the continent of Africa and Nigeria in particular. The rising poverty situation has been
attributed by many scholars to the poor development deficits plaguing most of the nation states.
This paper examines the phenomenon of poverty and the challenges of development in Nigeria.
The objective is to show the relationship between development and poverty reduction/alleviation.
To critically do this, the paper adopts the descriptive analytical tool of investigating the subject
matter of the study. Findings of the study also revealed that poverty is endemic amongst several
nations. The findings of the study revealed that corruption, poor leadership and government policy
failure are the causes of increasing poverty amongst the citizens. Furthermore, findings revealed
that where there is quality and focused leadership, good governance and socioeconomic
development capable of enhancing the wellbeing of the citizens and reducing poverty will be
achieved. The paper, therefore, recommends amongst several others, that a focused and quality
leadership that will reduce waste and invest in socioeconomic development that will enhance the
standard of living and reduce poverty to its barest minimum among the people should be put in
place, and that corruption and lack of clear cut policy should be abolished to enhance development
and reduce poverty.
Keywords: Corruption, Development, Globalization, Governance and Poverty.
Introduction
Nigeria, like most African countries, is highly endowed with human and natural
resources, as well as rich cultural heritage. Various administrations in Nigeria had, in the
past, presented and attempted comprehensive plans geared towards reducing poverty and
achieving development in the country. These plans, which were encapsulated for the
country were to enhance the general welfare of the citizens and the nation at large. In fact,
development and growth have been government’s top priorities since the attainment of
independence. This is because development planning can be seen as the only avenue where
the allocation and utilization of resources can be adequately handled. It is also through
sustained development efforts that poverty can be said to be reduced or alleviated.
Poverty is one of the vital instruments of underdevelopment as it has a negative
effect on the wellbeing of the people. Despite all the development plans of the Nigerian
government, a lot of setbacks have been encountered in the development process which
55
includes poverty. Osakwe (2010) argues that the nature of Nigeria’s developmental
strategy has contributed to the slow pace in achieving poverty reduction and unemployment
in the country. According to him the country has not gone through the normal process of
structural transformation, which are the pivot for generating productive employment
opportunities and reducing poverty to a minimal level. Thus, the efforts made by various
governments were not worthwhile as unemployment, poverty and inequality are still on the
increase.
Ibietan and Ekhosuehi (2013) are of the view that the lack of coordination and
harmonization of programs/policies both within the tenure of administration and those
succeeding it has been the major impediment towards addressing the challenge of
development. In line with the above, the argument of this paper is that despite all efforts
by successive Nigerian governments to achieve development and reduce poverty, not much
has been achieved. Consequently, the question agitating the minds of the well-meaning
Nigerians is: what are the major challenges to development in Nigeria? It is, therefore,
against this background that the paper carefully examines the concept of poverty, and its
effect on development in Nigeria. Some theoretical perspectives on development and the
challenges of development in Nigeria with a view to unravelling the relationship between
poverty and development and a way out of the vicious cycle of poverty and socioeconomic
development of Nigeria.
Poverty: A Conceptual Analysis
Like any social science concept, scholarly discourse is yet to arrive at a universally
acceptable definition of what poverty is and its manifestations. In most cases, the varying
degree of conceptual differences is simply as a result of the scholar’s backgrounds and
orientations. Let’s begin from the angle of the view associated with the National Bureau of
Statistics (NBS) (1999) which depicted poverty as a relative deprivation, denial of rights,
inadequacy of material goods etc.
Conceptually, poverty affects many aspects of the human condition, including
physical, moral and psychological. It is often defined as a situation of low income and or
low consumption: and people are considered as poor when they're measured standard of
living is below a minimum acceptable level, known as the poverty line (Ukpong, 1999).
This poverty line is largely based on income and/or consumption. This view is in tandem
with the NBS (1999), in that it identifies two broad approaches to the drawing of the
poverty line, namely absolute and relative. Absolute poverty refers to the lack of the
minimum physical requirements of a person or a household for existence. Relative poverty
is more visibly arbitrary, and refers to a person or household whose provision with goods
is lower than that of another person or households (Jev and Dzoho, 2014). It becomes
apparent when one person or group of people is compared with another/ other groups.
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Apart from the issue of absolute or relative poverty, the United Nations in 1990,
introduced the Human Development Index (HDI), to measure a combination of a country’s
socioeconomic conditions in life expectancy, level of educational attainment, real Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, etc. Based on these factors, the HDI is computed to
indicate a country’s position in relation to a specific welfare target expressed as a value of
between 0 and 1. For example, countries with an HDI below 0.5 and 0.8, are considered to
have a medium level of welfare and human development index (Ukpong, 1999, Jev and
Dzoho, 2014).
In Nigeria, for instance, the HDI value fluctuated within the range of 0.348 in 1992
and 0.389 in 1993. It remained at 0.384 during 1994 to 1996 but rose marginally to about
0.393 in 1997 and 1998. The low value of the HDI for Nigeria is a strong indication that
poverty, in its entire ramification, is a major problem in the country and Africa at large
(Ikpong, 1999). On the other hand, Salami (2000), conceived poverty under the purview of
psychology where the poor are powerless and voiceless. However, in whatever perspective
the concept is viewed, it is the most repugnant socioeconomic problem hunting human
societies largely due to its devastating effects. Its manifestations cut across gender, race
and geographical locations of the world.
Socioeconomic profile of Nigeria published by the NBS (1996) conceives poverty
as lack of resources to consume certain goods and services. Such goods and services could
be considered as an objective minimum which include basic necessities such as food,
shelter, clothing, among others. This definition has nonetheless been criticized. Afonja and
Ogunmike (2003) questioned those things that make up objective minimum. They argued
that it is not clear how we set minimum standards for basic necessities such as clothing,
transportation etc. which may depend on individuals taste and the prevailing socio-
economic conditions within a given society.
In a slightly different way, Fajana (2005) conceives poverty as a situation where a
population or a section of a population is living in destitution and survive on income judged
to be inadequate to secure the basic necessities of life. It is a human condition characterized
by deprivation, grief and despair. Essentially, it is the inadequacy of resources that
informed the 1973 Santiago Declaration of Third World Economists that the third world
with 70 percent of world population subsists on only 20 percent of the world income and
even this meager income is not evenly distributed and thus leaves the bulk of its population
in abject poverty (Salihu, 2016).
Rahnema (1990) had earlier on, defined poverty as a multidimensional concept
because the number of the poor and the perceptions of poverty may be as many as there
are human beings. According to him, the indicators of poverty that qualify one to be poor
cut across country and language. The same indices can qualify anyone under the sun to be
called poor. The list is not only limited to the weak, the hungry, the sick, the homeless, the
landless, the cripple, and the beggar, not only the mad, the prisoner, the enslaved, the
57
fugitive, those in exile, but also all the losers of the world, including millionaires after the
crash of the stock exchange, the fixed executive and the artist who finds no buyer for his
work (Rahnema, 1990).
The issue of poverty goes beyond the limited perspective of income and/or food.
While income is an important element in the definition of poverty, the social analyst is also
interested in the overall resources used for existence such as human, social, natural and
economic resources. As the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) points out, the
use of aggregate income data as the sole measure of poverty may obviate the misery of
people’s live, since income alone does not capture the reality of poverty in any community
(ODA, 1995).
Sen (1999) is of the view that, what makes a person or group of people poor is not
only lack of money but lack of productive assets that can be utilized to eliminate poverty,
through addressing the issue of shortage of food and increased access to shelter, healthcare
and safe drinking water. To Sen, the poor are, therefore, the vulnerable and powerless. It
is argued today that, Africa is one of the poorest continents in the world (Ukwu, 2002) and
most of the population live below the poverty line. The view that income and wealth are
not only ends in themselves, but instruments for other purposes goes back at least as far as
the time of Aristotle. In view of this, therefore, Sen (1999) argues that, capability to
function is what really matters for status of poor or non-poor person. As Sen puts it,
“Economic Growth cannot be sensibly treated to an end in itself. Development has to be
more concerned with enhancing the lives we live and the freedom we enjoy” (Sen, 1999,
p.75).
In effect, what Sen seems to be portraying is that, poverty cannot be properly
measured by income or even by utility as conventionally understood: what matters is not
the things a person has-or the feelings these provide but what a person is, or can be and
does or can do. What matters for wellbeing is not just the characteristics of commodities
consumed, as in the utility approach, but what use the consumer can and does make of
commodities (Sen, 1999).
Causes/Types of Poverty
Poverty can be caused by two ways i.e. from within and outside the country
(George, 2002). In Nigeria, for instance, internal crises have become a prevalent
occurrence. There has been civil war, armed robbery, armed banditry, bomb blast,
kidnapping, the Niger Delta militancy which seems to have receded a bit since the
introduction of Amnesty by President Umaru Musa Yar’adua, herdsmen/farmers, conflict
and Boko Haram insurgency, ethnic and religious crisis as well as long years of military
intervention have all created an opportunity for poverty to strive. All these crises put
together have taken a negative toll on the socioeconomic well-being of the citizenry,
58
destruction of lives and properties with the resultant effect being increasing poverty among
the people across the country.
Goodhand (2000) reveals that the poor, particularly those in extreme, persistent
poverty would mostly be victims of violent conflict as they are generally, politically and
socially unorganized and typically unable to diversify activities or move to safer areas. On
the other hand, Cramer (2005) argues that persistent level of poverty makes violence a
more attractive means of earning livelihood and offers limited opportunities. This is true
of what is prevailing in the Niger Delta and most part of the Northern region of Nigeria
(Salihu, 2016). During crises or violent conflicts, assets that would have been used to
alleviate poverty and enhance living conditions were destroyed and resources diverted to
rehabilitation of damaged goods/properties instead of investing in the economy that will
achieve growth and enhance the wellbeing of the people and reduce poverty.
Humphrey and Weinstein (2004) argue that in the poorer, more vulnerable
households, the result of the conflict will add to their existing difficult situation. Those that
were not chronically poor would join that category due to a reduction in food security as a
result of market disruption and increased difficulties in having access to the market. Indeed,
many poor households affected by the recent Boko Haram crises and banditry activities in
Maiduguri and Zamfara, Katsina and Bauchi, the gas crisis and the raging
herdsmen/farmers crisis in the North Central zone of Nigeria, has been forced to adopt very
risky coping strategies that tend to reinforce their initial higher chances of vulnerability to
poverty. It was in recognition of the above that Achebe (1983, p.14) postulates that:
The trouble with Nigeria is that of leadership. Nothing basically is wrong with
Nigeria’s character. There is nothing with Nigerian land, water, air or anything else.
The Nigeria’s problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the
responsibility, to the challenges of personal example, which are the hallmark of true
leadership. We have lost the twentieth century, are we bent on seeing our children
also lose the twenty first?
Okongwu (1986) shares a similar view with Achebe (1983) when he posits that, the
defect of the past socioeconomic and political system lies in its (leadership) failure to
mobilize the society and its vast resources towards valid production and stable economic
progress. Similarly, Kofi Anan, former Secretary General of the United Nations said at the
O.A.U summit in July, 2000 in Lome, Togo, that African leaders were to blame for most
of the continent’s problems. He pointed to the billions of dollars of public funds stashed
abroad by some African leaders, even while roads were crumbling, health care systems
failing, school children lacking desks and books, or teachers and telephone lines; African
leaders instead engage in blatant stealing of public funds, leaving the people in a poor state
of living.
59
It is worthy of note that some post-colonial governments in Africa have established

defective political and economic systems where the state became very central in the scheme
of affairs with enormous powers being monopolized by one individual or group of
individuals close to the corridor of power. In Nigeria, there were the dictatorial military
governments of Babangida, Abacha and the afraid of civilian military directorship
amplified during Obasanjo’s civilian administration, where some of the governors were
unilaterally and arbitrary removed from office through illegal means (Salihu, 2016).
George, (2002) and Salihu (2016) are of the opinion that, access to the corridor of
power is a sure avenue to acquire wealth illegally. Therefore, government officials and
their cabal become the richest people in Nigerian society resulting in unequal distribution
of wealth. This can be attested to by the 2012 National Assembly probe of the down-stream
sector of the Nigerian oil industry. Salihu (2016) argues that, the connivance of the cabals
has revealed the enormity of the looting of public money by very few cliques. As observed
by George (2002), more than 200 billion U.S dollars in capital was siphoned out of Africa
by the ruling elites and that was equivalent to more than half of Africa’s total foreign debt
which was put at 320billion U.S dollars in 1991. It has been reported that, every year capital
flight from Africa has been exceeding incoming foreign aid. In some African countries,
government officials have bigger bank accounts than the business people (George, 2002;
Salihu, 2016).
In this way, if leaders and politicians of Africa are to live up to the responsibility
of eradicating poverty, they need to start by returning the illegally accumulated public fund.
Meir (2000) avers that, people not so much governed as ruled and that it is as if they live
in a criminally mismanaged corporation where the bosses are armed and have barricaded
themselves inside the company safe. He likened the situation to Nigerian leadership,
starting from the colonialist before who have sucked out billions of dollars and stashed
them in western banks. No wonder, Ake in his famous comment, observed that, consequent
upon the greed by African leaders they could not change the market imperfections and the
monopolistic tendencies of the colonial economy which have retarded growth and
development in Africa (Ake, 1981). It is against the backdrop of the foregoing that,
Ihonvbere (1998, p. 62) posits thats:
The present crisis in Africa presents itself to our consciousness as a crisis of the
economy, or more precisely a development crisis. Not surprisingly, it is in its
economic manifestations that we see the crisis in its more concrete and most
dramatic form. The long and continuing decline of real income, the swelling, high
rate of unemployment, the chronic debt problems, the declining productivity and
negative growth rates, and now the threat of starvation to over 150 million people.
In the face of these realities, it is difficult not to see the crisis in economic terms.
However, it is not simply an economic crisis. It is at least as much as a crisis of the
state as it is a crisis of the economy.
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Salihu (2016), in his categorization, brought out two broad forms or types of
poverty. They are case poverty and community poverty. According to him, case poverty is
found in more affluent societies where the individual or families suffer from poverty; their
poverty is visible compared to the living conditions of individuals and families in
surrounding areas. Case poverty occurs where certain individuals or families do not share
in the general wellbeing of the society. On the other hand, community poverty manifests
itself, where almost everyone in the community is poor. In this situation, the living
conditions of the more affluent individuals or families are more visible compared to most
of those living close to them. Community poverty is found mostly in the rural areas and
serves in informal squatter areas of the urban centers (Frik and Sivanepoel, 2000).
Poverty can be further classified according to the quantum of suffering, hardship,
deprivation and humiliation people are experiencing. Poverty can also be absolute or
relative. Okumadewa (2001) and World Bank cited in Frik and Sivanepoel (2000) said that,
absolute poverty is a situation where the incomes are so low that even a minimum standard,
nutrition, shelter and personal necessities cannot be maintained. In other words, absolute
poverty means that an individual is so poor that his or her next meal may mean the
difference between life and death (Salihu, 2016).
Apparently, relative poverty can be seen as an expression of poverty of one entity
in relation to another. For example, in the case of South Africa, Lesotho is poor. In relation
to the United States of America, South Africa is the poorest country. In relation to the
average American family, African-American family suffers poverty or deprivation. While
in relation to African-American family, an average Malawian family is poor. In Nigeria,
when a family in Asokoro or Maitama areas of Abuja is compared with a family in Bosso
area of Minna, Niger state, the latter is poor (Salihu, 2016).
Oghenea and Ochaja cited in Okojie (2001), also categorizes poverty into income
poor and, security poor, education and health poor. There is also political poverty, religious
poverty, electric power, poverty, tolerance, poverty and poverty of the stomach, monetary
poverty, academic poverty, legal poverty, etc. We can also add here what we refer to as
poverty of conscience.
Concept of Development
The ambiguous nature of the concept of development has made it difficult to
advance a precise meaning. In fact, there are numerous perspectives as to what the concept
of development is all about. There is the perspective that sees it from the economic
perspectives, while others see it as a concept that is multidimensional, meaning that
development is beyond the economic domain. Seers (1979) define development by posing
certain questions such as; what has been happening to poverty, unemployment and
inequality? To him, if all three indices (poverty, unemployment and inequality) are at a
relatively high rate, there is absence of development, and vice versa. It follows, therefore,
61
that for a country to be classified as developed, there are parameters to look out for which
are: the state of poverty, unemployment and inequality. On the other hand, Ademolekun
(2007) also stresses that development has to do with improving the living conditions of
people. He also highlights some indicators of development, which include; a higher quality
of life, higher income, better education, higher standard of health and nutrition, less poverty
in society, a cleaner environment, more equal opportunities, greater individual freedom and
a richer cultural life amongst citizens of a given state.
Oghator and Goobio (2000) point out that development goes beyond the increase
in per-capita income or economic growth, but also includes sustainable improvement in the
living standard of the people, which is guaranteed through the provision of gainful
employment, coupled with the presence and availability of social and economic
infrastructures. Ajagun (2003) corroborates that development is a state of advancement
which makes life more meaningful in its various aspects, including the economic,
administrative, political, social, cultural and religious aspects. This implies that
development is not about a particular aspect, but it is encompassing, better still
multidimensional depending on the point of contention.
Onah (2005) opines that development is not static, but is a continuous improvement
in the capacity of the individual and society to control and manipulate the force of nature
for the enhancement of living standard of the people in a society. This definition introduces
another dimension to the meaning of development. It analyses the human aspect of
development, that is, the individuals who reside in a given state. Ahmed (2007) also notes
that development is concerned with the general upliftment in the material, social and
psychological conditions of a given human society.
From the various meanings of development outlined, it can be deduced that
development is not limited to economic growth or per capita income alone, but is a concept
that is all encompassing, that analyses the economic, administrative, political, social,
religious, and living standard of the people in a given society. Development strategies in
all societies must therefore focus on the following objectives;
i. Man-centered and his overall advancement.
ii. To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining goods
such as food, shelter, health and protections.
iii. To raise the level of living, and in addition to higher income, the provision of more
jobs, better attention to central and humanistic values all of which will serve, but
also generate individual freedom and participation in the decisions concerning those
issues affecting the society.
iv. To expand the range of economic and social choice to individuals and nations by
freeing them from servitude and development, not only in relevance to other people
and nations-state but also to the force of ignorance and human misery.
62
Development as a concept is rooted in various theoretical strands which have been

propounded to explain how desirable changes in the society is best achieved. The following
theories therefore serve as a base for understanding the concept of development. For
instance, modernization theory is an economic theory rooted in capitalism, which evolved
in the 1950s and 1960s. It is a comprehensive theory of development which deals with the
whole process a nation encounters in its attempt to transform from a primitive to a
modernized society. Modernization consists of a gradual process of specialization and
separation of social structures with the aim of promoting efficiency in the development
process of any society. Roxborough (1979) argues that modernization theory operates on
economic oriented principles which include capital formation and investment as the major
determinant of economic growth and development.
Within the theory of modernization is the stage of development which views
development as a process which passes through various evolutionary phases. Ollawa
(1981) is of the view that development follows certain stipulated framework, as such,
nations who seek to achieve economic growth must adhere to this framework.
The most prominent scholar of the stages of development model is W.W. Rostow.
To Rostow (1962), development is divided into five stages; which are; the traditional
society, the precondition for the take-off stage, the take-off stage, the maturity stage, and
the stage of high mass consumption. The traditional stage is an agrarian society that is not
aware of its capability to transform its society to a modern community. They are therefore
not willing to take advantage of the potential of modern science and technology (Okereke
& Ekpe, 2002). At the stage of precondition for take-off, the society becomes aware of its
transforming potential and, in turn, gets involved in the application of modern science and
technology to agricultural and industrial practices. The opportunity for investment and
commerce therefore increases at this stage. The take off stage places emphasis on the
eradication of traditional obstacles which hinder economic growth and development. At
this stage, the commercialization of agriculture is introduced and investment rises to a
maximum level. The drive to maturity stage is a period when the economy shows the
capacity to extend beyond the original industries that serve as its pivot for take-off. The
final stage of goods and services which is marked by a rise in real income (Okere & Ekpe,
2002). Implicit in the stage model is the assumption that some countries are developed
because of their strict adherence to this evolutionary developmental process.
The psychological/idiosyncratic theory is also another strand of modernization
theory which attributes the development of certain attitudinal personality variables. It is
assumed that it is the innovative personality of a nation that stimulates economic growth
and development (Okereke and Ekpe, 2002).
Just like most theories, the theory of modernization has also encountered various
criticisms. The stages of development model of modernization as been Eurocentric has
been criticized on the basis that development does not follow strictly a particular method.
63
Thirwall (1985) argues that the stage theory establishes a rigid platform for development
and also creates an impression that a nation can attain industrialization only when the
agricultural sector has been modernized. It has been criticized for being psychologically
reductionist. It is argued that the theory employs psychological concepts to explain purely
sociological problems (Okereke & Ekpe, 2002).
Globalization and Poverty in Perspective
Globalization concept is established on a perspective which is quite similar to the
world system theory; however, its main focus is on the cultural aspect of the nations and
their international communications. Globalization theory argues that development can be
analyzed based on the cultural links which exist among nations in the international
community (Kaplan, 1992). Reyes (2001) argues that the central premise of globalization
theory is that development can be understood by analyzing the international connections,
primary roles, and interconnected relationships which exist among various nations that play
an important role in achieving any atom of development. Reyes (2001) points out that
globalization theory lays emphasis on the cultural aspects of the nations and their
interactions among each other, as such; development can best be interpreted along cultural
and economic linkages existing among nations.
According to Moore (1992), globalization theory ensures that global
communication system is gaining momentum in many parts of the world, thereby creating
opportunity for underdeveloped nations to communicate with the developed nations
through modern technology. The increase in communication among nations is creating an
environment for business transaction which could eventually boost development.
Globalization theory, therefore views cultural factors and communication network as the
main determinants of economic progress in any nation. Globalization theory has been
criticized for being an uneven process as it does not always stimulate economic progress
of all nations as expected. Okereke (2002) maintains that globalization has bought about
cultural inferiority among African nations.
The above mentioned theories tend to analyze development in Nigeria from various
perspectives. The modernization theory, for instance, argues on the basis of Nigeria’s poor
state of development which is linked to her inability to adhere to the various stages of
development as prescribed by Rostow. In addition, evidence also reveals that the
innovative personality of the Nigerian state may as well have adverse effects on the
nation’s effort to achieve adequate development since its innovative capacity is still at a
rudimentary stage. Others tend to attribute Nigeria’s poor state of development to the
economic exploitation from the more powerful and industrialized countries of the world.
This is because there has always been an unequal trade relationship between the developed
and developing countries of the world.
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Thus, this paper is of the view that for development to be achieved, independent
nations must strive to establish state owned industries that will aid in boosting their
economy towards self-reliance. Development challenges in Nigeria like in any other
country, can be attributed to the division of various countries into three hierarchical levels,
which are core, periphery, and semi-periphery countries. Development can therefore not
be achieved by the continuous exploitation of one country by the other. Thus, development
tends to favor only those countries that possess adequate capital and technical know-how
which other countries can depend on that have a greater advantage in the world market
system.
Development in Nigeria like in any other country can be achieved and sustained
when there is an increasing level of cultural and social interactions with other countries of
the world. This is because the high level of global communication, integration and
interconnection will aid in the transfer of ideas, technologies and capital among the
industrialized and developing countries of the world thereby reducing poverty and
enhancing socioeconomic development.
The challenges of development in Nigeria have become worrisome across the six
geopolitical regions of Nigeria due to the prevalence of abject poverty. There are scholars
who spelt out some of the problems that lead to challenges of development in Nigeria to
include: Makinde (2005); Babawale, (2007); Nnabuife, (2010); Yunusa, (2009); Itah,
(2012); Gberevbie, Shodipo and Oviasogie, (2013). For Makinde (2005), the imposition of
policies on citizens of the nation, lack of adequate human resources or capital to implement
these plans/policies, corruption and lack of credible leadership are the major challenges to
Nigeria’s development. Most national development problems in Nigeria arise as a result of
poor implementations of policies and lack of adequate and reliable human resources.
Makinde (2005) further maintains that most policies of developing nations are imposed on
the masses. Often times, such policies are made by the government without considering
the target population, as the people are not given the opportunity to contribute in the
formation of policies that concern their well-being. In addition, there are no adequate
human resources developments in the country.
Records from United Nations Development Program (2014) report reveals that
Nigeria ranked number 152 out of 187 countries in the Human Development Index (HDI)
which indicates that there was low quality of life and standard of living among the citizens.
The report puts the Nigeria’s Human Development Index at 0.381%, which is below the
prescribed level. The report also points that, although corruption is a global issue, Nigeria,
as a country, is caught in the web of corruption. Often times, funds which are set aside for
implementing policies are usually siphoned to the detriment of the entire nation. In
addition, lack of credible leadership which can recognize and articulate the specific needs
of the people also poses a challenge to development and increasing poverty among citizens
of Nigeria.
65
Dike (2010) also stresses the fact that leadership has become a bane of development
in Nigeria. Most of the so-called leaders do not actually understand that leadership entails
assuming responsibilities of certain important issues. Poor governance on the part of the
leaders has also resulted in inappropriate checks and has eroded the balance and mechanism
to regulate the affairs of government officials and institutions. As such, politics is seen as
“do or die” affairs, while issues of transparency, accountability and probity are relegated
to the background (Shodipe and Oviasogie, 2013).
The leadership structure in Nigeria is also said to have undue influence and
attachment to ethnic and other primordial sentiments. The improper assessment of policies
implemented also serves as a challenge to development (Itah, 2012). Most policy makers
fail to access the goal achievement gap factor. The reason for this is because most leaders
present policies which are too cumbersome and difficult to achieve within the short period
spent in office. As such, most plans for national development are usually abandoned at the
end of such tenures. Subsequent governments also fail to continue with the plans which
were left uncompleted. This, therefore, explains the reasons for numerous abandoned
projects found in developing nations, including Nigeria. This neglect has become the major
reason for rising poverty and underdevelopment of Nigeria (Yunusa, 2009).
Global Poverty and Nigeria’s Poverty Situation: Some links
Poverty is one of the intractable problems facing mankind today. In 1995, an
estimated 1.3 billion people out of the estimated 5.7 billion people in the world were in the
shackles of extreme poverty, living on less than one dollar ($1.00) a day (Ilori, 1999).
According to the most recent estimates, in 2015, 10 percent of the world population lived
on less than $1.90 a day, compared to 11% in 2013. That is down from nearly 36% in 1990.
Nearly 1.1 billion fewer people are living in extreme poverty than 1990 (World Bank
2016). It has also been revealed that at least 80% of humanity lives on less than $10 a day.
More than 80% of world populations live in countries where income differentials are
widening. The poorest 40% of the world’s population account for 5% of global income.
The richest 20% accounts for three-quarters of world’s income (www.globalissues.org).
Of the countries that have the highest number of poverty rate in the world, Nigeria
is the top rated as the most extreme poverty nation in the world. Nigeria has the largest
extreme poverty population (Kazeem, 2018). The 86.9 million Nigerians are now living in
extreme poverty represents nearly 50% of its estimated 180 million population. As Nigeria
faces major population boom it will become the world’s third largest country by 2050, its
population will likely worsen (https://zz.com; Africa, 2018). By this report, Nigeria has
overtaken India as the country with the most extreme poor people in the world. India has a
population seven times larger than Nigeria’s. The struggle to lift more citizens out of
extreme poverty is an indictment of successive Nigerian governments which have
mismanaged the country’s vast oil riches through incompetence and corruption. Nigeria
has the largest extreme poverty population Kazeem, 2018, as show in Table 1. below.
66
Table I. People living in extreme poverty in Africa

Nigeria - - - - 86.9 million
India - - - - 71.5 million
D.R.C (Cong) - - - 60.9 million
Ethiopia - - - - 23.9 million
Tanzania - - - - 19.9 million
Mozambique - - - 17.8 million
Bangladesh - - - 17.0 million
Kenya - - - - 14.7 million
Indonesia - - - - 14.2 million
Uganda - - - - 14.2 million
Source: Kazeem (2018)
The 86.9 million Nigerians are now living in extreme poverty represents nearly
50% of its estimated 180 million populations. As Nigeria faced a major population boom-
it will become the world’s third largest country by 2050- it’s poverty problem will likely
worsen. But having large swathes of people still living in extreme poverty is an Africa-
wide problem, and Nigeria with rising population has become more challenging of poverty
which leads to increasing levels of insecurity and underdevelopment in Nigeria.
Top 10 African countries with extreme poverty (June, 2018)

Table II: African countries living in extreme poverty
Nigeria - - - - 86.9 million
D.R Congo - - - 60.9 million
Ethiopia - - - - 29.9 million
Tanzania - - - - 19.9 million
Mozambique - - - 17.8 million
Kenya - - - - 14.7 million
Uganda - - - - 14.2 million
South Africa - - - 13.8 million
South Sudan - - - 11.4 million
Zambia - - - - 9.5 million
Source: Kazeem (2018); Quartz. Com 2018 update
Crucially, of those countries in top ten, only Ethiopia is on track to meet the United
Nations SDG of ending extreme poverty by 2030. Outside the top ten, only Ghana and
Mauritania are also on track with the SDG target. Indeed, of the 15 countries across the
world where extreme poverty is raising per world poverty clock data, 13 are currently in
Africa.
67
As a consequence, the mission to end extreme poverty globally is already at risk.

By July, 2018, 83 million people have been lifted out of extreme poverty since January
2016- but the number is 37 million people less than required to meet the 2030 target
(quarts.com, 2018).
Table III: Countries with extreme poverty population in Africa

COUNTRY PERCENTAGE OF SDG STATUS
POPULATION IN
EXTREME POVERTY
Nigeria 46.7 Poverty rising
D.R. Congo 77.0 Poverty rising
Ethiopia 23.4 On Track
Tanzania 35.0 Off Track
Mozambique 61.8 Off Track
Kenya 30.0 Off Track
Uganda 34.2 Off Track
South Africa 24.6 Off Track
South Sudan 93.0 Poverty rising
Zambia 57.2 Poverty rising
Source: Kazeem, 2018; Quartz.com 2018 update.
Poverty, Nigeria and challenges of Development: Some Explications.
Despite its vast oil riches and impressive economic growth, Nigeria has struggled
without success to lift its people out of poverty over the past three decades. That fact stands
out in the World Bank’s 2017 Atlas of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which
shows that 35 million more Nigerians were living in extreme poverty in 2013 than 1990.
The Atlas tracks the progress countries are making to meet 17 sustainable development
goals, set by the United Nations, such as reducing economic inequality, the use of clean
energy, and literacy rates. Among the 10 most populated countries for which data are
available, only Nigeria recorded an increase in the number of citizens who live in extreme
poverty over the period of the study. The Atlas defines “extreme poverty” as living on less
than $1.90 a day (World Bank, 2017).
68
Table IV: People living in extreme poverty (less than $1.90) per day.
1990 2013
China 756 Million 25 Million
India 338 Million 218 Million
Indonesia 104 Million 25 Million
Pakistan 62 Million 12 Million
Nigeria 52 Million 82 Million
Bangladesh 45 Million 18 Million
Brazil 31 Million 10 Million
Ethiopia 29 Million 20 Million
Mexico 9 Million 4 Million
Russia 3 Million 0.04 Million
Source: World Bank, 2017; Atlas of Sustainable Development Goals, 2018).
While the ballooning number can be linked to a population surge in Nigeria (the
country grew from 96 to 174 million people between 1990 and 2013), this increase in
population account for the persistence of extreme poverty in the country. All 10% of the
biggest countries in the World Bank’s report also registered population increases over that
period, barring Russia. Nigeria’s 81% population increase was dwarfed by Ethiopia, which
saw a 96% increase over the same period (World Bank, 2017).
Nigeria’s progress has been significantly impeded by its inability to distribute the country’s
immense oil wealth to the citizens. This is corroborated by a recent report from the Legatum
Institute, a London-based think-tank, which measured “Prosperity delivery” to citizens in
comparison to a country’s actual wealth. Of the 38 countries covered by the research,
Nigeria ranked 26th, with the report saying it was “under-delivering” prosperity to its
citizens (Legatum Institute report, 2018). Corruption and incompetence are to be blame.
The recent judgment awarding costs of $93 billion against Nigeria has been yet another
reminder of how much malfeasance of public officials can cost the country. Emails leaked
by Anti-Corruption Charities Global Witness and Finance (2019) suggested that a $81.3
billion payment by oil giant shell and ENI in 2011for a lucrative but underdeveloped
Nigerian oil field never went to the public trust for which it was intended. Instead, almost
all of the money (nearly half of that year’s national budget) was divided up as kickbacks
between high ranking government officials (World Bank, 2018). The implication of all
these is that development eludes the nation, given way to poverty on the faces of Nigerians.
Conclusion
This paper interrogates the problems of poverty and its effect to development in
Nigeria. These challenges range from the non-involvement of citizens in the formulation
of policies, lack of adequate human resources or capital, corruption and lack of credible
leadership, among others. It concludes that for development to be realized there is need to
take care of the challenges mentioned and every other thing that may hinder the
69
achievement of development in the country such as poverty. It is pertinent to note that

development is not one sided but multi-dimensional which includes freedom from
servitude. It is on these premises that the following recommendations are made.
Recommendations
To achieve socioeconomic development that will transform the social and
economic wellbeing of the citizens and reduce poverty, the following recommendations
are made:
i. The Nigerian government must ensure that the plan for national development
should be people centered. A people centred policy will go a long way to reduce
poverty among the citizen and enable them contribute meaningfully to the
economic growth of the country.
ii. The leadership in the country should be corruption free and development focused
to expand the resource base of the nation and increase the purchasing power of the
people.
iii. The masses should be involved at the formulation stage so as to make inputs on
what concerns their lives and provide suggestions on how those inputs can be
achieved.
iv. Political leaders should analyze concretely the goal achievement-gap approach so
as not to present manifestoes that would not be realized during their stay in office.
v. There should be continuity and stability in policies so as to avoid the continuous
presence of numerous abandoned projects in Nigeria. Thus, Nigerian leadership
must learn to build on already existing projects rather than to abandon them for new
ones for the sake of political parties and other personal interests.
vi. Electoral processes in Nigeria should be reformed so as to promote free and fair
selection process of leaders.
vii. Local and developing industries should be encouraged by the government with all
the necessary incentives to stimulate economic growth since they serve as the key
to technological and industrial advancements of nation-states in the promotion of
economic and reduction of poverty among citizens.
viii. Globalization is a double-edged sword, its proper understanding and acceptance
will also help in increasing development and enhance the social and economic well
being of the citizens, thereby reducing poverty to its barest minimum.
70
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73
Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic

Approach
1
Isa Mohammed
1
Department of Political Science and International Relations, Taraba State University, Jalingo
Abstract
Youth gangs and youth violence have been on the increase in recent times within Jalingo
Metropolis. This has resulted in insecurity and loss of lives and properties of the
inhabitants. The emergence and activities of the “Base Boys” creates an atmosphere of
disproportionate gang violence by the restive youths in Jalingo. This study examines the
approaches and strategies adopted in curtailing the spread and negative transformation of
the new phenomenon of the Sara-Suka (youth gang groups) by the Jalingo Local
Government Council, Muri Emirate Council and Security Agencies in Taraba State. The
sources of data are both primary and secondary. The methods of data collection are primary
through unstructured interviews and direct observations. The theoretical framework
adopted in this study is the Social Learning Theory, which defines social behavior through
the social learning process. The theory posits that people learn from one another through
observation, imitation and modeling. The differential association theory which is a micro
level theory is also explored. The study findings revealed that push and pull factors from
rural-urban migration and crisis in the northeast as a result of Boko Haram insurgency
brought in thousands of refugees to Jalingo metropolis. This is further reinforced by ethno-
religious conflicts within Taraba State which forced internally displaced persons (IDPs) to
relocate and settle in Jalingo town, thereby aggravating the development of youth violence
gang groups. The study recommends that to combat youth violence, community policing
should be encouraged, government at all levels should initiate pro-poor youth
empowerment programs, provision of modern security gazettes and constant patrol of flash
points and criminal hideouts areas in the metropolis.
Keywords: Community Policing, Gang Violence, Jalingo, Pragmatic Approach, Youth

Gang.
Introduction
Youth gangs and youth violence have been on the increase in recent times within
Jalingo Metropolis, which has resulted in insecurity and loss of lives and properties of its
inhabitants. The emergence and activities of the “Base Boys” create an atmosphere of
disproportionate gang violence by the restive youths in Jalingo, Taraba state’s capital.
Urban youth violence is multifaceted in nature and carried out by criminal groups, youth
gangs, militias and political thugs at different times for different reasons. This violence
may be either expressive or instrumental depending on the context. Since the return to civil
74
Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis: A Pragmatic Approach
rule in 1999, the phenomena of political thugs and youth gangs have increased across the
Nigerian federation gradually and systematically.
As a result of the growing insecurity in recent times, the Federal Government of
Nigeria (FGN) has approved the adoption of new strategies such as community policing
for combating various crimes perpetrated all over the country (Odegbunam, 2019). The
FGN has already inaugurated a 14-Man Committee in May, 2019, mandated to come up
with a clear road map for addressing the new security challenges. A meeting was also held
between the FGN and Nigerian Governors’ Forum on the possibility of using the N-Power
Volunteers as local security operatives that would assist the Police on internal security. The
meeting recommended the need to engage over 500,000 volunteers to be used across the
36 states and 774 LGAs in the country (Sahara Reporters 2019; Mudassir, 2019).
Just as at the federal level, various strategies have been adopted in combating youth
gang violence and general insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis since the escalation of youth
violence in early 2017. According to police reports, since the escalation of violence, eleven
people have been officially reported killed, while over 300 persons have been arrested in
the last two years (Taraba Police Command, 2018 cited in Mohammed, 2018). In addition
to gang violence and general insecurity, kidnapping is also on the increase within and
around Jalingo metropolis. This rather unfortunate phenomenon which was not known
previously in Jalingo town has become rampant in recent times. Most of the targets of the
kidnappers are wealthy individuals, politicians and senior civil servants. In April 2019
alone, over 20 persons were kidnapped in Jalingo Metropolis, excluding other parts of the
States (Hunkuyi, 2019). It is against this background that this paper examined the
community policing strategy adopted by Jalingo Local Government and Muri Emirate
Council in combating youth restiveness and general insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis.
Conceptual Clarifications
Community Policing
Community policing is a universal way of tackling crime and general insecurity in
a community through partnership between the community, State Police and other security
agencies. There is no one way of implementing community policing as a problem-solving
technique in a society. According to United States Department of Justice (1992),
community policing is a philosophy that promotes organizational strategies in the
community to combat potential situations that might create public safety issues such as
social unrest, fear, and crime and gang violence.
The history of community policing as a strategy of fighting crime could be traced
to the 19th century in Europe and United State of America. However, in the 1960s it
became popular in the United State of America. Recent studies have shown that over 80%
of crimes and other related offenses have been solved through community policing in the
United State of America. It is a reaction against the fire brigade approach and a total
75
departure from reactive policing to proactive policing in crime control (US Department of
Justice, 2009).
In Africa, Nigeria and Taraba State in particular, community policing is a very old
phenomenon. The method of controlling crime has been the traditional method of native
authority (Local Police) which was old-fashioned but effective in crime control and general
security. The idea of community policing started after the attainment of independence in
1960. Community policing is democratic and collaborative in nature. It requires the active
participation of local government, civic, business leaders, public and private agencies,
residents, Churches, Mosques, schools, hospitals, NGOs, the Police, etc. All the security
agencies have to come together to design and implement measures or policies that would
prevent crime and promote peaceful co-existence in the society. The essence of community
policing is built on trust and prevention and elimination of crime and violence.
Community policing through community participation prevents crime in society
(Adisa, 1994 cited in IFRA-Nigeria). It embodies the use of vigilantes, Civilian Joint Task
Force (CJTF) and multi-layer security apparatuses to control and fight crime holistically.
The Muri Emirate which was established in 1817, over 200 years ago after the Jihad of
Uthman Dan Fodio of 1804, has a robust community policing structure based on the
traditional political system inherited from the Islamic and the colonial administration of
indirect rule system.
Youth Gang
Youth gang refers to neighborhood or street-based youth groups that meet gang
criteria. It may be group of associates, friends or members of a family with a defined
leadership and internal organization that identifies with or claims control over a territory
in a community and engages, either individually or collectively, in illegal and possibly
violent behavior. Miller (1992) defines a street gang as a self-formed association of peers,
united by mutual interests, with identifiable leadership and internal organization, who act
collectively or as individuals to achieve specific purposes, including the conduct of illegal
activity and control of a particular territory, facility, or enterprise. In this context, the Sara-
Suka also known as Base Boys unleashing terror in Jalingo Metropolis are qualified as
youth gang that also claim territory in their various streets and neighborhoods. Gansterism
is a form of self-help which victimizes others. It may appear in societies which lack strong
forces of law and order. Gangsterism has become a society of itself.
Youth Violence
According to World Health Organization (2016), youth violence refers to the
intentional use of physical force or power to threaten or the actual use of physical force,
against oneself, another person, or against a group or community which either results in or
has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development
or deprivation. Youth violence is violence by young people between the ages of 10-24
76
years. It may be intra or inter group violence perpetrated by youths. Youth violence is an
extreme form of aggression which include; physical assault, bullying, rape, gun shooting,
kidnapping, drug trafficking, street brawling, slapping, violence dating and emotional
abuse among others. It may cause injury or death of the victims. What is happening in
Jalingo by the Sara-Suka is a peer violence among groups within the metropolis that is
linked to territoriality and social life. It is a social disorder that has become rampant and
dangerous in the past three years.
According to Mohammed (2018) youth violence within Jalingo Metropolis could

be classified into three types; violent youth gangs, political thugs and criminal youth gangs.
He maintains that youth violence in Jalingo Metropolis is caused by inter-group rivalry
between neighborhood groups and age groups known as the Base boys. There are various
reasons why violence is perpetrated in societies; some are as a result of relative deprivation
and political mobilization (Gurr, 1970; Tilly, 1978).
There are two major types of street gang violence. These are the expressive violence
and the instrumental violence. The main goal of the expressive violence is injury or
violence to an individual or group, while the main goal of the instrumental violence is not
to injure or kill, but to acquire property or money (National Gang Assessment Report, FBI,
ND).
Pragmatic Approach
According Online Cambridge Dictionary (2019), a Pragmatic Approach means
solving problems in a sensible way that suits the conditions that really exist now, rather
than obeying fixed theories, ideas, or rules. It is a mixed method of studying,
understanding, analyzing and explaining a situation. A pragmatic approach is more
practical than a theoretical approach in dealing with problems in reality. Therefore, in this
context, the combination of traditional approaches and community policing in prevention,
control and fighting youth gang violence in Jalingo Metropolis is through a pragmatic
philosophy of problem-solving in society. This is the new paradigm of combating crime in
Nigeria. The Federal Government of Nigeria is working towards implementing community
policing in tackling the new emerging challenges of farmer/herder conflicts, kidnappings,
rape, Boko Haram insurgency and political thuggery among others.
Theoretical Framework
This study is anchored on Social Learning Theory (SLT). There are different sub-
types of social learning theory from Skinner to Bandura that emphasize learning process
and outcomes (Skinner, 1933; Bandura, 1966; 1972). However, our focus is on Differential
Association Theory (DAT) propounded by Sutherland’s (1986; 1999) and Akers’ Social
Learning Theory (1966; 2000). The differential association is a micro level theory which
consists of nine (9) propositions or assumptions as follows:
i. Criminal behavior is learned.
77
ii. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of

communication.
iv. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate
personal groups.
v. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of
committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very
simple, and (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalization, and
attitudes.
vi. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the
legal codes as favorable and unfavorable.
vii. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to
violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.
viii. Differential association may vary in frequencies, duration, priority, and
intensity.
ix. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-
criminal patterns involve all the mechanisms that are involved in any other
learning.
x. Although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, because
non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and value.
Moreover, the Akers’ social learning support Sutherland’s differential association with the
very slight expansion and integration. The theory states further that criminal behavior is
not just only learned, but can be imitated. There are four basic concepts in the theory;
differential association, definitions, reinforcement and imitation. Differential association
has both behavioral interaction and normative dimensions. Definitions are individuals’
own attitudes or meanings that are attached to given behavior based on rationalization. It
is the process of justifying the right or wrong, good or bad, doable or undoable. The
individual defines the behavior as good (positive definition) or bad (negative definition).
The third concept of differential reinforcement means the balance of the anticipated or
actual rewards or punishments which comes after a behavior. Meaning, the chances or
possibility of committing a crime depends on the past, present, or future rewards or
punishments for the action or behavior.
Reinforcement refers to those groups that control persons’ sources of reinforcement
and punishment and expose them to behavioral models and normative definitions. These
include family, peers, schools and religious bodies such as churches and mosques and other
groups. Imitation, therefore, is exhibiting the same type of behaviors by others that one
associates with either peers or family.
It could be stressed here that trajectories and transitions in individuals’ life affect
their sense of belonging and worldview. The Base boys are boys in the process of transition
in life and their transformation is complicated by the social context they found themselves.
78
Jalingo Metropolis has had experience of the adolescent bonding occurring very fast due
to the urbanization and globalization in the social media and other media.
Methodology
This study uses both primary and secondary sources of data. The primary data were
generated through unstructured interviews with the critical stakeholders, notably the
Taraba State Commander of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), the
Secretary of the Muri Emirate Council and some legal practitioners in Jalingo as key
informants. The interviews were conducted between May and September, 2019. The choice
of these individuals and agencies is purposive, judging by their involvement and
knowledge of the developments and dynamics of the activities of the Base boys’
transformation in Jalingo town. A field survey was undertaken within Jalingo metropolis
through direct observations on the activities of the youth gang groups, particularly on the
flash points. The method of data analysis used in the paper is the qualitative descriptive
method. This is in order to identify the dynamics, attributes, challenges and solutions.
Therefore, the study adopts a triangular approach in the collection and analysis of data.

New Strategies for Combating Youth Violence and Insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis
These strategies centered mostly on community policing approach that was
developed with the support of the Taraba State Government, Jalingo Local Government
Authority and security agencies in the State.
Table1. Muri Emirate’s community policing strategy in combating youth gang

violence in Jalingo metropolis
S/N Name of Committee Composition Responsibilities

1 Committee of Elders Elders in the To look into the general security
Ward/Area problems and challenges and
resolve them in the Ward/Area
2 Committee of Youths Youths in the To identify all the youths within
Ward/Area their Ward/Area for security
reasons
3 Security Committee Civilian Joint Task To provide security and maintain
Force in the law and order in the Ward/Area
Ward/Area
Source: Author’s Compilation
Table 1 above shows the efforts of the Muri Emirate Council in collaboration with
the Jalingo Local Government Council, Security Agencies and community leaders towards
79
combating youth restiveness within the Jalingo Metropolis. Each Ward/Area was tasked to
have the three committees and manage their operations in order to mitigate the urban
violence and general insecurity. The strategy has been yielding positive results in managing
and controlling the gang violence. Consequently, the gang violence and general insecurity
in the Jalingo metropolis has reduced significantly.
Table 2: Records of arrests and seizures of hard drugs by NDLEA Taraba State 2016-
2018
S/ YEAR ARRES SEX SEIZURES PROSECUTIO
N TS NS
MAL FEMAL CANNABI PSYCHOTROP
E E S SATIVA IC
1 2016 249 242 7 2,536.728k 1,013.276grams 48
g
2 2017 117 116 1 755.761kg 598.899grams 30
3 2018 113 111 2 309.994kg 3,507.777grams 14
TOTA 479 469 10 3,602.483k 5,119.952grams 92
L g
Source: Adapted from NDLEA, Taraba State Command, 2019
The Table 2 shows the records of arrests, seizures and sexes of drugs dealers and
addicts in Taraba State. Drawing from the periods 2016 to 2018 under review above, the
percentage of those arrested in 2016 were 97% male and 3% female. In 2017 male were 99
% while female 1 %, in 2018, male arrests were 98 % with female 2 %.
In Jalingo, according to NDLEA, what is common is the use and dealings in illicit drugs.
However, in Jalingo cultivation of Cannabis Sativa is very rare. This, therefore, shows that
more males than females are involved in illicit drug dealings and substance abuse. Another
interesting fact is that Psychotropic drugs are consumed or used more than the Cannabis
Sativa in the State. Prosecutions of arrested persons were successfully achieved, which
were 48, 30 and 14 persons for the years 2016, 2017 and 2018 respectively.
Table 3: Taraba Police Command strategic positioning of Police in Jalingo Metropolis

S/N FLASH POINT (S) LOCATION (S) POLICE
PRESENCE
1 PDP Round About Turaki “A” Permanent
2 Mayo Gwoi Bus Stop/Market Barade Ward Permanent
3 Jalingo Main Motor Park Kona Ward Permanent
4 Road Block Round About Kona Ward Permanent
5 Mobile Police Base Sabon Kachalla Ward Permanent
Gari
Source: Author’s compilation
80
The above table shows the various tipping points identified by the Taraba Police
Command where Police officers have been stationed permanently since the rampant
clashes of the Sara-Suka started. The main function of the security officers at these flash
points is to respond immediately to any violence within Jalingo Metropolis, particularly
youth gang violence since 2018.
Discussion of findings
The phenomenon of youth gang violence has been rampant in Jalingo Metropolis
since early 2017 and throughout 2018. The Jalingo Local Government Council under the
leadership Hon. Abdul-Nasir Bobboji set-up a Committee led by Mallam Aminu Jika, a
former Chief of Staff to Taraba State Government in 2018, which investigated the remote
and immediate causes of youth restiveness and drug abuse. Most of the recommendations
of the Committee were not fully implemented.
In mid-2018, the Emir of Muri, Alhaji Abbas Njidda Tafida (OFR), initiated a
community policing agenda to deal with the rising youth restiveness. The Emir summoned
the over hundred (100) Ward Heads from the ten (10) Political Wards of Jalingo Local
Government Area to adopt a holistic approach towards curbing the root causes of youth
gang violence and social unrest in Jalingo Metropolis (Saidu, personal communication, 17
June, 2019). This approach led to the formation of various committees which are the Elders,
Youth and Security Committees respectively. The Committees were formed and
inaugurated in mid-2018 to tackle the youth gang violence and general insecurity in their
respective Wards/Areas in Jalingo and environs.
Nevertheless, the challenges of the Committees have been funding, equipment and
logistics. However, wealthy individuals have been providing assistance when needed. In
the area of carrying out their duties in arresting and persecution of suspects, the issues of
political interference in the process and criminal justice in regards to violation of human
right by the security committee have been the obstacles observed.
According to Alhaji Usman Sai’du Gassol, the Secretary, Muri Emirate Council,
one of the major problem has been lack of youth inclusion in the traditional institution
administration and democratic governance in the State. This is why the Muri Emirate
Council introduced conferment of titles on youths, for example titles like Sarkin Matasa
(youth leader), Jakadun Matasa (youth ambassadors), among others. There were also
allegations of excessive use of force and human rights abuses in handling suspects accused
of gang violence and interference by powerful politicians in the work of the committees.
The best way to handle the conflicts should be Alternative Dispute Settlement Mechanism
(ADSM) which is very flexible and cheap in resolving conflicts among the people in the
society.
Mr Patrick O. Odaudu, the State Commander NDLEA, stated that the strategies to
control drug abuse, according to the United Nations Office on Drug and Crime (UNODC),
81
include: supply, demand and harm reduction in any given society. This is the strategy that
has been adopted in Jalingo Metropolis and Taraba State at large. Moreover, he identified
the followings as the physical consequences of drug abuse, pre-mature death, physical
fatigue, and psychological loss of memory, hallucination, while social consequences
include the loss of job, prostitution and rejection (Odaudu, personal communication 12
July, 2019).
A point of convergence from those interviewed is that Jalingo has witnessed
remarkable changes due to urbanization, rural and urban migration and refugees from
conflicts prone areas from within and outside the State. The negative aspect of these
developments is the influx of criminals and light weapons into the city, especially among
the youths. In the last one decade of Boko Haram insurgency in the North-east, Jalingo has
been the “safe haven” of escapees from the theatre of the various conflicts.
By and large, there were extensive campaigns launched against gang violence in
Jalingo Metropolis by religious groups and civil society organizations in the Churches,
Mosques, media and various fora as community efforts towards mitigation of the menace.
Consequently, the use of social media, especially Facebook to report incidences of
violence, rape, fighting, maiming and even deaths, has added to the escalation of youth
gang violence within the metropolis. The reason is that it is easy to inform, mobilize, and
revenge attacks by one group against the other. It is very easy to post or share information
on the social media platforms, especially Facebook and WhatsApp, to group members for
speed, secrecy, solidarity and action.
Conclusion
This study attempts to examine the strategies used in combating youth gang
violence in Jalingo Metropolis by the Jalingo Local Government and Muri Emirate
Council. The gang violence in Jalingo is perpetrated by the youths within the ages of 15 to
35 from families of lower economic status. The natures of the gang violence have been
intra and inter group (s). The violence usually results from delinquent behaviors such as
brawling, rape, drug abuse and alcoholism.
There are risk factors that determine the violence in the context of the trajectory and
transition. The transition and transformation of the violence are influenced by age grades,
neighborhoods, and streets solidarity within the Jalingo Metropolis. The violent groups
have names, leaders, core members, peripheral members, symbols and colors as identified
by Jalingo Local Government Council Committee report headed by Mallam Aminu Jika in
2018.
The gang violence members are mostly male with few female members. Since the
formation of the Community Policing Approach Committees by the Muri Emirate Council
to curtail the twin issues of gang violence and general insecurity in Jalingo Metropolis,
there have been reductions in gang violence and improvement on the security situation. It
82
is therefore correct to say that the Community Policing introduced in combating the rising
youth violence is working, and should be sustained for more positive results.
The deployment of security agencies at tipping points in the Metropolis to respond to
clashes among the violent groups have been helpful. The strategic efforts of the Taraba
Police Command in carrying out constant patrols, raids, arrests and prosecution of youth
gangs have reduced the crime rate within Jalingo.
Consequently, the activities of NDLEA in Jalingo and the State at large in fighting drug
abuse, trafficking and cultivation have shown evidence of reduction rather than increase in
dealing with illicit drugs in the State. The various arrests, seizures and convictions by the
Agency as presented above have been very useful in understanding the challenges
associated with drug abuse and crime nexus.
Therefore, the strategies used in curbing youth gang violence in Jalingo Metropolis are
yielding positive outcomes and need to include issues like rehabilitation, disarmament and
re-integration of the Sara-Suka base boys into the society in order to become productive
agents of societal development.
Finally, the increasing negative use of social media platforms like Facebook and WhatsApp
to spread sometimes fake news on the activities of the base boys, political thugs and
criminals exacerbates the volatile security situation in Jalingo Metropolis.
Recommendations
i. Government at Local Government and State levels should implement the
recommendations of Mal. Aminu Jika Committee.
ii. The government should build rehabilitation centers.
iii. The government should initiate youth empowerment programs.
iv. The government should make a law banning all violent/illegal youth groups.
v. Compulsory drug test, for political appointment, employment and admissions.
vi. There should be youth inclusion in governance.
vii. Installation of modern security gazettes (security control room for Jalingo Metropolis).
Reference
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policing. Daily Trust. https://dailytrust.com.ng Retrieved 9 October, 2019.
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Oral Interviews
S/N NAME AGE SEX OCCUPATION PLACE OF DATE OF
INTERVIEW INTERVIE
W
1 Alh. Sa’idu Usman 57 M Civil Servant Muri Emirate Palace 17/06/19
Gassol
2 Mr. Patrick O. 58 M Civil Servant NDLEA Taraba 12/07/19

Odaudu State Office
3 Barr. Bilyaminu 36 M Legal Practitioner Baba Ya’u CBN 26/07/19

Bakoji
4 Mr. Dankishiya 26 M Politician Millennium Suites 30/07/19

Mustapha Saleh
85
Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope

with life after Insurgency in Yobe State.
1
Adamu Saleh Usman, 1Ali Umaru and 2Idriss Usman
1Department of History, Umar Suleiman College of Education, Gashua, Yobe State.

2Nahuta Science and Religious Academy Potiskum, Yobe State
Email: adamusaleu@gmail.com
Abstract
The Boko Haram insurgency has brought about an enormous humanitarian crisis resulting
in massive displacement of persons from their places of residence. Yobe State is one of the
most affected states where a number of casualties have been recorded as a result of the
insurgency. As the number of casualties remains unaccountable, so also the number of
persons displaced by the insurgency in the State. It is obvious that the Internally Displaced
Persons (IDPs) are the most vulnerable category of people to poverty in the State because
of their inaccessibility to the basic needs for life support and protection. This study
examines the extent of the humanitarian crisis associated with the Boko Haram insurgency
as well as how the displaced persons who returned for resettlement would cope with life
after the recent phenomenon. Findings of the study have shown that displacement of
persons brought about abandoning of income generating activities, disruption in trading,
closing of markets in most of the conflict-affected areas and deterioration of food security.
There are numerous problems facing the internally displaced persons who returned for
resettlement in Yobe State. Some of these problems include inadequate safety and security,
poor food and nutrition, lack of shelter, inadequate educational and health care facilities.
Considering the Human Needs Theory, this study attempts to investigate on the
rehabilitation of Internally Displaced Persons in Nigeria, focusing on Yobe state as an area
of the study. The paper recommends that the government needs to formulate and implement
policies that will respond to the menace of vulnerability of persons and block any avoidable
factor leading to further displacement of persons.
Keywords: Internally displaced persons, Insurgency, Rehabilitation, Resettlement and
Yobe State
Introduction
It was in 2014 that the Secretary General of the United Nations, Ban-Ki Moon
asserted that displacement of persons remains the most tremendous challenge facing the
world. The Sub-Saharan Africa has an estimate of 15 million internally displaced persons
out of the total 33.3 million worldwide. This shows a record of 7.5% increase between
86
Resettlement of Internally Displaced Persons: The Need for Rehabilitation to cope with life after Insurgency in Yobe State.
2013 and 2014. Attempts at managing the condition in the affected countries became more
worrisome because of the substantial increase in the number of the IDPs (Folabi, 2014).
At the global level, emphasis was placed more on managing the condition of
refugees than that of the internally displaced persons, yet the latter equally constitute a
challenge to the stability and development in the country. Internally displaced persons are
in most cases the people affected by the brutal actions of the evil-hearted people (man-
against-man), a variety of unjust practices perpetrated either by the government of the state
or by others such as a terrorist group, ethno-religious conflicts, natural disaster, communal
clashes, riots, etc.
In this study, internally displaced persons are seen to result from the activities of
the Boko Haram militancy in which countless number of persons fled their places of
residence to other places considered relatively safe. In such affected communities, the
livelihood of the people has been seriously affected by the insurgency; trade was disrupted
by border closure, farmers halted access to their farmlands and herders prevented from
reaching their grazing lands, marketers were denied access to markets and students were
forced to stay at home for months due to closure of schools and bombardments. Also,
properties worth millions of dollars have been destroyed, hence, the need to rebuild the
North East Nigeria.
Internally displaced persons in Yobe State suffer from different problems,
including food insecurity, malnutrition, health challenges, abuse of children, trafficking of
persons, and lack of access to education, among others. The vulnerability of the IDPs in
Yobe state is becoming alarming. This poses the need to formulate sustainable policies for
immediate implementation and rehabilitation of affected persons and bring under control
such problem of insurgency and forestalled future occurrence.
The present government has played a vital role in bringing the insurgency to its
presumed end, as such, many displaced persons are returning to their places of abode for
resettlement. The IDPs as human beings require the basic needs for survival, such as the
need for food, shelter, health care, education, security, etc. These needs must be met upon
their safe arrival at their homes. It is the responsibility of the government to provide for
these basic needs during their return because the displaced persons have lost their sources
of livelihood, resources and savings to disaster, and suffers great hardship (Crisp, 2012).
This can be done by implementing good policies of rehabilitation of the internally
displaced persons, except in a situation where the state violates the human rights treaties in
its handling of the internally displaced persons (Fitzpatrick, 2012).
It is quite imperative to note that rehabilitation of IDPs is not limited to donating
items to them intermittently and randomly, but rather, the strategy will require broad
methods to integrate the displaced persons into the society, provide them with economic
empowerment, support, enroll the children in school and expose them to health care
87
facilities and improve their food security situation. The policy requires a deliberate effort
and plan to tackle the experiential challenge and proffer sustainable solutions. These
strategies for rehabilitation will give clarity to the roles available to the federal and state
governments, public and private donors, national and local leaders as well as the
international actors to respond and address the growing number of challenges confronting
the displaced persons in Nigeria. If the problem is left unattended to the vulnerability of
the IDPs may instigate intolerant attitudes, radicalism and other social vices that could
bring about unrest in the state.
The rehabilitation of Nigerian IDPs returning for resettlement especially in Yobe
state requires a strategic road map from stakeholders in government cycle, international
organizations, NGOs and critical stakeholders. This will help the internally displaced
persons recover from the challenges of insecurity, malnutrition, domestic violence and
psychological trauma they suffer in the various camps where they are returning from.
Review of Literature
According to a 2014 estimate of the Geneva based Internal Displacement
Monitoring Centre (IDMC), there are approximately 33.3 million displaced persons across
the world (excluding the development-induced displacement), and about half of them are
in the Sub-Saharan Africa. The estimate also shows that there are 24 countries having the
highest rate of displacement and 9 of these countries are in Africa. Based on this estimate,
one can conclude that Africa is the continent with the highest number of IDPs in the world
(IDMC, 2014).
It was also found from the recent studies that Sub-Saharan Africa emerged the
highest in the distribution list, having 10.4 million IDPs with an increase of 7.5% between
2013 and 2014. There were 12.5 million IDPs in Sub-Saharan Africa as at the end of 2013,
out of this figure, Nigeria is having 3.3 million IDPs as of March, 2014. This makes Nigeria
the country with the highest number of IDPs in Africa (UNHCR, 2014).
According to the report of the 25th round of Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM)
assessment conducted by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in 2018, the
number of IDPs in Nigeria has substantially decreased to 2,026,602. This shows that the
number has drastically decreased compared to the data obtained in 2014. The report of the
26th round of the DTM assessment which was conducted in 2019 has identified 1,948,349
IDPs in Nigeria, with a nominal decrease of 4% (or 78,253 individuals) between 2018 and
2019.
In Yobe state, as observed from the 252th round of the DTM assessment conducted
in 2018, 136,635 IDPs were recorded in the state. While in the 26th round which took place
in 2019, the statistics have shown that the record is 127,857 IDPs in the state. This implies
that about 8,778 IDPs have returned to their places of domicile between 2018 and 2019
(IOM, 2019).
88
In another study, records of about 470,565 persons were reportedly displaced in

Nigeria between January, 2013 and February, 2014, all as a result of internal conflicts.
From January to March, 2014, insurgency leads to the displacement of about 250,000
persons in the Northern part of the country alone (Folabi, 2014).
Principle 28 of the United Nations’ Guiding Principles Relating to Returnee,
Resettlement and Reintegration notes that; internally displaced persons who have returned
to their homes or who have resettled in another part of the country shall not be
discriminated against as a result of their having been displaced. They shall have the right
to participate fully and equally in public affairs at all levels and have equal access to public
services. There are competent authorities shouldering the responsibility of assisting the
internally displaced persons when they returned for resettlement. They are being assisted
by the competent authorities in recovering the property and possession which they left
behind or were dispossessed during their displacement. When it is found that the recovery
of such property or possession is not possible, competent authorities should assist these
persons in obtaining appropriate restitution. Considering the numerous challenges
depriving the post-return livelihood of the displaced persons, the Abuja chapter of Nigerian
Young Professionals Forum (NYPF) had to intervene in the rehabilitation of the IDPs
affected by the insurgency in the North East (ICRC, 1998).
Insurgency
According to Douglas (1977) insurgency can be termed as protracted political,
military struggle directed towards subverting or displacing the legitimacy of a constituted
government or occupying power and completely or partially controlling the resources of a
territory through the use of irregular military forces and illegal political organizations. The
common denominator for most of the insurgent groups is their objective of gaining control
over a population or a particular territory including its resources.
In another definition as provided by the U.S. Government Counterinsurgency
Guide (2009), insurgency refers to a violent move by a person or group of persons to resist
or oppose the enforcement of law or running of government or revolt against constituted
authority of the state or of taking part in the insurrection.
Considering the definitions above, insurgency violates the constitutional law of
criminal behavior and the international treaty obligation of a nation in the following
circumstances: when it constitute an attack on defenseless citizens and other properties
resulting to injuries, loss of lives and properties as well as massive internal displacement
of people out of their places of habitual residence; when it drives business/investors away
from an insecure area; and also when it constitute domestic and international crimes
punishable by law such as treasonable felony, terrorism, murder, crime against humanity
89
and genocide. However, the insurgency is likely to overthrow an existing order with one
that is commensurate with their political, economic, ideological or religious goal.
Displaced persons
Taking the international law into consideration, displaced person refers to a person
or group of persons who have been forced or obligated to flee or to have cause to leave
their homes or places of habitual residence in particular, due to or in order to stay off the
effect of armed conflict, violation of human rights, situations of generalized violence,
natural or man-made disasters, making them to move to another place considered relatively
safe either within their own national borders (as IDPs) or travel across an internationally
recognized state border (as refugees) (Ladan, 2013).
According to Olawale (2016), internally displaced persons refers to persons or
group of persons who due to certain factors like armed conflict, progressive violations of
human rights, internal strife, natural or man-made disasters, etc., are forced to flee their
homes or places of their habitual residence suddenly or unexpectedly to another location
but have not crossed an internationally recognized border.
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation refers to a process through which anything, including human beings
should be restored to its original condition after suffering deformity. Rehabilitation as used
in this paper refers to a process of restoring and reintegrating the IDPs into communities,
by equipping them with various skills and ideas that will make them economically self-
reliant and give them the ability to pursue a sustainable livelihood instead of relying on
aid. This can be achieved through the reintegration of the returning IDPs at their original
places of residence, integration of the IDPs at their host communities, and integration with
other states in Nigeria.
The theoretical framework adopted in this study is the hierarchy of needs theory or
human needs theory. In most studies, using one or more scientific theory as the epitome of
the research is very important. The theory that gives apparent support to this study is the
Human Needs Theory. According to Coate and Rosati (1988), human needs are powerful
sources in explaining human behavior and social interaction. All individuals have certain
needs they strive to satisfy.
The proponent of this theory is Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970). The theory was
later popularized in the works by Marshall Rosenberg (1934 – 2015), Manfred Max-Neef
(1932 – 2019) and John Burton (1935 – 1999). The theory posits that humans need a
number of essentials to survive. According to the renowned psychologist Abraham Maslow
and the conflict scholar John Burton, these essentials go beyond the need for food, water
and shelter. They include both physical and non-physical elements needed for human
90
growth and development. The basic cause of intractable conflict is the underlying needs of
people to meet their needs on the individual, group and societal basis (Burton, 1990).
According to Maslow (1954), needs are hierarchical in nature. That is, each need
has a specific ranking or order of obtainment. The pyramid for a hierarchy of needs
provided by Maslow starts with the need for basic items like food, water and shelter. These
are followed by the need for safety and security, then belonging or love, self-esteem, and
finally, personal fulfillment. Burton and other need theorists have adopted the Maslow’s
idea, but they consider human needs as a collection of human development essentials.
According to the theory, as human beings need to live and attain wellbeing in all
ramifications of life, so it is that; there are certain essentials that must be attained for them
to survive. Such essentials are known as (basic) human needs. Therefore, the scholars
supporting the Human Needs Theory are of the view that the major factor that triggers
violence or conflict is the unavailability of the alternative means to meet the needs of
individuals or groups. Sometimes, violence also occurs when humans require
understanding, respect and consideration for their needs. Human needs are not only the
basic subsistence needs like the need for food, water and shelter, but also there are other
biological needs such as the need for identity, understanding, participation and recognition
(as mentioned by Kok, in Marker, 2003). While Maslow, also in Marker (2003) provided
the need for security, safety, belonging (love), self-esteem, and personal fulfillment (life
satisfaction).
Human needs theory is considered relevant to this study by referring to how Maslov
uses the theory as an approach to conflict resolution. This study is specifically about life
after insurgency. The theory is used in this study as an approach to conflict prevention
through the process of rehabilitation. As we found out from SEMA and other donor
agencies in Yobe state, the IDPs were provided with most of their basic needs (food, water,
shelter, financial empowerment, etc.) during their stay in the camp. As they are now
returning for resettlement in their original places, they should be found lost their sources
of livelihood. This makes the provision for their basic needs to have arisen. Such needs
include the need for food, water, health care, education among others (Crisp, 2012). If the
government fails to provide for those needs, they will live a miserable life and their children
tend to grow up and become a nuisance to the society and, as such, various social vices
may tend to occur.
Certain limitations of the theory, as currently formulated, can also be identified.
Basic human needs themselves are universal, transcending differences in class, gender and
culture, their satisfiers are culturally determined. But such a radical separation between
needs and satisfiers runs afoul of the fact that concepts like identity, security, etc, are not
independently ‘universals’ rather, they are ideas extracted from multiplicity of concrete
satisfiers (Danesh, 2011).
91
Burton (1990) is of the view that the characterization of ‘welfare’ and ‘freedom’
needs are misleading, since people will jeopardize or surrender both for the sake of
defending their identities. Moreover, extending the list of basic needs tends to blur the
distinction between ‘wants’ and ‘needs’ to the point that every intense desire may be
conceived as a basic need. At this point that the distinction between wants and needs
washes away entirely, of course, so does the utility of the theory.
Above all, the major limitation of this theory in respect to this study is the fact that;
human needs theory focuses more on conflict resolution rather than satisfying the basic
human needs in prevention of any conflict that may arise.
Methodology
The data for this study were gathered through a review of existing literature to elicit
information on the issues under study. Some data were also obtained through interview
with the stakeholders and some of the displaced persons. Other data were sourced from
observation of the real life situations in the conflict-affected areas.
Presentation of Findings
The number of persons displaced by the Boko Haram insurgency in Yobe state
cannot be easily quantified. Thousands of people roamed the houses of their relatives as
displaced persons looking for safer places to accommodate them. Thousands of others were
kept in the IDP camps. Yobe state has two officially located IDP camps; Pompamari IDP
camp and Bukar Ali IDP camp (closed in 2018) in Damaturu, in addition to other self-
acclaimed IDP camps in some communities including Fika, Jakusko, Kukareta, Fune, etc.
(Interview, 2019a). Some of the donor agencies that have donated to the IDPs over the
years in Yobe State include:
i. World Food Programme (WFP)
ii. ACF International (Action Against Hunger)
iii. UNICEF
iv. NEMA
v. FADAMA III
vi. COOPE (cooperazion Internationale)
(Source: S.S. Muhammad, IDPs Secretary, personal communication 23rd August, 2019)
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Table 1. Food donation to IDPs by WFP

Type of food Quantity Duration
Maize 50kg Every 2 month up to 1 year
Rice 50kg Every 2 month up to 1 year
Millet 50kg Every 2 month up to 1 year
Beans 25kg Every 2 month up to 1 year
Vegetable oil 10 litres Every 2 months up to 1 year
Palm oil 5 litres Every 2 months up to 1 year
Source: (A. Mukhtari, Monitoring and evaluation officer, WFP, Personal

communication 22nd August, 2019).
Table 2. Food donation to IDPs by COOPE

Rice 50kg Quarterly, for 2 years
Beans 25kg Quarterly, for 2 years
Maize 50kg Quarterly, for 2 years
Millet 50kg Quarterly, for 2 years
Vegetable oil 5 litres Quarterly, for 2 years
Sugar 1kg Quarterly, for 2 years
Salt ½ kg Quarterly, for 2 years
Magi 1 packet Quarterly, for 2 years
Source: (B.K. Ibrahim, Community mobilization officer, COOPE, personal

communication 22nd August, 2019).
Table 3. Food stuff Donated by FADAMA III

Rice 50kg Once in a while
Maize flour 50 kg Once
Beans 25kg Once
Vegetable oil 10 litres Once
Magi 1 packet Once
3sheeps & 1 ram Once
4 goats &1 he-goat Once
Bags of animals feed 50kg Once
A person can get either the sheep or the goats.

Table 4. Donation by National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA)
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Maize 3kg Monthly
Guinea corn 3kg Monthly
Soya beans 3kg Monthly
Set of household tools Once
Source: (M.M. Adamu, IDP, personal communication 23rd August, 2019).
Agencies Offering Financial Incentives

1. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
They offer N45, 000 to each registered IDP every 3 months for the duration of 1 year.
When they registered a person as an IDP, first of all they provide I.D. cards to all the
registered IDPs, then a bank account shall be opened in which the money should be paid.
ACF International (Action Against Hunger)

They offer financial incentives to each registered IDP ranging from N7, 000 to N21,
000 monthly for the duration of 1 year. The variation in the offer is based on the gravity of
the condition of the IDP.
Some IDPs have certain disabilities in addition to their being displaced, while some are
overburdened, the personal data of the IDP obtained by the officials determines the package
applicable to everyone. (Interview, 2019b).
Shortcomings of the Donor Agencies in Rehabilitation of IDPs

The donor agencies have contributed a lot in managing the condition of the IDPs in
Yobe State. Despite the effort they have shown, yet, some essential issues have not been
touched. The following are some of the short comings observed.
1. Shortage in Health Care Delivery
The donor agencies helped in providing food packages as well as financial support
to the IDPs but in the area of health care, the efforts provided is not adequate enough to
meet the average needs of the people. Although agencies like WHO and Sans Frontae have
helped much in the healthcare need of the IDPs, many of the IDPs have suffered serious
health challenges during their displacement as a result of the gross inadequacies in
healthcare support. An interview with some of the IDPs revealed that some of them use to
sell the food packages provided to them in order to get medication (Interview, 2019c).
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2. Inadequate Educational Facilities

The education of the children of the displaced persons is negatively affected by the
insurgency. In addition to the closure of schools, many people migrated to remote rural
areas where there are no schools to enroll the children. It was observed that UNICEF helped
by distributing learning materials in some schools, but this was only in the urban areas.
Many children lost their chances of continuing with their education (Interview, 2019d).
3. Lack of Financial Support and Skills Acquisitions Programs
Some donor agencies offered financial support to the IDPs to alleviate the poverty
they have been suffering, but despite such aid, the IDPs lack sustainable financial support
program or skills acquisition program that can guide them on how to spend the money
given to them and make good of the skills they acquired (Interview, 2019e).
Population Distribution of IDPs in Yobe State
Table 5. Population Distribution of IDPs in Yobe State.

S/ Camp Nature of camp No. of No. of Diffe
N IDPS IDPs rence
(2018) (2019)
1 Pampamari IDP camp, Official IDP camp 2000 2000 0
Damaturu
2 Bukar Ali IDP camp, Official IDP camp 5000 0 -5000
Damaturu
3 Kukareta village, Damaturu Camp-like setting 5000 6221 +221
L.G.A
4 Muhammed Gombe farm, Host community 2300 834 -1466
Damaturu
5 Kasaisa Housing area, Host community 2831 1623 -1208
Damaturu
6 Abari YBC, Damaturu Host community 1425 1246 -179
7 Fawari housing area, Host community 1000 873 -127
Damaturu
8 Ngaburawa village, Host community 800 664 -136
Damaturu
9 Mile 5, Ngelzarma, Fune Camp-like setting 7094 6058 -1036
L.G.A
10 Daura, Fune L.G.A. Host community 1835 1835 0
11 Tandari housing area, Host community 2100 1535 -565
Potiskum L.G.
12 Nahuta housing area, Host community 2450 1743 -707
Potiskum L.G.
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13 Old Army barracks, Camp-like setting 22700 22240 -460

Potiskum L.G.A
15 NYSC camp, Fika, Fika Camp-like setting 17550 17521 -29
L.G.A
16 BEST Cntre, Gadaka, Fika Camp-like setting 10500 9820 -680
L.G.A
17 Sabongari town, Nangere Host community 5100 4650 -450
L.G.A
18 NEAZDP, Bade L.G.A Camp-like setting 18450 14215 -235
19 Garin Alkali, Bade L.G.A Host community 950 600 -350
20 Central Pri. Sch. Machina Camp-like setting 2500 2720 -220
L.G.A
21 Baimari town, Bursari L.G.A Host community 3750 3250 -500
22 Babban Gida, Tarmuwa L.G.A Host community 2800 2750 -50
23 Hausari housing, Nguru L.G.A Host community 2000 1560 -440
24 Zawiya Fullatiya Nguru L.G.A Host community 12500 12350 -150
25 Jakusko town, Jakusko L.G.A Host community 2000 1550 -450
26 Gadan Jammel, Jakusko L.G.A Host community 2000 1950 -50
27 Jaji-maji, Karasuwa L.G.A. Host community 0 4049 +4049
Total 136635 127857 -8778
Source: NEMA (2019).
Table 5 shows the population distribution of IDPs in Yobe State. As can be seen
from the Table, there are only two camps officially created by the government of Yobe
state among which only one is currently active. Pampamari IDP camp is the only IDP camp
presently in Yobe State hosting about 2000 IDPs, while Bukar Ali IDP camp has been
closed since 2018. The remaining IDPs in Yobe State are scattered within 12 local
governments out of the 17 Local Government Areas of the State. It is approximately about
10% of the IDPs that stayed in camp. The remaining 90% stayed with their relatives in
various host communities while others stay in camp-like settings where they claim as their
own camps. Humanitarian agencies when distributing their incentives, they always
consider both the IDPs in the camp and those staying at various host communities as well
as the others who stayed in camp-like settings. Various strategies are being adopted by the
agencies to ensure that the relief materials reached the targeted population.
A total of 136,365 IDPs was recorded in 2018 including those at Bukar Ali camp
before its closure. However, in 2019, there are 127,857 IDPs in Yobe State which translate
to a difference of 8,778 IDPs recorded between 2018 and 2019.
The findings of the study have shown that there is a lot of challenges regarding the
management of the returning IDPs in Yobe State. The results indicate that the challenges
96
are largely attributed to inadequate funding and poor policy implementation leading to
ineffective rehabilitation and resettlement of the returning IDPs.
The management of the returning IDPs requires sufficient funding to cater for their
numerous challenges and provide for their basic needs. It was observed that the government
of Yobe State does not have the adequate machinery necessary for addressing the issue of
IDPs. Also, the agencies or organizations assigned with the responsibility are seemingly
incapable of tackling the problems related to returning of IDPs for resettlement in the State.
The Boko Haram insurgency brought about a tremendous humanitarian crisis, which
deserve immediate intervention, especially if the condition of the IDPs are taken into
consideration.
In addition to funding, the government of Yobe State appears to be poor in
formulating and implementing policies necessary for the management of IDPs returning
for resettlement in the state. This is usually due to corruption and sentiment overwhelming
the officials delegated with the responsibility. In order to tackle the challenges of
rehabilitation of IDPs, a wholehearted commitment is necessarily required and the process
must be totally free of bias and sentiment. Rehabilitation of IDPs goes far beyond donating
items to them randomly, besides, the distribution of materials to IDPs does not
commensurate with their major needs and is negligible. It was observed in a survey with
World Food Programme (WFP) on the condition of food security in some of the affected
communities (including Gujba, Buni Yadi, Kukuwa, Bara, Bularafa, Kojoli and
Dumbulwa), the condition of most of the returnee IDPs was progressively from bad to
worse. It was certainly found that they were seriously in need of both food and non-food
assistance.
Conclusion
This study has examined the challenges of resettlement and rehabilitation of
internally displaced persons in Yobe State in the aftermath of the Boko Haram insurgency.
The study observed that as the country looks with expectation to the end of the Boko Haram
insurgency, and most of the IDPs are looking forward to returning to their places of habitual
residence for resettlement, it is imperative to begin to put measures in place for proper
management of the Internally Displaced Persons for resettlement in Yobe State. This is
because the improper management of the group is likely to open a door for frugality to
violent conflicts and other several complexities to the state.
However, the management of the returning IDPs cannot be left in the hands of any
one person or group, but rather a collaborative effort is necessarily required. There are two
basic yardsticks necessary for determining the success of IDPs rehabilitation. The first is
the provision of the United Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, while the
second is the integration of IDPs to live a normal life.
97
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are suggested:
i. Government should revamp and Improve the measures it has taken for
rehabilitation of IDPs for resettlement in the state so that the process will look
into their basic needs for survival.
ii. Agencies or organizations assigned the rehabilitation of IDPs must be handled by
professionals/experts with a zeal for successful delivery; hence, it must not be
politicized.
iii. The agents of the rehabilitation agencies should be provided with adequate
support by the states and local governments of the affected areas.
iv. The government should provide a framework for rehabilitation and recovery to
thrive. The government should also canvass for support from the international
community.
v. Academics, psychologists and social workers should also be engaged in order to
give emotional comfort and ease the psychological trauma associated with the
displaced persons.
vi. Government and NGOs should engage in timely intervention to tackle the
challenges of food insecurity especially in the remote areas.
vii. The government should open arms for more humanitarian support from
international organizations, NGOs, philanthropists, and other donor agencies in
order to accelerate the rehabilitation process.
viii. Religious leaders, traditional rulers and other public figures should also be
involved in the crusade towards the successful rehabilitation of IDPs.
ix. Rural road development should be emphasized in order to ease access to remote
communities.
References
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Fitzpatrick, J. (2002). Human Rights Protection for Refugees, Asylum-seekers and IDPs:
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[accessed 22/09/2019].
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Tracking Matrix, round 25 and 26. http://nigeria.iom.int/dtm
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Presented at a workshop for Judges and Kadis on Refugee law organized by the
Nationa Institute, Abuja, Nigeria. 20th April, 2013.
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http://www.beyond intractability.org/m/human_need.jsp [accessed 25.08.2019].
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company.
NEMA (2019). Population distribution of IDPs in Yobe State. SEMA, statistics
department, Damaturu, Yobe state.
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An online publication of Naija news. Available at www.naija.com/opinion
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Northeastern Nigeria. Kamal A. (Ed.). MacAthur Foundation. Pp 4-6
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LIST OF INTERVIEWS
1. A. M. Jidiwa, 49yrs Yobe state SEMA secretary, 22nd August, 2019.
2. S.S. Muhammad, 35yrs IDPs secretary, Potiskum, 23rd August, 2019.
3. A. Mukhtari, 43yrs Monitoring and Evaluation Officer WFP, 22nd August 2019.
4. K.B. Ibrahim, 36yrs Community Mobilization Officer COOPE, 22nd August, 2019.
5. A. B. Kadiri, 58yrs District Head, Ngalda, 26th August, 2019.
6. S. M. Auwal, 61yrs District Head, Ngojin, 26th August, 2019.
7. A. B. Zanna, 63yrs District Head, Bularafa, 27th August, 2019.
8. M. M. Adamu, IDP, 22nd August, 2019.
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Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria
Influence of Social Change on Marriage Institutions: A Study of Umuahia South

Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria
1
Nwosu Chinedu Everest Ph.D
1Department of Sociology Taraba State University, Jalingo Nigeria
Email: everestinox@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study investigates the influence of social change on marriage institutions using
Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria as the study locale. With
the aid of the general and specific objectives, three hypotheses were formulated for the
study. The survey research design was adopted for the study. A sample size of (399) was
adopted from the population of the study using Taro Yamane formula for sample size
determination. The simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques were
variously applied in the study at different stages. The summation of all the responses was
presented using frequency distribution tables and simple percentages, while the Chi-square
statistical tool was used to test the hypotheses formulated in the study. The test statistics
revealed among others that there is a significant relationship between social change and
marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.
The study concludes that social change has influenced marriage institutions such as
marriage customs and traditions, the number of children giving birth by couples in families,
and dissolution of marriages. The study recommends, among others, that, necessary
measures should be adopted by individuals, government, religious and traditional
institutions through, radio and television programmes, seminars, workshops in order to
handle the scourge tenaciously.
.
Keywords: Dissolution of Marriages, Marriage Customs and Traditions, Marriage
Institutions, Number of Children Giving Birth, Social Change
Introduction
The social environment where a person is born and in which he lives, invariably
determines the persons attitude and consciousness. The phenomenon of marriage, which is
a milestone in a person’s life, is not independent of this reality (Emerson, 2016). The
processes of modernization, industrialization and urbanization configure or stabilize the
transformation. Transformations in form of economic, social, and political spheres
showcase their effects on the institutions of family and marriage. In this regard, social
conditions such as the idea of marriage institutions, expectations from marriage, formula
for good and long lasting marriage, and the roles of married couples, undergo changes
(Clarke, 2017).
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Change is a reality in human life. It can result from endogamous forces (forces within the
society) as well as from exogenous forces (forces from outside the society) depending on
where the change agent comes from. Changes do not occur quickly but when they occur,
they change the ecological order, the system of stratification, and the social institution of
the entire societies (Omobola, 2013). Historically, there have been few regions, races,
nations and cultures without the effect of change. From the clans which are accepted as the
first social unity until today, each society is under the effect of the process of change
depending on its own structural properties. The properties of the society are the
determinants of change in the area, speed, and rate of the change (Burham, 2015).
Modernization, which is one of the most comprehensive evolutions in history, signifies the
transformation from a traditional society to a new structure in terms of institutions, values,
beliefs, thinking, the life styles, and habits. The contents and the functions of the current
institutions have been revised and a very different system has been put into use depending
on the different paradigms (Clarke, 2017).
Family and marriage institutions which are in interaction with the components of
social structure are the practice areas of changes and transformations which other
institutions have shaped. The fact that social life has gradually shattered, and the individual
has steadily sequestered himself, weakens the power of the conventional institutions and
threatens the social unity in family and marriage institutions (Furedi, 2001). As a result of
this, the area of the influence of the customs and traditions shrinks, the manipulating power
of the institution of religion weakens, social taboos collapse, and sexual roles change. Thus,
family goes through an evolution within itself. These changes which correspond to the
changes in the meaning and the purpose of life, force people especially the family
members, to be away from the society by making them live on their own (Furedi, 2001).
As a result of social change, there has been huge increase in the number of divorces,
families formed by remarriages of the divorced, and families with single parents. Adult
girls and boys are inclined to remain single or keep an informal relationship instead of
getting married. Sperm banks, rising as a result of the new reproduction technology, giving
rise to a different parenthood situation different from the past in the quest of having
children (Walker, 2012). Individuation which modernization has caused makes itself felt
in the choice of the person to get married. That is why nowadays, more people who will be
likely to get married take their preferences into account, not their parents, relatives or
neighbours. The situations of going away and breaking off from the families and relatives
occur in the cases of marriage and the choice of partner as well (Schwartz and Scott, 2010).
Modern marriage institutions are time-honoured on policies that are increasingly
mimicking western models where indigenous cultures are often overlooked. Such marriage
institutions are established by forces external to the community and characterized by
functional and structural arrangements that are fairly standard and reflect specific image of
western development (Enwereji, 2008). Marriage institutions represent established systems
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of authority and other phenomena derived from socio-cultural and historical processes with
roots from the culture.
Statement of the Problem

Social change appears to have exaggerated marriage institutions in various
communities in Nigeria. Currently, people no longer adhere strictly to marriage customs
and traditions as a result of social change in forms of economic recession and religious
beliefs. Western culture such as female education and enhancement in the occupational
positions of women in the society appears to have brought about, increase in dissolution of
marriages in most families.
Also, social change in the form of transformation and modernity appears to have
affected the number of children couples intend to give birth in most families. It is in
response to the above situation that this study investigates whether social change influences
marriage institutions in our contemporary society using Umuahia South Local Government
Area of Abia State, Nigeria as the study locale.
Research Questions
Sequel to the foregoing issues in the statement of the problem, the following
research questions are deemed imperative for this study:
i. Does social change affect marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South
Local Government Area of Abia State?
ii. Does social change influence the number of children giving birth by couples in
Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State?
iii. Does social change contribute to dissolution of marriages in Umuahia South
Local Government Area of Abia State?
Objectives of the Study
The general objective of this study is to investigate whether social change
influences marriage institutions in our contemporary society using Umuahia South Local
Government Area of Abia State as the study locale. While the specific objectives are:
i. To ascertain whether social change affects marriage customs and traditions in
Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.
ii. To determine whether social change influences the number of children giving
birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.
ii. To examine whether social change contributes to dissolution of marriages in
Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.
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Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses are formulated to guide this study:
H01: There is no significant relationship between social change and marriage
customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia
State.
H02: There is no significant relationship between social change and the number of
children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area
of Abia State.
H03: There is no significant relationship between social change and dissolution of
marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.
The Concept of Social Change
Social change entails change in the social structure and various components of
society. Social structure comprises the totality of all relationships connecting all human
activities, together with human ideology. Kammeyer (2004) sees social change as
variations over time in the relationships among individuals, groups, culture, and society.
Ahamefula and Nnajieto (2005) view social change as the changing ways in which human
beings relate themselves to one another, the processes which institutions and organizations
undergo, the transformation of the social structure and the forces that bring them about.
Akubukwe (1997) regards social change as the significant differences or alternations in
any society that occur over time, gradually or rapidly, in terms of individuals aggregate
patterns of relationships and behaviours within social institutions and social organizations,
and in terms of their culture.
The Concept of Marriage
Marriage is the cornerstone of a society involving social sanction, generally in the
form of civil or religious ceremony, authorizing two persons of opposite sexes to engage
in sexual union. Marriage is a very important social institution which serves as a conduit
for family formation which is found in human society. Humberg, Schrage, and Larsen
(2010) view marriage as a complex of customs centering upon the relationship between a
sexually associating pair of adults. Osita-Njoku and Uwaoma, (2001) contend that,
marriage is the approved pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. In their
own reaction, Schwartz and Scott (2010) aver that, marriage is a union between people that
unite sexually, socially and economically, that is relatively consistent over time, and that
accords each member certain agreed rights. Marriage is a union of two persons of the
opposite sex, approved by society and governed by rules and customs which gives license
for sexual relations and guarantees legitimacy for the offspring of the union.
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Social Change and Marriage Customs and Traditions

Nowadays, the modern system of marriage arrangements does not necessarily
consider the consent of the bride as a necessary element. Marriage ceremonies or a
requirement such as bride price which is an important practice in traditional marriage
system of the old has witnessed some changes. Suitors no longer consider such ceremonies
or requirements importantly but demand that cash payment should be accepted in discharge
of those traditional obligations (Uwakwe, 2005). In his own reaction, Anameze (1996)
pointed out that due to social change, the modern system of traditional marriage
negotiations and payment of dowry are done or settled on the same day. The traditional
marriage customs and laid down procedures are not followed or properly adhered to as
most people believe that it is better to pay huge amount of money in order to complete
marriage rights or proceedings in one day instead of the numerous visits that the system
entails.
Uwakwe (2005) stressed that in modern day marriages, palm wine which is poured
and given to the bride by her father to search for her husband is now replaced with all sorts
of foreign drinks. It has been observed that during marriage ceremonies, brides prefer to
use traditional cups and palm wine to search for their husbands. Rather, they prefer to use
ceramic cups and foreign drinks to perform marriage ceremonies and usually done to
showcase wealth, class and affluence. Adenuga (2011) maintained that currently,
traditional marriage customs is mixed with religion. Intending couples prefer to wed in the
church and later go for traditional marriage as an alternative to reception. After the white
wedding, the couples go home and change in order to commence the traditional marriage
which in most cases starts and ends late. The couples are not properly celebrated because
the traditional marriage is usually done in a hurry due to limited time. Most at times, people
engage in this type of wedding to save cost and other expenses.
Social Change and Number of Children Produced in Families
Marriage is an indispensable factor for the continuation of the family line of
descent. Children occupy the central point of every marriage and the love for having many
children is manifested in the names giving to some children (Emerson 2016). In the past,
men usually seek for large number of children because they cherish children and by
extension large family that would help them provide for the family though farming, fishing,
and trading. This is one of the reasons why polygyny is practiced but currently, social
change has brought about Christianity which emphasized on monogamy and frowned at
polygyny (Adenuga, 2011). Christianity encourages couples to accept monogamy as
normal way of life and this automatically, reduces the number of children produced by
most families especially in uncivilized societies.
A woman’s family size is said to be the number of children she has at the end of
her child bearing years. The number of children a woman actually has could be different
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from the desired number that she would like to have. Olusanya (2001) maintained that,
social change in the form of recession has brought about reduction in family size in Nigeria.
Marital fulfillment has a lot to do with childbearing. Family size preference stands as a
“silent norm” guiding married couples on the number of children they are expected to bear.
Thus, economic recession influences the decisions of couples to the extent of having lesser
number of children so that they can be able to cater for them.
Social Change and Dissolution of Marriages
The rate of divorce was very low in the past because, couples resolve issues
amicably. For instance, in Igbo traditional system, when there is misunderstanding between
couples, the first daughters in every family (Umu-Ada) will be formally invited for
deliberations and peacemaking but with the influence of westernization and cultural
diffusion, dissolution of marriages are on the increase (Anameze, 1996). Nwachukwu
(2009) posits that “modern day marriages are always on the verge of crashing because,
people marry for reasons that give room for infidelity”. The sacredness attached to
marriage is now overlooked and people who engage in extra-marital affairs do not see
anything wrong with it. This is as a result of modernization which has transformed people’s
ideology and perception towards marriage and makes them emulate the Westerners who
envisage divorce as nothing so serious.
Marriage institutions are undergoing changes which tend to weaken its harmony.
The changes within the marriage institutions tend to precipitate more crises, strip the
marriage of external support at the very time of heightened misunderstanding and weaken
traditional means of resolving such problems (Anameze, 1996). Dissolution of marriages
is on the increase nowadays because, it is permitted much more freely than in former times.
As divorce becomes common in our contemporary society, marriage which would have
remained intact and harmonious is muddled (Nwachukwu, 2009).
In this study, the modernization theory is adopted as the theory suitable to guide
this study. Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German Sociologist Max
Weber, which provided the basis for the modernization paradigm developed by Harvard
Sociologist Talcott Parsons. The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while
assuming that with assistance, "traditional" countries can be brought to development in the
same manner more developed countries have been (Knöbl, 2003).
The implication and relevance of modernization theory to this study is that, the theory looks
at the internal factors of a society while assuming that with assistance, pre-modern or
traditional societies can be transformed to modern societies. This entails the reason for the
changes in marriage institutions in our contemporary society. Due to social change in the
form of civilization, western education, and religious beliefs, the different measures that
are to be followed in marriage customs and traditions are now overlooked and regarded as
primitive by the people. Even when marriages are performed in the traditional ways, most
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of the steps and processes are being altered. People now believe that, giving birth to large
number of children is primitive and cost consuming and in the quest to change the society
from traditional to modern society they have to emulate the western world. Dissolution of
marriages which is alien in our society is relatively on the increase. People no longer see
the necessity in resolving issues amicably but rather, opt out of marriage. This is common
in the western world and has been emulated by the people which they refer to as
modernization.
Methodology
This study was carried out in Umuahia South Local Government of Abia State,
Nigeria. Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State is in the South-East
Geopolitical Zone of Nigeria and occupied by members of the Igbo ethnic group
(Wikipedia, 2013). For the purpose of this study, the survey research design was adopted.
The survey research design was adopted to investigate the relationship between social
change and marriage institutions (the indicators of the variable ‘marriage institutions’ are:
marriage customs and traditions; number of children giving birth by couples; and
dissolution of marriages). Therefore, the data required for this study must be subjective and
hence, be collected from people and that is why the survey research design was adopted.
The population of the study area according to National Population Commission (2006) was
(139,058). To determine the sample size for the study, the Taro Yamane formula for sample
size determination was applied and (0.05) percent was chosen as the level of significance
or margin of error allowable. Therefore, the sample size of (399) was adopted for the study.
In choosing the sample for the study, the simple random sampling and purposive sampling
techniques were variously applied at different stages. For effective coverage, the simple
random sampling technique was adopted to select seven communities out of thirteen
communities that make up Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State while
the purposive sampling technique was adopted to determine the number of respondents to
be drawn from each of the seven selected communities because, the population of the
communities are not known and this is as a result of the fact that the population of all the
communities in 2006 census population exercise in Nigeria has not been officially released.
The primary and secondary sources of data collection were applied in this study. The
primary sources consisted of questionnaire which was structured in Likert modified four-
point response scale, while the secondary sources consisted of information gathered from
text books and journal articles. Out of (399) copies of questionnaire distributed, (382)
copies were successfully retrieved. Data collected from the field were presented using
frequency distribution tables and percentages (%), while the Chi-square (x2) statistical tool
was used to test the hypotheses formulated in the study.
107
Results and Findings
Table 1: Distribution of respondents on social change and marriage customs and

traditions in Umuahia South L.G.A of Abia State
S/N Items SA A D SD Total

Do you agree that, marriage
1. customs and traditions are changing 112 114 63 66 382
with time in Umuahia South Local (29.3%) (36.9%) (16.5%) (17.3%) (100%
Government Area? )
Do you agree that, changes in
marriage customs and traditions 107 138 65 72 382
could be attributed to civilization (28%) (36.1%) (17%) (18.8%) (100%
2. and religious beliefs accruing from )
social change in Umuahia South
Local Government Area?
Do you agree that currently, people
no longer adhere strictly to 129 117 81 55 382
marriage customs and traditions as (33.8%) (30.6%) (21.2%) (14.4%) (100%
3. a result of western education and )
economic recession accruing from
social change in Umuahia South
Local Government Area?
Do you agree that, marriage
customs and traditions have 92 68 119 103 382
continued to remain unchanged no (24.1%) (17.8%) (31.1%) (27.0%) (100%
4. matter the level of hardship, )
religious beliefs, and personal
perception from people as a result
of social change?
Total 440 464 328 296 1,528

(28.8%) (30.3%) (21.5%) (19.4%)
Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents on social change and marriage

customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. On item
1, out of 382 respondents, (29.3%) strongly agreed that marriage customs and traditions
are changing with time in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (36.9%) agreed,
(16.5%) disagreed, while the remaining (17.3%) strongly disagreed. On item 2, out of 382
respondents, (28%) strongly agreed that, changes in marriage customs and traditions could
be attributed to civilization and religious beliefs accruing from social change in Umuahia
South Local Government Area, (36.1%) agreed, (17%) disagreed, while the remaining
(18.8%) strongly disagreed. On item 3, out of 382 respondents, (33.8%) strongly agreed
108
that, people no longer adhere strictly to marriage customs and traditions as a result of
western education and economic recession accruing from social change, (30.6%) agreed,
(21.2%) disagreed, while the remaining (14.4%) strongly disagreed. On item 4, out of 382
respondents, (24.1%) strongly agreed that, marriage customs and traditions have continued
to remain unchanged no matter the level of hardship, religious beliefs, and perception from
people as a result of social change, (17.8%) agreed, (31.1%) disagreed, while the remaining
(27.0%) strongly disagreed. From Table 1, it implies that the respondents responded greatly
that social change affects marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South Local
Government Area, Abia State.
Table 2: Distribution of respondents on social change and number of children giving

birth by couples in Umuahia South L.G.A of Abia State
Do you agree that, the number of 139 106 73 64 382
5. children couples give birth is (36.4%) (27.7%) (19.1%) (16.7%) (100%)
reducing drastically in most
families in Umuahia South Local
Government Area?
Do you agree that, reduction in the 131 111 78 62 382
6. number of children couples give (34.3%) (29%) (20.4%) (16.2%) (100%)
birth could be attributed to
recession and high cost of living as
a result of social change prevalent
in Umuahia South Local
Government Area?
Do you agree that, as a result of 136 122 83 41 382
7. transformation to Christianity that (35.6%) (31.9%) (21.7%) (10.7%) (100%)
emphasizes on monogamy
accruing from social change,
couples no longer give birth to
large number of children in most
families in Umuahia South Local
Government Area?
8. Do you agree that, no matter the 74 87 107 114 382
level of transformation and (19.4%) (22.8%) (28%) (29.8%) (100%)
recession as a result of social
change in the society couples give
birth to the number of children
they desire?
Total 480 426 341 281 1,528
(31.4%) (27.9%) (22.3%) (18.4%)
109
Table 2 shows the distribution of respondents on social change and number of

children giving birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area, Abia State.
On item 5, out of 382 respondents, (36.4%) strongly agree that, the number of children
couples give birth is reducing drastically in most families in Umuahia South Local
Government Area. (27.7%) agreed, (19.1%) disagreed, while the remaining (16.7%)
strongly disagreed. On item 6, out of 382 respondents, (34.3%) strongly agreed that,
reduction in the number of children couples give birth could be attributed to recession and
high cost of living as a result of social change prevalent in Umuahia South Local
Government Area, (29%) agreed, (20.4%) disagreed, while the remaining (16.2%) strongly
disagreed. On item 7, out of 382 respondents, (35.6%) strongly agreed that, as a result of
transformation to Christianity that emphasizes on monogamy accruing from social change,
couples no longer give birth to large number of children in most families in Umuahia South
Local Government Area, (31.9%) agreed, (21.7%) disagreed, while the remaining (10.7%)
strongly disagreed. On item 8, out of 382 respondents, (19.4%) strongly agreed that, no
matter the level of transformation and recession as a result of social change in the society,
couples give birth to the number of children they desire, (22.8%) agreed, (28%) disagreed,
while the remaining (29.8%) strongly disagreed. From Table 2, it infers that the
respondents responded greatly that, social change influences the number of children giving
birth by couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State.
Table 3: Distribution of Respondents on social change and dissolution of marriages

in Umuahia South L.G.A of Abia State
Do you agree that, dissolution of 121 148 86 27 382
9. marriages is increasing rapidly in (31.7%) (38.7%) (22.5%) (7%) (100%
Umuahia South Local )
Government Area?
Do you agree that, dissolution of
marriages could be attributed to 125 133 81 43 382
10. social change such as change in (32.7%) (34.8%) (21.2%) (11.2%) (100%
attitudinal behaviour amongst )
couples in Umuahia South Local
Government Area?
Do you agree that, western
11. culture has brought about, 134 113 61 74 382
increase in divorce amongst (35.1%) (29.6%) (15.9%) (19.4%) (100%
couples in most families in )
Umuahia South Local
Government Area?
12. Do you agree that, no matter the
level of alterations in the social 33 77 128 144 382
structure or system such as (8.6%) (33.5%) (37.7%)
110
westernization, divorce in (100%

marriages is not experienced in (20.1%) )
Umuahia South Local
Government Area?
413 471 356 288 1,528
Total (27%) (30.8% (23.3% (18.8%
) ) )
Table 3 shows the distribution of respondents on social change and dissolution of

marriages in Umuahia South Local Government Area of Abia State. On item 9, out of 382
respondents, (31.7%) strongly agreed that, dissolution of marriages is increasing rapidly in
Umuahia South Local Government Area, (38.7%) agreed, (22.5%) disagreed, while the
remaining (7%) strongly disagreed. On item 10, out of 382 respondents, (32.7%) strongly
agreed that, dissolution of marriage could be attributed to social change such as change in
attitudinal behaviour amongst couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (34.8%)
agreed, (21.2%) disagreed, while the remaining (11.2%) strongly disagreed. On item 11,
out of 382 respondents, (35.1%) strongly agreed that, western culture has brought about
increase in divorce amongst couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (29.6%)
agreed, (15.9%) disagreed, while the remaining (19.4%) strongly disagreed. On item 12,
out of 382 respondents, (8.6%) strongly agreed that, no matter the level of alterations in
the social structure or system such as westernization, divorce in marriages is not
experienced in Umuahia South Local Government Area, (20.1%) agreed, (33.5%)
disagreed, while the remaining (37.7%) strongly disagreed. From Table 3, it can be seen
that the respondents responded greatly that social change contributes to dissolution of
Verification of Hypotheses
Hypothesis One
H0: There is no significant relationship between social change and marriage

State.
H1: There is a significant relationship between social change and marriage

State.
This hypothesis was tested using the total values of responses derived from items 2, 3, and
4 respectively in Table 1.
111
Table 4: Contingency Table of Observed Frequencies

Items SA A D SD Total
2 107a 138b 65c 72d 382B1
3 129e 117f 81g 55h 382B2
4 92i 68j 119k 103l 382B3
Total 328A1 323A2 265A3 230A4 1,146N

Table 5: Calculation of Expected Frequencies
Cell A1 328x38 109 Cell A1 328x38 109 Cell A1 328x38 109
B1 2 B2 2 B3 2
/1,146 /1,146 /1,146
Cell A2 323x38 107. Cell A2 323x38 107. Cell A2 323x38 107.
B1 2 7 B2 2 7 B3 2 7
/1,146 /1,146 /1,146
B1 2 B2 2 B3 2
/1,146 /1,146 /1,146
Cell A4 230x38 76.7 Cell A4 230x38 76.7 Cell A4 230x38 76.7
B1 2 B2 2 B3 2
/1,146 /1,146 /1,146
Table 6: Placing the Observed and Expected Frequencies for Test of Hypotheses
One
O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

107 109 -2 4 0.366
138 107 31 961 8.98
65 88 -23 59 6.011
72 76 -4 16 0.210
129 109 20 400 3.669
117 107 10 100 0.934
81 88 -7 49 0.556
55 76 -21 441 5.803
92 10 -17 289 2.651
68 107 -39 1,521 14.215
112
119 88 31 961 10.920

103 76 27 729 9.592
Total 63.577
From the contingency Table,

df = (r-1) (c-1)
= (3-1) (4-1)
=2x3
=6
Thus DF = 6
At 0.05 level of significance with 6 degree of freedom, the table value of Chi-
square (x2) is 12.592 while the calculated value of Chi-square (x2) is 63.577. Since the
calculated value of Chi-square (x2cal) is greater than the table value (x2table), we therefore
reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis and conclude that, there is
a significant relationship between social change and marriage customs and traditions in
Umuahia South Local Government Area, of Abia State.
Hypothesis Two
H0: There is no significant relationship between social change and number of
of Abia State.
H1: There is a significant relationship between social change and number of
of Abia State.
This hypothesis was tested using the total values responses derived from items 6,
7, and 8 respectively in Table 2.

6 131a 111b 78c 62d 382B1
7 136e 122f 83g 41h 382B2
8 74i 87j 107k 114l 382B3
Total 341A1 320A2 268A3 217A4 1,146N
113

Cell A1 B1 341x382 113. Cell A1 B2 341x38 113. Cell A1 B3 341x382 113.7
/1,146 7 2 7 /1,146
/1,146
Cell A2 B1 320x382 106. Cell A2 B2 320x38 106. Cell A2 B3 320x382 106.7
/1,146 7 2/1,146 7 /1,146
Cell A3 B1 268x382 89.3 Cell A3 B2 268x38 89.3 Cell A3 B3 268x382 89.3
/1,146 2/1,146 /1,146
Cell A4 B1 217x382 72.3 Cell A4 B2 217x38 72.3 Cell A4 B3 217x382 72.3
/1,146 2/1,146 /1,146
Table 9: Placing the Observed and Expected Frequencies

for Test of Hypotheses Two
O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E
131 113.7 17.3 299.29 2.632
111 106.7 4.3 18.49 0.173
78 89.3 -11.3 127.69 1.429
62 72.3 -10.3 106.09 1.467
136 113.7 22.3 497.29 4.374
122 106.7 15.3 234.09 2.194
83 89.3 -6.3 3969 44.445
41 72.3 -31.3 979.69 13.550
74 113.7 -39.7 1576.09 1.862
87 106.7 -19.7 388.09 3.637
107 89.3 17.7 313.29 3.508
114 72.3 41.7 1738.89 24.051
Total 115.322

df = (r-1) (c-1)
= (3-1) (4-1)
=2x3
=6
Thus DF = 6
114
a significant relationship between social change and number of children giving birth by
couples in Umuahia South Local Government Area, Abia State.
Hypothesis Three
H0: There is no significant relationship between social change and dissolution of

H1: There is a significant relationship between social change and dissolution of

This hypothesis was tested using the total values of responses derived from items 10, 11,
and 12 respectively in Table 3.

10 125a 133b 81c 43d 382B1
11 134e 113f 61g 74h 382B2
12 33i 77j 128k 144l 382B3
Total 392A1 323A2 270A3 261A4 1146N

Cell A1 292x38 97.3 Cell A1 292x38 97.3 Cell A1 292x38 97.3
B1 2 B2 2 B3 2
/1,146 /1,146 /1,146
Cell A2 332x38 107. Cell A2 332x38 107. Cell A2 332x38 107.
B1 2 7 B2 2 7 B3 2 7
/1,146 /1,146 /1,146
B1 2 B2 2 B3 2
/1,146 /1,146 /1,146
B1 2 B2 2 B3 2
/1,146 /1,146 /1,146
115
Table 12: Placing the observed and expected frequencies

for test of Hypotheses Three
O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E
125 97.3 27.7 767.29 7.885
133 107.3 25.7 660.49 6.155
81 90 -9 81 0.9
43 87 -44 1936 22.25
134 97.3 36.7 1346.89 13.842
113 107.3 5.7 32.49 0.30
61 90 -29 841 9.34
74 87 -13 169 1.942
33 97.3 -64.3 4134.49 42.492
77 107.3 -30.3 918.09 8.556
128 90 38 1444 16.04
144 87 57 3249 37.345
Total 167.047
df = (r-1) (c-1)
= (3-1) (4-1)
=2x3
=6
Thus DF = 6
a significant relationship between social change and dissolution of marriages in Umuahia
South Local Government Area, Abia State.
The result of statistical analysis of hypothesis one reveals that, there is a significant
relationship between social change and marriage customs and traditions in Umuahia South
LGA, Abia State. This is in line with Uwakwe (2005) who maintained that marriage
116
ceremonies or a requirement such as bride price which is an important practice in traditional

marriage system of the old has witnessed some changes. Suitors no longer consider such
ceremonies or requirements importantly but demand that cash payment should be accepted
in discharge of those traditional obligations.
The result of statistical analysis of hypothesis two reveals that, there is a significant
relationship between social change and number of children giving birth by families. This
is in consonance with Adenuga (2011) who stressed that in the past, men usually seek for
large number of children because they cherish children and by extension large family that
would help them provide for the family though farming, fishing and trading. This is one of
the reasons why polygyny is practiced but currently, social change has brought about
Christianity which emphasized on monogamy and frowned at polygyny.
The result of statistical analysis of hypothesis three reveals that, there is a

significant relationship between social change and dissolution of marriages. This is in
tandem with Anameze (2004) who argued that, the rate of divorce was very low in the past
because, couples resolve issues amicably. For instance, in Igbo traditional system, when
there is misunderstanding between couples, the first daughters in every family (Umu-Ada)
will be formally invited for deliberations and peacemaking but with the influence of
westernization and cultural diffusion, dissolution of marriages are on the increase.
Conclusion
This study has investigated whether social change has any linkage with, and is able
to influence marriage institutions using Umuahia South Local Government Area, as the
study locale. It is specifically established that, based on the hypotheses tested and findings
of the study, social change influences marriage institutions such as marriage customs and
traditions, the number of children giving birth by couples in families, and dissolution of
marriages.
Recommendations
In line with the problems identified, the objectives, and the findings of the study,
the following recommendations are made:
i. Marriage customs and traditions have been affected as a result of social change in
the form of westernization and religious beliefs prevalent in our contemporary
society. So, necessary measures should be adopted by individuals, government,
religious and traditional institutions through newspapers publications, periodicals,
radio and television programmes, seminars and workshops in order to handle the
scourge tenaciously.
ii. The number of children giving birth by couples in families should be reduced. On
this premise, more awareness should be created by government, religious
117
institutions and corporate organizations through enlightenment campaigns to

educate people most especially couples on the need for reduced number of children
they desire to give birth so that, they will not be affected by high cost of living and
the challenges of recession accruing from social change in the Nigerian society.
iii. Dissolution of marriages is on the increase in our contemporary society as a result
of social change in the form of westernization that is in existence in the society. For
this reason, efforts should be made by women associations, religious institutions,
government and corporate organizations through newspaper publications,
seminars, workshops, and conferences in order to put a halt to the increase in
divorce in the Nigerian society.
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119
The Influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on Access to

Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State Nigeria.
1
Abigail Embwa Moses, PhD, 2Yakubu Danladi Fwa and 3John Moses Maikomo PhD
Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Taraba State University, Jalingo.
2Department of Political Science and International Relations, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Taraba State
University Jalingo.
3Department of Mass communication, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Jalingo.
Email; abigailmosesfwa@gmail.com, jonmoziz@yahoo.com and yakubufwa@gmail.com
Abstract
The best practice for developing any society lies in investing in human capital, especially,
through education. Nigeria has set out policy for free basic education. However, despite
heavy investment in the sector, access to basic education for the girl child remains a
challenge. The study sought to establish factors influencing low access of the girl child to
free primary education in Nigeria with a focus on Bali Local Government Area (LGA).
Quantitative data collected were analyzed using content analysis and the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences respectively. Data were presented using inferential statistics.
The study established that socioeconomic, cultural, school based factors impeded girl child
access to free primary education. (Under socio-economic factors, income levels,
significantly influenced access at (p=.002**), educational level was associated with access
at (p=.002**), family size and child labour, impacted on access at (p=.033* and
p=.043*).Under cultural factors, religious belief significantly influenced access at (p=
.002), early marriage was related to access at (p=.024*), patriarchal ideology influenced
access at (p=.003**) (already discussed in the other paper).Under school based factors,
only distance to school was associated to access at (p=.004**).The study recommended
that the Ministry of Education should collaborate with Non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) such as UNICEF and USAID to organize school feeding programmes among
communities.
Keywords: Girl child, Education access, Influence, Socioeconomic, Cultural, and School based Factors .
Introduction
Education is a critical aspect of human resource development and one of the most
promising pathways for individuals to realize better and more productive lives. It is also
one of the primary drivers of economic development of every nation in the world
(Glennerster et al, 2011). This is reiterated in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
that education is not only an end in itself, but also a means to achieving a broader global
development agenda, (United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 2014).
120
\The influence of Socioeconomic, Cultural and School Based Factors on Access to Primary Education Among Girls in Bali LGA, Taraba State Nigeria
The foregoing explains why the international community has singled out education
as a basic human right and a catalyst for development. In this regard, education has been
given a central focus in most international treaties, conventions and agreements. This
recognition is exemplified in the international goals, strategies and targets that were set
during the past years (UNDP, 2015). Similarly, the Education for All goals were
established at Jomtien (Thailand) in 1990 and reaffirmed at the 2000 World Education
Forum in Dakar, Senegal (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
(UNICEF), 2016). With the Millennium Development Goals, established in 2000, the
world’s government's commitment to achieving universal access to free, quality and
compulsory primary education by 2015, especially for the girl-child was particularly
emphasized (UNICEF, 2011).
While the role of education may generally be applauded, it is also true that women
and girls, the world over, have generally been disadvantaged in their bid to access
educational opportunities. This happens in disregard to the fact that education has the
potential to allow women and girls to participate optimally in national development.
Similar observations are made by Simbine et al, (2015) who observed that girls all over the
world have suffered from sex engendered denial and discrimination in most aspects of
national development. Arguably, one of the most serious kind of denials and discrimination
has been that of access to education as a basic human right.
Indeed, there exist wide disparities in girl-child access to educational opportunities
in the world today, (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization
(UNESCO), 2015). Over 130 million children in the world are not in school and two thirds
of these children are girls. More precisely around the world, close to 45 million more girls
than boys are not receiving primary education (Johannes, 2010). The girl child should be
given equal educational opportunities like her male counterpart, so that she can impact
positively to the community and national development.
However, the right of the girl-child to have equal access to educational opportunity
is not a new subject in educational discourse. In its emphatic and resounding declaration,
Article 26 of the United Nations (UN) Universal Declaration on Human Rights of 1948
had identified access to education as a basic human right. While emphasizing on the same
declaration in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) declared that
improving access to education for girls and women should be “the most urgent priority”
(Kyari and Ayodele, 2014). Evidently, more than one hundred countries re-affirmed this
position at the April, 2000, Dakar World Education Forum by urging all states in the world
to ensure that by 2015 all children, with special emphasis on girls, to have had access to
and completed primary education of good quality (Ibid). The problem with such global
declarations, however, is that they often leave the discretion of implementation to state
parties who do not always translate them into tangible actions. Evidently, there exists
significant discrimination in girl-child education in many societies currently. In
Afghanistan, for instance, girls are barred from school under the Taliban regime, (Alabi
121
and Alabi, 2014). In Northern Nigeria, Boko Haram means “western education is
forbidden, (Ruquyyatu, 2013). The insurgence had brought a vital blow on access to
education of pupils and students, especially girls in Northeast Nigeria. In fact, parents and
pupils/students live in perpetual fear of attacks, which has grievous consequences on girls’
education (Medugu, 2017). The group has carried mass abductions, including the
kidnapping of 276 school girls from Chibok in April 2014, children, especially girls and
educators in Northeast Nigeria are out of school (Medugu, 2017). The constant threat posed
by Boko Haram in Northeast Nigeria, which started 2009 and other extremists’ religious
sects, like the Jama’atu Anbarul Mmuslima, FinBadilas Sudan, undermines effort at
improving education in Northeast Nigeria (Ruquyyatu, 2013).
Traditionally, the role of the female has been linked mainly to reproductive
activities, together with matters related to beauty and homemaking (Akinbi and Akinbi,
2015). Further, it has always been assumed that the female gender can find happiness and
fulfillment only as mothers and wives. Indeed, the obstacles women and girls face in their
bid to access education in Africa has always been there and they continue to persist. The
result of this has been to render women and girls as weak actors in national development.
However, the centrality of women’s contribution to national development cannot
be underestimated (UNICEF, 2016). Evidence from several studies has shown that an
investment in girls’ education is an investment in the family, community and nation as it
improves the overall quality of life of the population (Adetunde & Akenisan, 2008;
Offorma, 2009; Makama, 2013). Ogundipe (2007) reported that with adequate education,
a girl child has a chance to be enlightened on health and national issues, better ways of
bringing up her own children and an informed decision making about her future. In fact,
the education of women and girls is particularly associated with many benefits such as a
significant reduction in infant and child mortality and morbidity, improvement in family
health and nutrition, lowering of fertility rates, improved chances of children’s education,
and increased opportunities for income earning in both wage and non-wages sectors
(Nkosha et al, 2013).
Some of the ways in which girls generally find themselves excluded in accessing
education in Africa are evident in family allocation of resources for education (Ogundipe,
2007). More specifically, if a family has to make a choice about who should get first
priority to be allocated limited finances to go to school, obviously the boy carries the day
(UNICEF, 2016). In this regard, girl child education has become an issue of concern in
most developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where there are large numbers
of young girls who have limited access to school. For example, the number of out-of-school
girls had risen from 20 million in 199o to 24 million in 2002 in sub-Saharan Africa
(Offorma, 2009).
Accordingly, UNICEF (2016) further confirmed the fact that Nigeria has 9 million
out-of-school children, and this has been referred to as the highest in the whole of Africa.
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Girls and women constitute 50% of Nigerian population; ironically, less than 39% of the
female populations are literate against 63% literate male population (Nwakego, 2014).
Agana and Miller (2015) observed that socio-cultural practices such as early marriages
(development, the use of charms), traditional gender roles and teenage pregnancies are
some of the barriers accounting for the poor access, of girls to primary education thereby,
making girl-child education an elusive dream. In Ethiopia, for example, under eight years
old girls are sometimes abducted for marriage (Offorma, 2009). In South Africa, a report
by Human Rights Report (2008) warned that sexual violence and abuse hampered girls’
access to education. In most West African countries, girls are recruited from poor and rural
families to work as domestic servants in the coastal cities or even neighboring countries
(Offorma, 2009).
In the work of Alabi and Alabi (2012), it was described that girl-child education in
Nigeria is a forgotten resource. In spite of this progress made in the area of children for,
particularly in primary education one of the shortcomings related to access to education in
Nigeria is gender disparity. Nigeria has the lowest human development index in sub-
Saharan Africa and has a wide national disparity in the ratio of male and female enrollment
in schools (UNDP, 2015). Statistics indicate that the national primary school enrollment
ratio for the boys and girls is 3:2. Murkhtar (2011) identified religious misinterpretation,
cultural practice, poverty, early marriage, illiteracy, and inadequate school infrastructure
as some of the factors hindering girl-child education. This is because formal, female
education in the Northern States is accorded less value. It is recorded that Nigeria is, indeed,
among those West African countries which have the highest number of children who are
out of school; more than 75percent of those reported to be out of school are girls (UNICEF,
2016).
Taraba State, like any other state in Northeast Nigeria, grapples with low girl-child
access in primary schools. The rate in the state stands at 42.06% of the national figures
(National Bureau of Statistics, 2016). Such a high percentage has become a major concern
and is a worrying trend to the Taraba state government, Non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and other stakeholders in the education sector. This low access of girls to free
primary education has, over the years, continued to widen the gap in educational and
economic inequalities between the girl and the boy child (Tyoakaa et al, 2014).
The scenario above seems to mirror the study area (Bali) which is one of the Local
Government Areas (LGA) in Taraba State, Nigeria. The site of the study was chosen
because it has the lowest girl-child access rate to free primary education (Taraba State
Annual School Census Report 2014/2015). The figures of Bali LGA in Taraba State stood
at 42% in 2014/2015. These statistics depict that there is a huge gap between the girl-child
and their male counterparts in terms of access to free primary education. Indeed, the 42%
access rate for girls means that 58% have limited access to basic education (Taraba State
Annual School Census Report 2014/2015). It is against this background that the present
123
study was mooted to find out the factors that influence low access among girls to the FPE
in Bali Local Government area, Taraba State, Nigeria.
Statement of the problem
Though the Federal Government of Nigeria has set out policy for free primary
education with heavy investment in the sector and produced the blue print on girl child
education, nevertheless, access to basic education by the girls in Nigeria remains
problematic (Makama, 2013). According to UNICEF (2016), Nigeria has 9 million (37%)
out-of-school children, which is more than one-third of its primary school age children and
this is the highest in Africa. More precisely, 7.3 million children have limited access to
primary education in Nigeria; 62% of which are girls (UNICEF, 2011).
Despite the policy considerations by the national government of Nigeria, the
problem of girl child access to free primary education remains bleak. There is much to be
done to enable the girl child to have access to free primary education, particularly in Bali
LGA. The critical questions to this end are therefore what factors contribute to low access
of girl children to basic education and why were the responses of the educational practices
to the demands of the principles of gender equality of access to free primary education not
being realized in Bali LGA? Accordingly, what and why of low access to free primary
education for the girl child in Bali LGA guided the execution of this study.
Objectives of the study
This study was guided by the following objectives:
1. To establish the influence of socioeconomic, cultural, and school based factors on
low access of the girl-child to FPE in Bali LGA.
2. To examine the extent to which socioeconomic, cultural, and school based factors
influence girls’ access to FPE in Bali LGA.
Theoretical framework
The study adopted Ruth Pearson’s gender relations theory (1995), to interpret the
results. According to this theory, society views all social activities, social roles and social
relations as taking place on the basis of gender roles generally assigned by society to men
and women. Gender roles, according to Pearson, have a strong ideological content which
has a powerful effect on how men and women finally view themselves and practice their
social relations and social roles. This ideology, so to speak, portrays society as having the
ultimate say in determining the content of gender socialization processes which are often
used to apportion social roles, and construct social relations.
Pearson’s gender relations framework advances the view that the formation and
distribution of gender roles in any given society are deeply rooted in ideologies which
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define the divide between patriarchy and matriarchy. Gender roles, in this respect, are
assumed to be bedrock activities and experiences of men and women, on the basis of which
gender socialization processes are defined, constructed and affirmed. In turn, the content
and processes of gender socialization are used to define, develop and distribute social
activities, social relations and social roles.
Pearson’s gender relations theory is found to be appropriate for this study because
it provides an interpretation framework on the basis of which various social relations,
patriarchal and matriarchal ideology, cultural and economic norms and standards may be
used to assign women opportunities of access to social activities such as in education and
social economic practices. Arguably, the cultural, patriarchal and socioeconomic norms
described in the theory tend to suggest how some of the fundamental factors which hinder
girl-child access to FPE in Nigeria may be identified and isolated. Further, the theory is
found relevant for this study because it captured correctly the interpretation of how
patriarchal ideology, socioeconomic and social cultural factors have influenced access of
the girl-child to FPE in Nigeria. The theory views that women and girls have been relegated
to performing reproductive and undervalued roles within the households.
The theory asserts that gender roles are dictated by society through patriarchal
ideology, cultural norms, and socioeconomic standards. It attempts to explain how the
traditional set-up, for example, the head of the family was always assigned to the male
parent role. In support of Pearson’s theory, Igube (2004) and Walby (1990) viewed that the
patriarchal ideology is to some extent dominant in Africa. These patriarchal structures, so
to speak, have always put restrictions on girl-child access to educational opportunities.
Indeed, Walby (1990) and Igube (2004) identified two distinctive forms of
patriarchy, namely private and public. Private patriarchy is often the kind where the
domination of women and the girl-child occurred within the household. Here, the girls are
often socialized to belief that they cannot take independent decisions on their own.
Whereas public patriarchy is a more inclusive type and captures many aspects in the society
where girls are excluded more compared to their male counterparts. The strength of this
theory is its ability to portray gender roles as being dictated by the society through
structures such as patriarchal ideology, cultural norms, and socioeconomic structures,
which marginalize, relegate and trivialize girls and women to performing under-valued
roles within the households which impede their educational opportunities in the society.
This theory further depicts the imbalance of gender role in the society that tends to
prioritize patriarchal ideology which hinders the girl child the rightful access to basic
education. Accordingly, looking at the Nigerian case through the lenses of this Theory; it
was instructive to note that Nigerian education systems, state policies and priorities always
tended to be biased toward patriarchal interests. The weakness of this theory is its inability
to view that society has deep rooted perception and socialization that are hard to eliminate,
there are roles in the society that are female oriented naturally and unchangeable. The role
125
of childbearing for example, may not change gender practical roles which have some
societal perceptions.
Research Methodology
Research design
The study employed a cross-sectional survey research design in the collection of
data. A survey design entails data collection on more than one case and at a single point in
time in order to collect both quantitative and qualitative data in connection with two or
more variables which are often examined to detect patterns of association (Bryman, 2012).
Survey design was selected for the study because it allowed not only the collection of both
quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, but also is the most commonly used and
appropriate design for sociological and educational research (Brannen, 2005). It also
enabled the collection of large quantities of data from the study population in the most
economical way based on its efficiency with regard to such studies.
Sample size
The sample size determination for this study was based on Kothari (2004) study,
who suggested that a minimum of 30 to a maximum of 200 subjects is considered
acceptable as a sample size in social survey research. Accordingly, thirty (30) head teachers
were sampled from the 93 schools within Bali LGA. Second, two hundred (200) parents of
girls out of school were sampled from household units within Bali LGA. The study selected
30 head teachers and 200 parents of girls out of school, which fall between the minimum
and maximum limits of social sciences sample size. Given the response rate of 90%. out of
the total number of 200 respondents, ten (10%) or 20 respondents did not give their
feedback.
Research instruments
The study utilized a combination of a questionnaire and an interview schedule for
collecting data from the respondents. Interviews were conducted among parents with girls
out of school, while questionnaires were administered to the head teachers because of the
differential literacy levels. The rationale behind a combined tool approach (questionnaires
and interview schedules) was to allow participation of both literate and non-literate
respondents in the study. The idea was to deepen the understanding of the problem under
study and to capture the salient information relevant in achieving the objectives of the
study. The questionnaire and interview schedule were constructed guided by the variables
and specific objectives of the study.
126

Influence of socioeconomic factors on Access to FPE
One of the study objectives was to establish the influence of socioeconomic factors
on access to FPE for the girl child in Bali LGA. During the field work, socioeconomic
factors were found to affect access of the girl child in Bali LGA. Income level of parents,
educational level, family size and child labor were unearthed to vary with access in Bali
LGA, as observed in the earlier findings. The summary of the findings is presented in Table
1.
Table 1: Socio- economic factors influencing low access to FPE
Note: p values: * p≤0.05 ** p≤0.001
Enrollment Transition Completion Retentio

n
𝜒2 P Df 𝜒2 P df 𝜒2 P df 𝜒2 P df
Income .062 .803 1 10.572 .002* 1 11.360 .004** 1 10.753 .001** 1

Level *
Level of .049 .824 1 2.848 .091 1 6.682 .002** 1 7.579 .003** 1

Educatio
n
Family .160 .689 1 3.341 .068 1 4.522 .033* 1 .537 .464 1

Size
Child .562 .454 1 3.545 .043* 1 2.481 .115 1 1.833 .170 1

Labor
Table 1 presents results of analysis on the influence of socioeconomic factors on

girl child access to FPE as measured by indicators of access namely; enrollment, transition,
completion and retention. In fact, the income level of the parents has a likelihood of
affecting the ability of the household’s in provision of access to education for their children,
including the girl-child. Indeed, it was clearly observed that the transition, completion and
retention rates of the girl child in accessing FPE was greatly hampered by income, as shown
in earlier findings on child labor and early marriages for the girl to complement family
income. This finding supports that of Undiyaundeye and Igiri (2015), who posit that the
economic factors, especially household poverty and hunger, are probably the most
127
influential in adversely affecting the girl child access to FPE particularly in rural areas.
Indeed, parental investment behavior concerning the irrelevance of girls’ education
influences access rates of the female pupils in schools (Ibid). Alagoa (2015), also viewed
that poor parents tended to give priority to essential needs such as food, shelter and clothing
and the girl-child education was not prioritized.
However, parental education was observed to play a significant role, as far as access
to primary education for the girl child in Bali LGA is concerned. Importantly, this study
unearthed the fact that the level of parental education plays a pivotal role in accessing FPE
by the girl child. In fact, the association between parental level of education and access was
found to be significant in completion and retention rates at (𝜒 2 =6.682, df =1, P= 0.002**),
and (𝜒 2 = 7.579, df =1, P= 0.003**). These findings mean that the level of education has
significant influence on access to FPE for the girl child at 98% and 97% confidence level
respectively in Bali LGA. The findings support those of Alam (2015), who reported that
parents with no or low levels of education cannot provide the support and often do not
appreciate the benefits of schooling. Parental level of education was significant for 2
indicators only.
Moreover, family size was equally found to have a profound effect on access to
education for the girls in the study area. In this study, family size refers to the number of
people who share the same roof and live together within the same household. It can be
deduced from the findings of the study that family size significantly influence access to
FPE at (𝜒 2 = 4.522 df =1 p = .033*). More precisely, the relationship was found to be
significant at 96.7% confidence level. Important to note is that, the variable family size is
very significant in determining adequacy of resources to be shared among members of the
households, especially in the provision of access to education for the girl child. Family size
was only significant with completion
Finally, Table 1 presents the finding on the influence of child labour on access to
FPE. Child labour was found to influence access to education for the girl child. Moreover,
child labour in this study means the use of the girl child as a means of generating income
to support family needs and wants. Child labour was found to have profound effect on
access to girl-child education in the study area. It was evident from the findings that there
was 95.7% confidence that child labour has an influence on access to primary education.
Child labour as a factor was found to be significantly associated with transition at (𝜒 2 =
3.545, df= 1, p = .043*).
Influence of cultural factors on access to FPE
One of the objectives of the study was to establish the influence of cultural factors
on access to FPE for the girl child in Bali LGA. Culture, especially patriarchal ideology,
was observed to be strongly practiced in Bali during the study. Issues of child preference
and early marriages dictated by culture were rampant as reported in the earlier univariate
128
findings of this study. Next is the exploration of the nexus between cultural factors and
access to FPE for the girl child in the Bali LGA as captured in Table 2
Table 2: Cultural factors influencing girl child access to FPE
Enrollment Transition Completion Retention
𝜒2 P df 𝜒2 p df 𝜒2 P Df 𝜒2 p Df
Religious 1.14 .285 1 16.84 001 1 3.79 .002* 1 6.54 .347 1

affiliation 3 8 * 0 6
Early .014 .906 1 5.126 .570 1 6.65 .024* 1 2.27 .131 1

marriage o 7
Patriarch 1.49 .221 1 5.298 .002 1 4.09 .003* 1 1.36 .242 1

al 5 * 3 6
ideology
Girl-child .232 .630 1 3.096 .078 1 .66o .417 1 1.39 .238 1

neglect 3
Teenage 414 .520 1 .635 .425 1 3.46 .131 1 2.28 .046 1

pregnanc 5 o *
y
Note: p values: * p≤0.05 ** p≤0.001

Table 3 : Cultural factors influencing girl child access to FPE
The variable religious affiliation was defined to mean membership of an institution
of parents of the girl child that promotes spiritual aspects of a particular faith or set of
beliefs and practices that members of a group in a society adhere to. Of importance in this
study is that, religious belief was considered to have influence on decisions with regard to
access to FPE in Bali LGA. Analysis in Table 2 shows that religious beliefs have a
significant impact on access to FPE in Bali LGA. Precisely, the variable religious beliefs
were found to be significantly associated with transition and completion rates to FPE for
the girls in Bali LGA at(𝜒 2 = 16.848 df=1, P=.001**) and (𝜒 2 =.790, df=1, P=.002**)
respectively. This finding was in line with that of Alhassan (2010), who observed that
within Islamic religious belief, certain attitudes and perceptions inhibit girl child transition
and completion rates in primary school education. Religious belief was therefore found to
be significantly associated with only transition and completion rates.
Further, Table 2 unearthed that early marriages was significantly associated with
completion rates for FPE in Bali LGA. This variable, early marriage in this study, was
envisioned to mean marital union entered for daughters without them reaching the age of
maturity (18 years), where they can freely and fully consent in marital unions. The variable,
early marriages, was conceived to have an influence on access to FPE for the girl child in
129
Bali LGA. Indeed, it was found that early marriage significantly influences completion to
FPE at (𝜒 2 = 6.650 df = 1, P = .024*). This depicts that early marriage impacts on access at
97.6% confidence level. Thus, there is a significant relationship between early marriage
and access to education for the girl child in Bali LGA. This finding is consistent with that
of (Nkosha et al, 2013), who posited that the girl child was discriminated against in terms
of access to basic education and was married early in life thereby denying a girl child the
required competencies for community and national development.
At another level, the analysis also focused on patriarchal ideology on access to
education. Patriarchal ideology, was found to have greatly impacted on girl child access to
FPE. The variable, patriarchal ideology was conceived to refer to who among the children,
boys and girls, are given the first opportunity when it comes to accessing education. The
variable was intended to measure the attitude of parents, especially household heads, with
regard to the belief that girls are a weaker sex and of lesser value than boys, which is a
common belief in patriarchal societies like those in Bali LGA. Patriarchal ideology on
access to education as a factor was found to be significantly associated with completion
and transition rates (𝜒 2 = 5.298 df= 1 P= .002**), and (𝜒 2 = 4.093 df= 1, P = .003**),
meaning that patriarchal ideology has a significant influence on access to education for
girls at 98% and 97% respectively.
Moreover, neglect of the girl child was tested against the four dimensions of access
as measured by indicators of enrollment, transition, completion and retention, and was
found not to be significantly associated with all the indicators of access to FPE. Hence, the
researcher concluded that girl child neglect has no significant relationship with access to
FPE for girls in Bali LGA.
Finally, teenage pregnancy as a factor was also found to be significant in this
analysis. Teenage pregnancy in this study was defined as an unintended or intended
pregnancy during adolescence among school going girls. Importantly, this study unearthed
the fact that teenage pregnancy plays a significant role in affecting retention rate in primary
education. Evidently, teenage pregnancy was shown to have 95.4% (𝜒 2 = 2.280 df = 1,
p=.046*) confidence in influencing access to primary education. This study is consistent
with that of WHO (2012) which viewed that in many parts of the world, girls who are
pregnant, regardless of their circumstances will be excluded from school, many do not
return after giving birth due to rules, fees, lack of childcare and unavailability of flexible
school programs.
Influence of School Based Factors on Access to FPE
The study further sought to establish the influence of school based factors on access
to FPE for the girl child in Bali LGA. Table 3 presents the results of the analysis based on
school based factors vis a vis indicator of access enrollment, transition, completion and
retention rates in primary school.
130
Table 3: School based factors influencing girls’ low access to FPE

Enrollment Transition Completion Retention
𝜒2 P 𝜒2 p df 𝜒2 p Df 𝜒2 P df
df
Distance 1.421 .233 .054 1 .004** 1 194 1

1 3.712 5.413 660
Sexual 2.597 .107 .324 1 .648 1 1

Harassment 1 .974 209 1.703 192
Note: p values: * p≤o.o5 ** p≤0.001
From Table 3, distance to school was observed to have significant influence on

completion rates of the girl child to FPE in Bali LGA. It was clear that distance from home
to school has an impact on access of the girl child to FPE. Indeed, it was found out that
distance to school had a 96% (𝜒 2 = 5.413, df= 1, p =.004**) confidence level. This finding
is in line with that of Akamagune et al (2017) who observed that the distance between
school and home affects girls’ education more than it does for boys because parents are
afraid to let their girls walk alone except when they are accompanied by the older person.
Finally, it was also evident that sexual harassment had no significant relationship
with access to FPE in Bali LGA. Sexual harassment, therefore tested non-significant for
enrollment, transition, retention and completion rates in Bali LGA. This finding is not in
tandem with that by Human Rights Report (2008), which posited that sexual harassment
and violence affect girl child school access and performance, resulting in decreased
attendance, participation, and completion of primary education.
Conclusion
Socioeconomic factors, namely; income level of parents, educational level, family
size and child labor were found to have significant influenced low access to FPE. Income
significantly influenced low access at transition, completion and retention rates, while
family size and child labour significantly influenced low access at the completion and
transition rates respectively. Cultural factors were established to significantly influence
low access to FPE. Religious belief significantly influenced low access at the transition
and completion rates, while early marriage significantly influenced access at completion
rate. Patriarchal ideology had significant influence on low access at the transition and
completion rates. Teenage pregnancy significantly influenced access at the retention rates.
Lastly, school based factors explored also revealed to have established significant influence
on low access. Distance from home to school tends to significantly influence low access at
the completion rate. Thus, despite the fact that early marriages continue to occur in the
study area, it is a form of human rights abuse. According to the Nigerian Child’s Rights
131
Acts 2003, section 21, it is stipulated that the age of consent is at 18 years. The study,
therefore that the provisions of the Nigerian Child’s Rights Act (2003) is not complied with
in Bali LGA.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made;
i. That the Federal Government should come up with a new policy in collaboration with
Ministries of Health and Education that would educate the parents on the implication
of early marriages and teenage pregnancy in the community. This can be done
through creating awareness and staging drama to educate the parents within this
community.
ii. Girl-child victims should be used as part of the educating process so that they, the
parents of girl out of school, can see, listen and be sensitized.
iii. Deliberate policies should be formulated by the Federal Government of Nigeria in
collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Education with regard to distance to school.
iv. Schools should be located as much as possible close to the homesteads, so that girls can
access primary education within short distances. Thus, availability of school in this
community should not only be the priority of the Federal and State Governments, but
other barriers to accessing primary education should also be identified and addressed.
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External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy for CAATs Usages: A Study of the Effect of
Gender
Barnabas Onyejiaka Agochukwu, PhD
Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria

Email: barnabasagochukwu@yahoo.com
Abstract
Effort expectancy is one of the three Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
(UTAUT) determinants that are moderated by gender. It predicts the use of computer-
assisted audit techniques (CAATs) by external auditors. However, when gender is
introduced as a moderator, the prediction may be different. Therefore, a study of external
auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage without considering the moderating effect of
gender does not give an informed comprehensive view. Hence, the objective of this study
was to examine the effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs
usage. A set of questionnaire framed in Likert scale-style was used to collect primary data.
A response of over 67% was recorded from the questionnaire that were distributed.
Cronbach’s alpha and Kaiser Meyer Olkin were used to confirm the reliability and validity
of the research instrument. Using Kruskal-Wallis H-Test, the research hypothesis was
tested at 5% level of significance. The study found that gender has a positive significant
effect on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Thus, the research
implication indicated that except the effect of gender on external auditors’ effort
expectancy for CAATs usage is taken into consideration in predicting external auditors’
CAATs usage, the use of CAATs would be adversely affected. Based on the research
findings, it was concluded that the effect of gender on male external auditors’ effort
expectancy for CAATs usage is stronger than that of female external auditors. The study
recommended that gender should be taken into consideration when determining external
auditors’ effort expectancy. As a contribution to knowledge, the study demonstrated that
male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is stronger than that of female
external auditors.
Keywords: CAATs, determinants, effort expectancy, gender, UTAUT.
Introduction
The ease that a prospective user of information technology associates with the use
of a system he or she is considering using determines the likelihood of the user using the
system. According to Venkatesh, Morris, Davis and Davis (2003), the “ease-of-use”
characteristics of a technology positively affect a prospective system user’s behavioural
intention to use the system and consequently would influence the system’s actual usage.
136
External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy for CAATs Usages: A Study of the Effect of Gender
Thus, an external auditor will use computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs) in the audit
of financial statements if the techniques are easy to use. Effort expectancy is one of the
three Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) determinants that
are moderated by gender. It predicts the use of CAATs by external auditors. However,
when gender is introduced as a moderator, the prediction may be different.
According to Sharma, Ganpati and Kumar (2013) though UTAUT determinants
predict users’ acceptance of information technology, when moderators are introduced,
different results are obtained. UTAUT moderators consist of age, gender, experience and
voluntariness of use. Venkatesh et al. (2003) also argued that moderators, to a great extent,
affects the determinants of a user’s intention and subsequent usage of information system.
In essence, UTAUT moderators are important in predicting the effect of UTAUT
determinants on user acceptance and use of information technology. Thus, external auditors
would use CAATs so long as their intention and behaviour towards CAATs are positive
and are not adversely moderated by gender. However, Goswami and Dutta (2016) argued
that though gender plays a significant role in determining the intention of accepting new
technology, there are cases where gender differences cannot be discerned. Williams, Rana,
Roderick and Clement (2016) identified a number of significant differences in the use of
information technology based on the use of the moderators such as gender.
Most previous authors explored the use of UTAUT in the study of the effect of
auditors-related factors at the individual level on the use of CAATs without considering
the effect of gender (Tumi, 2013; Ebimobowei, Ogbonna, & Enebraye, 2013; Mansour,
2016; as well as Mohammed, Kamil and Noor, 2017). Thus, to the best of the researcher’s
knowledge, most previous authors who studied external auditors’ effort expectancy for
CAATs usage did not explore the effect of gender as a UTAUT moderator. Furthermore,
studies that considered the effect of gender on the use of information technology did not
focus on the use of CAATs by external auditors. Venkatesh et al. (2003), Ainin, Lim and
Wee (2005), Calvert et al. (2005), Ong and Lai (2006), Foon and Fah (2011), Yu (2012),
Alkhunaizan and Love (2013), Jaradat and Rababaa (2013) Sharma et al. (2013), Tai and
Ku (2013), Raman, Don, Khalid and Rizuan (2014), Goswami and Dutta (2016), and
Williams et al. (2016) studied the effect of UTAUT moderators on the use of information
technology but did not align their studies to external auditors’ use of CAATs. Thus, there
is a paucity of studies on CAATs usage by external auditors which considered gender.
The failure of previous empirical studies that examined external auditors’ effort
expectancy for CAATs usage to consider the moderating effect of gender leaves a
researchable gap in the literature. An understanding of the effect of gender as UTAUT
moderator on external auditor’s effort expectancy for CAATs usage will give an informed
comprehensive view. Thus, there is a need to study the effect of gender on external
auditor’s effort expectancy for CAATs usage.
137
Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the effect of gender on external
auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage so as to contribute to the literature in that
area. On the basis of existing literature, the following research question was asked: what
is the effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage in Nigeria?
Furthermore, the following hypothesis was formulated in nullity:
Ho 1: Gender does not have any significant effect on external auditors’ effort
expectancy for CAATs usage.
This study is of benefit to researchers, standard setters, professional accounting bodies,
audit practitioners, software developers and policy makers
Definition of Research Variables
The Effort Expectancy
The dominant variables in this study are effort expectancy and gender. Effort
expectancy is UTAUT concept that refers to the ease a prospective user of information
technology associates with the use of the system he or she is considering using. Ease-of-
use characteristics of a technology positively affect user’s behavioural intention to use a
system and consequently would influence the system’s actual usage (Venkatesh et al.,
2003). In essence, CAATs effort expectancy is the ease an individual external auditor
associate with the use of CAATs. Thus, for the purpose of this study, effort expectancy is
the agreement of an external auditor that CAATs are easy to use. This connotes that an
external auditor with positive effort expectancy concerning the use of CAATs is likely to
use them.
Gender
Gender is a social construction while sex reflects differences in biological
configurations. Gender is often based on biological sex (Gillard, Howcrot, Mitev &
Richardson, 2007). According to Elson (1995), people are categories into male or female
at birth and with the passage of time acquire gender identity which is feminine or
masculine. Men and women differ in terms of positions in society and experiences.
According to Goswami and Dutta (2016), gender plays a significant role in determining
the intention of accepting new technology, but there are cases where gender differences
cannot be discerned.
Theoretical Review and Conceptualized Framework
Performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating
conditions are UTAUT determinants of information technology adoption and use.
Vankatesh et al. (2003) developed UTAUT and argued that if there is the intention to use
information system and the subsequent positive behavior on the part of the user, such user’s
gender, to a great extent, affects his or her intention and subsequent usage of the system.
They averred further that with a given level of experience and willingness to volunteer to
138
use, those in certain age bracket would use an information technology so long as their
intention and behaviour towards such technology are positive. The arguments of UTAUT
are modeled in Figure 1.
The model revealed that while social influence, performance and effort
expectancies determine a user’s behavioural intension and subsequent behavior, facilitating
condition only determines user behavior. Experience moderate’s facilitating condition,
effort expectancy and social influence without moderating performance expectancy. Age
moderates facilitating condition, social influence, performance and effort expectances.
Social influence, performance and effort expectancies are moderated by gender.
Voluntariness of use moderates only social influence.
139
Performance
Expectancy
Behavioura User
l Behaviour
Effort
Expectancy Intention
Social
Influence
Facilitating
condition
Gender Age Experien Voluntarin

ce ess of Use
Figure 1: Graphical Presentation of Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology

Source: Venkatesh et al. (2003)
Empirical Studies
Empirical studies that explored the effect of gender on the use of information
technology did not take external auditors’ use of CAATs into consideration. Venkatesh et
al. (2003) studied user acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view and
found that information technology user’s gender, to a great extent, affects his or her
140
intention and subsequent usage of the information system. Ainin et al. (2005) examined
prospects and challenges of e-banking in Malaysia and found that gender difference is not
significant in the use of information technology. Calvert et al. (2005) carried out a national
survey on gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic patterns in early computer use and found
that there is no significant difference between young boys and young girls with regards to
computer usage. Ong and Lai (2006) studied gender differences in perceptions and
relationships among dominants of e-learning acceptance and found that women are more
interested in effort expectancy than men. Foon and Fah (2011) explored internet banking
adoption in Kuala Lumpur: an application of UTAUT model and revealed that gender
difference is not significant in the use of information technology. Yu (2012) examined the
factors affecting individuals to adopt mobile banking and revealed that effort expectancy
was moderated by gender. Alkhunaizan and Love (2013) studied the effect of demography
on mobile commerce frequency of actual use in Saudi Arabia and averred that gender does
not moderate effort expectancy. These studies did not deal with external auditors’ use of
CAATs.
Furthermore, Jaradat and Rababaa (2013) surveyed key factor that influence the
acceptance of mobile commerce based on modified UTAUT and argued that gender does
not moderate effort expectancy. Sharma et al. (2013) examined the effect of moderators
on determinants and found that though UTAUT determinants have direct influence on
behavioural intention, when moderators are introduced, different results are obtained. Tai
and Ku (2013) embarked on a benefit-risk assessment based on a modified UTAUT model
and concluded that the influence of effort expectancy is not controlled by gender. Raman
et al. (2014) examine the usage of learning management system among postgraduate
students with focus on UTAUT Model and found that effort expectancy is not influenced
by gender. Goswami and Dutta (2016) reviewed gender differences in technology usage
and found that gender plays a significant role in determining the intention of accepting new
technology but there are cases where gender differences cannot be discerned. Williams et
al. (2016) identified a number of significant differences based on the use of the moderators
such as gender. Also, these studies are not related to external auditors’ use of CAATs.
However, empirical studies on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs
usage abound in the literature. Rosli et al. (2012) examined the factors influencing audit
technology acceptance by audit firms with full regards to auditors and audit clients-related
factors as well as at individual and firms’ levels. The study found that audit firms are also
influenced by external environment. Bierstake et al. (2013) examined the factors that
inﬂuence auditors' use of CAATs and found that effort expectancy was not positively
significant in influencing auditor’s use of CAATs. Ebimobowei et al. (2013) applied
UTAUT in their empirical survey of external auditors’ usage of computer-assisted audit
tools and techniques in the audit practice and found that effort expectancy was positively
associated with the use of computer-assisted audit tools and techniques by accounting
firms. Mansour (2016) explored the lack of CAATs' usage in Jordan and found that
141
Jordanian external auditor's intention to adopt CAATs is driven by auditor's effort

expectancy. Ojaide and Agochukwu (2017) studied the effect of effort expectancy on
computer-assisted audit technique used by external auditors in Nigeria and concluded that
effect expectancy was positively significant in influencing auditor’s use of CAATs.
Mohammed et al. (2017) studied factors influencing adoption of CAATs by external
auditors in Jordan using UTAUT determinants and found that effort expectancy has a
positive significant influence on the adoption of CAATs. These studies did not consider
the effect of UTAUT moderators. Thus, their results may have been different if the effect of gender
was taken into consideration.
Literature Gap
The gap in the literature revealed that previous studies that explored the effect of
effort expectancy on the use of CAATs by external auditors did not take gender into
consideration. Furthermore, the studies that explored the effect of gender did not take
external auditors use of CAATs into consideration (Venkatesh et al., 2003; Calvert et al.,
2005; Sharma et al. 2013; Williams et al., 2016). Also, the studies that considered the
effect of effort expectancy on the use of CAATs by external auditors did not consider
gender. Therefore, there is a paucity of studies on the effect of gender on effort expectancy
as it relates to external auditors’ use of CAATs (Janvrin et al., 2012; Bierstaker et al., 2013;
Ebimobowei et al., 2013; Mansour, 2016; as well as Mohammed et. al., 2017). Thus, the
failure of previous studies that examined the effect of effort expectancy on CAATs usage
by external auditors to consider the effect of gender left a gap in the literature. Also, the
inability of previous studies on the effect of gender on information technology usage
without considering external auditors use of CAATs left a gap in the literature.
This study relied on positivism and interpretivism (Gay, 1976). Purposively, the
study was limited to 944 audit firms in Kaduna and Lagos States of Nigeria out of which a
sample size of 281 was drawn. A set of questionnaire framed in Likert scale-style was
used to collect primary data. A response of over 67% was recorded from the questionnaire
that were distributed. This response rate is acceptable because according to Evans, Peterson
and Demark-Wahnefried (2004), a response rate of 60% or more is the standard acceptable
rate of response to most research questionnaires. Furthermore, prior to full scale
distribution, the questionnaire indicated Cronbach’s alpha and Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO)
values of 0.821 and 0.562 respectively. These values satisfied the Cronbach’s alpha
acceptable standards of 0.7 and Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) standard of 0.5 set for the
study (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Using Kruskal-Wallis H-Test, the research hypothesis
was tested at 5% level of significance.
142

The hypothesis of this study was tested at 5% level of significance using Kruskal-
Wallis H Test and the results of the test are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Gender and External Auditors’ Effort Expectancy (EE) for CAATs usage
Median No. Avg.
Rank
2.5 187 223.26 Questions on EA’s gender and EE for CAATs usage
2.5 Questions on strength of Male and Female EE for CAATs
187 588.06
usage.
2.5 187 480.77 Questions on Female and Male EE for CAATs usage
2.5 Questions on Gender discrimination and EE for CAATs
187 205.91
usage
2.5 748 Total
490.442 H (corrected for ties)

3 d.f
0.000 p-value
The results shown in the Table revealed that the calculated value of H (i.e. 490.442)
is greater than 0 and the p-value is lesser than 0.05 (i.e. 0.000). Thus, while female external
auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is strong, male external auditors’ effort
expectancy for CAATs usage is stronger. Furthermore, the respondents agreed that gender
discrimination affects external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Therefore,
the relationship between gender and external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage
did not occur by chance. The relationship is statistically significant. Therefore, we fail to
accept the null hypothesis and accept that gender has a significant positive effect on
external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage.
The findings of this study revealed that the gender of external auditors has a positive
significant effect on their effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Gender discrimination
affects external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Moreover, male external
auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is stronger than female external auditors’
effort expectancy for CAATs usage. Thus, gender affects external auditors’ effort
expectancy for CAATs usage. The effect of gender on external auditors’ effort expectancy
143
for CAATs usage is positively significant. The findings of this study confirmed the findings
of Williams et a. (2016) which identified a number of significant differences in the use of
information technology based on the use of a moderator such as gender. They are in
consonance with Goswami and Dutta (2016) finding that gender plays a significant role in
determining the intention of accepting new technology. Thus, the finding supported
Sharma, Ganpati and Kumar (2013) assertions that irrespective of the fact that UTAUT
determinants have a direct effect on behavioral intention, when moderators are taken into
consideration, different results towards the use of technology occur. The findings also
revalidated Venkatesh et al. (2003) argue that so long as people’s intention and behavior
towards an information system are positive and are not adversely moderated by gender they
would use the system. Therefore, an information system user’s gender affects his or her
intention and subsequent usage of the system. Also, young male individuals are more likely
to adopt new technologies than their old male and female counterparts (Venkatesh et al.,
2003).
However, these findings of this study disprove the findings of Ong and Lai (2006)
that women are interested in the effort expectancy while men are not. The findings of this
study are also not in consonance with Raman et al. (2014) result that effort expectancy is
not influenced by gender. The finding of Yu (2012) that effort expectancy was not
significantly moderated by gender disagreed with the findings of this study. The findings
of this study are also not in agreement with Jaradat and Rababaa (2013) finding that effort
expectancy is not moderated by gender as well as Alkhunaizan and Love (2013) finding
that gender does not influence effort expectancy. The findings of this study also disproved
Raman et al. (2014) argument that effort expectancy is not affected by gender. Calvert et
al. (2005) conclusion that information technology usage is not significantly moderated by
gender disagreed with the findings of this study. The findings of this study are also at
variance with Foon and Fah (2011) finding that gender difference is not significant in the
use of information technology; Calvert et al. (2005) finding that no significant difference
exits between young boys and young girls with regards to computer usage as well as Ainin
et al. (2005) finding that gender difference is not significant in the use of information
technology.
The implication of these findings is that, except the effect of gender on external
auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is taken into consideration in predicting
external auditors’ CAATs usage, the use of CAATs would be adversely affected.
Furthermore, positive significant effect of gender on effort expectancy for CAATs usage
rests with male external auditors. Therefore, except female external auditors’ effort
expectancy for CAATs usage is encouraged and male external auditors’ effort expectancy
for CAATs usage is consistently sustained, the use of CAATs may record unfavourable
response in the long run.
144
Conclusion
This study concluded that gender affects male and female external auditors’ effort
expectancy for CAATs usage differently. Thus, though gender has a positive significant
effect on external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage, it is not being taken into
consideration in determining external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. It was
further concluded that male external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage is higher
than female auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage. However, the male external
auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage would wane if not encouraged. Furthermore,
if the female external auditors’ effort expectancy for CAATs usage would not improve if
deliberate attempts are not taken to encourage them cultivate it.
Recommendations
This study recommends that:
i. Gender should be taken into consideration when determining external auditors’ effort
ii. Female external auditors should be encouraged to cultivate effort expectancy for
CAATs usage while male external auditors should be encouraged to sustain their effort
iii. Gender discrimination in the use of CAATs should be strongly discouraged.
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Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology and Agricultural Extension for Rural Development.
Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Appraisal Tools in Rural Sociology and

Agricultural Extension for Rural Development.
1
Adegbola Adetayo Jacob*, 2Obarein Obozokhai, 3Akor Sunday, 4Oriowo Praise, 5Lijoka Kehinde
Osemawe
1Department of Research, Outreach, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Nigeria
2 NationalYouth Service Corps, Nigeria
3 Department of Sociology, University of Ilorin, Nigeria
4 Department of Research, Outreach, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Nigeria
5 Department of Research, Outreach, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Nigeria
Abstract
This study is a fundamental overview of impact assessment and evaluation in agricultural
and rural development projects. It expounded the term impact; paying particular attention
to the fact that the impact could be positive or negative. It maintained that while impact
assessment is akin to impact evaluation, they have striking differences in that the former is
“before versus after study”, while the latter is “with versus without study”. It categorically
listed some key impact indicators that could be considered for impact studies; however, it
maintained that every impact indicator(s) to be considered be measurable. What's more,
the paper posits that the Change Theory suffices for explaining change; the crux of impact
studies. The study believes that often, program administrators and policy makers have
centered on controlling and measuring the inputs and direct outputs of programs rather than
on assessing whether programs have accomplished their intended purpose, chiefly
improving well-being. Conclusively, lessons drawn from the review show that impact
assessment and evaluation are necessity for, and must be integrated into every project
management process.
Keywords: Assessment, Change, Evaluation, Impact and Intervention
Introduction
Improved agricultural technologies are persistently being given in the course of
intervention programs and projects, driving development and change; for the most part,
agricultural related intervention is a significant force in increasing agricultural productivity
and income in the long-term (Shideed and Mohammed, 2005). Intervention programs and
concomitant projects are vital source of productivity gains when introduced to developing
economies; ideally, they increase output from the same inputs, or maintain an identical
output from reduced inputs. Key policy issues of agriculture and rural development
programs in a number of developing countries are related to sustainable agricultural and
rural development and enduring step up of living standard of the rural population (Food
and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2009). As such there is a
budding demand for provable substantiation of the consequences and impacts of
149
development programs. What is more, in recent times, development organizations have

faced external demands to become extra efficient, and several of them have launched plans
for result orientation.
Apparent from technology adoption surveys, it is unmistakable that adoption of
agricultural innovation has contributed to the wellbeing of farmers in many facets
(Olaniyan, 1998, Diagne, 2006, Asfaw and Shiferaw, 2010, and Challa, 2013). Recently,
survey by Adegbola, Wegh, Ikwuba and Nwafor (2019) on adoption of manual screw press for
garri production in Nigeria lays credence to this assertion. Consequently, there is need to
dissect the term impact assessment and impact evaluation for the reason that they are
integral parts of resonating themes in, and veritable tools for appraisal in rural
development, and agricultural related interventions.
Impact Assessment
There is still no universally accepted set of rules among development practitioners
defining “impact”, no common method for measuring whatsoever it is, and unending
dispute over how to interpret whatever results from impact assessment studies (Jiggins,
1995). Impacts are the ultimate effects of a project; it is “any effect of the service (or of an
event or initiative) on an individual or group” (Fitz-Gibbon, 1996). Impact is the peculiarity
which is brought about by a project, which may not be there exclusive of the project; it is
one and the same as the direct causal effect of a project, program, or policy on an outcome
of interest.
The fundamental element of impact is change: the ways in which individuals,
groups, communities or organizations are changed by means of programs or interventions;
impact is the results of the program or intervention. From the foregoing, it is apt to describe
the impact as: any effect of a program or intervention on an individual, group or
community. An impact may be wide ranging, affecting many stakeholders, or may be more
specific, significantly having an impact on only one group of stakeholders, and can come
about on levels from subtle to having a powerful effect. What's more, the impact could be
reversible or irreversible, cumulative or non-cumulative. Basically, main levels at which a
program, project, or an intervention can have an impact are: change in society and
economy; change in quality of life; change in specific behavior; change in perception and
confidence; and change in knowledge and skills (Global Libraries, 2015).
Impact assessment (assessment of impact) is the process of recognizing the future
consequences of a present or proposed action. It is the practice of identifying and measuring
future consequences of a current or proposed project. Impact assessment is carried out to
assess the impact of projects, policies and programs; especially tracking results in
agriculture and rural development. It is used to guarantee that projects, programs and
policies are economically practical, socially and environmentally sustainable. Impact
150
assessment is a means of measuring the effectiveness of project activities by judging the

consequence of changes brought about by those activities. Such changes could be positive
or negative, intended or unintended, direct or indirect long-term results in terms of
economic, social, cultural, and environmental produced by project activities.
Impact assessment is a planning tool which is used together with project feasibility
study to make certain that a project plan is the best it can be economically and otherwise.
It is an essential component of manifold resource development planning and feasibility
study of the project for the reason that it aids decision making, and provides a basis for
development and management measures to mitigate negative impacts of projects,
especially projects that have a semblance to rural development. Impact assessment shows:
whether projects are being conducted effectively, so as to learn from and get better project
activities; whether the program is making a difference to people, groups, organizations or
communities; and lastly to use that evidence of impact to advocate for continued support
and/or funding from relevant stakeholders.
According to Khan (2016), the objectives of impact assessment include, but are not
limited to: properly mobilizing resources for achievement of overall goal ; rectifying the
strategies, activities and management styles to enhance the effectiveness of project in terms
of overall goal; learning to understand how efforts impact on local communities in order
to improve the effectiveness of interventions; making a significant difference in people’s
lives; demonstrating success, to justify funds received and to solicit further funding;
evaluating the effectiveness of project structures, activities and management systems to
achieve the overall goal; and assessing the relevance of strategies to overall goal.
Impact assessment is used, and is useful, both for addressing broad questions in
development and for comparative questions, both ex ante and ex post (Jiggins, 1995). Ex
ante assessment is an essential tool for effectual management. It supports the groundwork
for new or renewed developmental interventions or programs. Its primary purpose is to
gather information and carry out analysis that can help identify objectives, ensure that these
objectives can be met, that the instrument used are cost-effective and that reliable later
assessment will be possible. The ex ante assessment allows a proper appreciation of
whether the proposed level of funding and resources are in harmony with the expected
results and impact; hence responsibility for results and impacts is basically reliant on the
quality of the groundwork of the intervention at its outset. Ex ante assessment can take
place at different levels of activity, can address a policy, a program or project; it is
obligatory for new, renewed programs, and other actions with resource implication.
For ex post assessments, practical peculiarities naturally are made between: the
effectiveness of resource utilization, which is quite simple to spot and assess; instant to
medium-term effects, which are not regularly easy to identify, gauge, and appraise; and
longer period impacts. Nonetheless, experience has led to the supposition that impacts are
almost not possible to recognize, measure, or appraise to any agreeable degree (Patton
151
1986) for the reason that external influences and multifarious interactive effects carry out
an increasingly bigger role ultimately. Nevertheless, the attempt to assess impacts goes on
continually as a means, however deficient, of maintaining answerability, and to justify
funding (Collinson & Tollens, 1994).
A more realistic division is every so often made between: effectiveness, as a gauge
of fitness for function; effectiveness, as a gauge of whether the approach, technology, or
project does in fact do the work it was intended to do; and effectiveness, as a measure of
whether the activity is in fact the right thing to be doing to accomplish stated objectives.
Development funding organizations in particular allocate substantial assets to addressing
these three questions, occasionally by means of special agencies partially as a way of
assuring, however ineffectually, public examination of the development lending process
and financial answerability. However, bureaucratic lethargy, political convenience, and
excessive dependence on consultants for project and program execution also may add to
the tardiness of alteration in institutional behaviors which may perhaps lead to larger
development competence, efficiency or effectiveness (Jiggins 1995).
Whatever the intention or crux of ex post assessments, broad procedural problems
continue to exist. For example, time and again baseline studies are scarce or are out rightly
not available for juxtaposition or no time frame or measure has been specified from
beginning for the realization of the stated objective(s). In cases where baseline information
is available, however, questions are still being raised as to the soundness of the selected
starting position and the limitations drawn around the sets of information. The balance
between ex ante and ex post assessment has tended to shift over time. For example, there
has been a growing focus on methods for ex ante assessment as development funding
becomes more scarce, partly in order to direct resource allocation more and to calculate
approximately returns to invest more deeply (Jiggins, 1995).
The capability to appraise and demonstrate outcomes and impacts relies on the use
of indicators that are based on reliable data, and on the capacity to systematically collect
and analyze that information. An indicator is information that helps to monitor progress
and to report on objectives. Indicators can be quantitative or qualitative, should be easy to
monitor and allow credible reporting, and should be reliable enough to trigger more
detailed evaluation and decisions on follow-up when indicating that objectives cannot be
met. It should highlight the most essential aspects of the changes that the program is aiming
to achieve, and should help to focus monitoring on those aspects of resource consumption,
implementation, outputs and results that are most important to follow-up. Often, failings in
the assessment of interventions or project are traced back to mostly the lack of clearly
identifiable “trackable” indicators.
Measuring the impact of a development program or project involves the application
of an analytic framework in which indicators are dichotomized and classified as
performance indicators and results indicators. Performance indicators are used to gauge the
effective use of inputs to generate outputs, and to evaluate the actual effects of the inputs
152
to their expected effects. On the other hand, results indicators are generally classified as
outcomes and impacts. That is, people’s behavior (often through their response to
incentives) that result from their access and or exposure to project outputs.
Indicators according to Khan (2016), include but are not limited to the overall
quality of life, self-confidence, self-esteem, independence, potential, capacity to make
claims and demands; resilience, peace and security, law and order, declining levels of
sexual violence, human rights abuses, destruction of lives and property, women’s
ownership and control of assets, mobility, access to income-generation activities, and
childcare. It also includes, power in household decision making, household division of
labor, the ability to control violence, social relations, social capital, unity, changed
community norms, food security and production, infrastructure including particularly
access to water and sanitation facilities, health; education, literacy and other skills and
knowledge, income, expenditure, assets, and access to land and credit. Note, however, not
only are there large numbers of indicators, but also, the data that corroborate them, usually
cannot be secured with the needed accuracy or regularity. Nonetheless, when choosing
indicators, we would want to ensure that they are measurable (FAO, 2009).
Impact Evaluation
Evaluation is imperative to elucidate the impact as it assesses the impact as
superlative as possible. Impact evaluations (evaluation of impact) provide information
about the impacts produced by an intervention. It can be undertaken for a program or a
policy, or upstream work – such as capacity building, policy advocacy and support for an
enabling environment (Global Libraries, 2015). This transcends looking only at goals and
objectives to also examine unintended impacts. Impact evaluation establishes the causal
effect of a project, program or policy on one or several outcome(s). It requires a
counterfactual of what those outcomes would have been in the absence of the intervention
(Asian Development Bank, 2006). Counterfactual analysis is also called “with versus
without analysis”, and it is not the same as “before versus after analysis” (the core
difference between impact assessment and impact evaluation), as the situation before may
differ in aspects other than the intervention.
For example, an impact evaluation might assess the impact of a development
project or program that aims to improve food security through the provision of post-harvest
technologies to farmers. For this purpose, it analyses how much lower the incidence of
hunger is compared to what it would have been without the provision of postharvest
technologies to farmers. The most common counterfactual when conducting an impact
evaluation is a comparison group. The difference in outcomes between the recipients of the
intervention (the treatment group) and the comparison group is a single difference measure
of impact. Impact evaluations thus show whether measurable changes in people’s lives can
be attributed to a particular development project or program.
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Impact evaluation is not just about quantifying the effect of a project or program on big
artifice development goals that are only indirectly related to a program. Rather the goal of
impact evaluations is to improve aid effectiveness by assessing the effects that can be
attributed to a particular development project or program (Switzerland Agency for
Development and Cooperation, 2013). Results from impact evaluation surveys can be used
by international donors and partners at the international, local or country level to guide
decisions, and for advocacy.
A duly planned impact evaluation can answer the question of whether or not a
program, is effective and hence aid in decisions about scaling up or otherwise. It can also
answer questions about program design, which aspect works and which aspect don’t, and
so provide policy-relevant information for redesign and the design of upcoming programs.
Impact evaluation tells why and how a program works, not just if it does; being able to
establish if development assistance is working or not, executors of intervention or projects
become more answerable to donors.
Impact evaluation is either formative or summative. Formative impact evaluations

concentrate on processes, and can be used if an intervention is currently happening.
Summative impact evaluations are undertaken to inform decisions about whether to go on
with, suspend, copy or improve on an intervention. In principle, a summative impact
evaluation not only produces findings about ‘what works’ but also provides information
about what is required to make the intervention work for diverse groups in dissimilar
settings, which can then be used to inform decisions (Rogers, 2014). Impact evaluation
analyses the (positive or negative, intended or unintended) impact of a project, program, or
policy on the target population, and quantifies how large that impact is.
According to Rogers (2014) impact evaluation is part of a broader agenda of

evidence-based policy making. It is a systematic causation or attribution study. It answers
questions such as: ‘how much better off are beneficiaries as a result of the intervention?’
or ‘does the intervention have a different impact on different groups?’, ‘did the intervention
cause the impact?’ and ‘what would have happened if the intervention had not taken
place?’. Impact evaluation is part of an integrated monitoring, evaluation and research plan
that generates and makes available evidence to inform decisions. It is pertinent nonetheless
to ensure that planning for an impact evaluation begins early, allowing for the collection
of baseline data and the formation of a control group or comparison group or the use of
other relevant strategies to examine causal ascription. However, an impact evaluation
should only be undertaken when its intended use can be plainly identified and when it is
likely to be able to turn out useful findings, taking into account the availability of resources
and the timing of decisions about the program or policy under investigation. Putting this
into perspective, a formal “evaluability” assessment may first need to be conducted to
assess these aspects (Better Evaluation, 2012).
154
The Theory of Change
Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Godfrey Wilson, Henry Tajfel and C. Wright
Mills were the earliest protagonists of the change theory (Form & Wilterdink, 1998). The
elemental constituent of impact is a change; hence the theory in the simplest sense is any
change in social relations. However, division is sometimes made between the processes of
change within the social structure, which serve to sustain the structure, and processes that
modify the structure. The theory helps in structuring the thinking of all concerned in
processes of development. It is central to, and also an integral part of impact evaluation
study (Myles, 2018). It describes all building blocks required to bring about a long term
goal. The change theory describes the process of social change by making unequivocal the
perception of the current state of affairs, its underlying causes, the long term change desired
and the things that need adjustment for change to come about. Most especially, comprehensible
expression of change for agricultural research and development concepts and initiatives is
imperative for the reason that it tells the thinking that guides the intervention and action as well as
the course of change within the system.
The change theory presents a way to express the assumptions that explain the steps
that culminate in long term goal of interest. It expounds how activities are understood to
create series of results that contribute to achieving the intended impact. The change theory
suffices for whichever kinds of intervention, principally where the intervention activities
can be identified and planned for ahead of time. With the theory, programs are often easier
to sustain, bring to scale, and evaluated, since each step from the conception of ideas all
the way through to the outcomes it aims for, to resource requirement are plainly defined in
the theory (Rogers, 2014).
The theory of change is a portrayal of how an intervention is thought to bring the

preferred results. It explains the underlying reason of how and why a particular project,
program, or policy will achieve its wished-for outcomes. It is a major foundation of most
impact evaluation studies because of its underpinning principle that centers on the cause-
and-effect mantra. The theory is one among the many steps in the evaluation design and
shows the chain of events leading to outcomes. It looks at the circumstances and
assumptions required for change to take place, makes unequivocal the underlying reason
behind a developmental project, and chart developmental interventions along common
sensical causal path. Furthermore, theory of change sheds light on, and perks up program
design. Fundamentally, for developmental projects, the change theory helps straighten out
the inputs and actions that go into delivering developmental projects, their preferred
outputs, and outcomes as it affects direct beneficiaries.
A well articulated theory of change helps to, among others, build a common
understanding and promote collective thinking with regards to the process needed to
achieve desired result, identify potential weakness or gaps in our collective thinking, such
155
as certain hypotheses or assumption that need to be tested, refined or discarded; develop

sound program strategies that are constructed from logically straightforward theories of
change and engage in better learning that brings together theory and action (Adekunle &
Fatunbi, 2014). These suggest that having the theory in place creates an environment for
more adaptable, repeated and non-linear approach to the way we think so that actions can
be more logical, dexterous and useful. When required evidence may be assembled to
reframe the thinking and actions, the theory is often visualized with the pathway of change
diagram which show how each outcome is tied to an intervention.
Development practitioners occasionally observe historical data to better

comprehend contemporary changes and effect of such on a group or the society at large.
For this reason, a theory of social change has helped development practitioners to
understand, and compare what is already there before and after intervention projects. With
these playing out, such projects that have relevance to rural development are fast becoming the
foremost medium for premeditated social change used by developmental partners and governments,
and they have turned out to be an incontestable managing framework for social development
practice. Fashioned to help control and monitor the flow of resources, impact evaluation has helped
to manage just about every facet of development practice, instilling a default paradigm of practice
directly associated with the typical business philosophy. For example, a basic tenet of the theory is
that if a rural development project is good enough, such projects will succeed. For developmental
project also, change is premised on the direction of simple cause and effect philosophy, which
assumes that project interventions themselves initiate the change stimulus, and that preferred
outcomes and impact results can be coded into a profound action plan.
Furthermore, the theory of social change holds that change cannot be manufactured
but can only be refined, and that development in all its facets is a natural, inherent, ethereal
and multifarious process. That is akin to saying that at any state of affairs, people are
already developing either negatively or positively, consciously or unconsciously. However,
the fact that there will and capability to develop may be stalled or constrained somehow,
points to a chief purpose why development practitioners exist, that is, to assist people to
more willfully free themselves of encumbrances to their own development, to take
increasing and intense accountability for issues that have a bearing on their existence and
wellbeing.
When planning for an impact evaluation however, the theory of change should be
reviewed and revised as necessary. For instance, the existing theory of change may have
gaps or unfeasible assumptions that ought to be revised. It can also be obsolete if the
program has evolved since the theory of change was developed. Impact evaluation can be
improved by using the theory of change to identify germane variables and potentially
relevant contextual factors that should be included in data collection and spot intermediate
outcomes that can be used as markers of success, and in setups where the impacts of interest
will occur after the evaluation time frame. The change theory will help identify aspects of
implementation that should be examined to see if the failure to achieve intended impacts
156
is due to a failure to implement the intervention effectively. Furthermore, the change theory
will help guide data analysis, and make available a framework for reporting findings.
Conclusion
The study has examined impact assessment and evaluation as appraisal tools in
rural sociology and agricultural extension for rural development. Impact assessment and
evaluation is first and foremost tools for project management, a key element in
understanding and effectively tracking and documenting the results of development
interventions. For the most part, international donors see impact assessment as an assurance
to program management that, from the commencement, includes assessment and
adjustment into planning and execution of programs that improve welfare. Development
programs, interventions, and policies are typically designed to change outcomes; however,
whether or not these changes are truly realized is a fundamental public strategy issue. More
commonly, program managers and policy makers have centered on controlling and
measuring the inputs and immediate outputs of programs rather than on assessing whether
programs have accomplished their intended purposes, chiefly improving well-being.
Additionally, impact of developmental projects as it were should not be left to complicated
statistics, models, or sophisticated mathematical formulae, but rather such realities are seen
directly in the welfare, and from the lenses and the experiences of those projects
purportedly directly affect.
Among the lessons drawn from this review is that activities of impact assessment
and impact evaluation have become ingrained into the recognized bureaucratic necessities
of aid givers and aid receivers and as such, they are necessities for, and must be integrated
into every project management process. This is because they are apparatuses for project
management and not a duty forced from the outside, with a staff of executing organizations
perfunctorily completing forms and project managers seeing their job simply as the
gathering of data for making progress reports for development partners and agencies.
Furthermore, a sine qua non lesson drawn is that precedence needs to be given to baseline
data collection and analysis early in a project life, paying attention to indicators that allow
counterfactual analysis of project outcomes, delays in conducting, or not conducting
baseline surveys and impact assessment are weaknesses often encountered during project
implementation.
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159
Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers in Maiduguri

Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria
1
Alhaji Mukhtar,2Prof. M.A Iliya, 2Dankani, I.M. Ph.D and 3Prof. Yakubu, A.A.
1Department of Geography, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria.
2Department of Geography, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria.
3Department of Agricultural Economics, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria.
Abstract
This study analyzed the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of livestock
rearers in Maiduguri metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. To give effect to the study, three
hundred and forty-six livestock rearers were randomly selected from all the administrative
districts of the metropolis. A two-stage sampling procedure was used in the collection of
primary data in Maiduguri metropolis. The first stage involved selection of
respondents/livestock rearers from each of the communities using the snowball sampling
method with probability proportionate to the size of each community. The second stage
involved random selection of the districts in order to have all encompassing study sites.
Data collected through interview schedules were statistically tested and found to be
significant. Results show that livestock rearing is a male dominated practice and account
for 73.4% of the respondents and mostly within the age bracket of 20-49 years. It is
common among households with 5-7 members. Most of the rearers have attained tertiary
education level. Livestock rearing is basically a secondary occupation in Maiduguri. The
Kanuri people account for a large percentage of the livestock rearers in the state. Sheep are
the most preferred livestock by the rearers and mostly purchased from the open market. It
is a viable economic activity that needs to be supported by various financial bodies, both
governmental and non-governmental.
Keywords: Borno State, Demographic, Livestock rearers, Maiduguri metropolis and

Socio-economic characteristics.
Introduction
Livestock rearing is basically a rural economy but due to the prevailing economic
meltdown urban centres are gradually assuming the function of the rural areas especially
in agriculture. Agricultural activity taking place in urban areas is termed “Urban
agriculture”. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) defines Urban
Agriculture (UA) “as the industry that produces, processes and markets food and fuel,
largely in response to the daily demand of consumers within a town, city, or metropolis,
on land and water dispersed throughout the urban and peri urban area, applying intensive
production methods, using and reusing natural resources and urban waste, to yield a
diversity of crops and livestock.” Livestock rearing in urban areas therefore provides
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Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Livestock Rearers in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State Nigeria
succor to people at different levels of income. It is argued that it provides good access to
food for the poorest of the poor, source of income and good quality food at low cost for the
stable poor, avenue for savings and dividends on their investment for the middle income
families, and for the small and large entrepreneur, it is generally profitable business.
Despite the benefits of livestock rearing in an urban area, yet, it is still perceived as short
term and inappropriate economic activity due to its inappropriateness and short temporal
span. It is a perforce, intensive, making the best use of available space to meet the awaiting
market and are oriented to close urban market. Proximity to the market had made urban
livestock rearers to engage in rearing of livestock at vacant space. Livestock are usually
reared in urban space in a confined location with little room for movement. The economic
benefits of urban livestock rearing are countless. The demographic and socioeconomic
characteristics of the rearers in Maiduguri metropolis is analysed to portray its potentials.
Problem statements
Livestock is one of the fastest growing agricultural subsectors in developing

countries accounting for 33% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) with prospects of further
increase (FAOSTAT, 2013). This expansion of the practice is propelled by fast demand for
livestock products; it is speed up by population growth, urbanization and increasing
incomes. This has been the case in Africa, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa. In the Northern
part of Nigeria, environmental factors support a long-standing tradition of pastoral rearing
and this practice comes with an attendant problem. The need to promote a culture of urban
livestock rearing is even more imperative as large parts of the population are imbibing the
culture of livestock keeping. The case of Maiduguri, the Borno State capital is no less a
difference. With a population density of 5,539 persons per square kilometre in 2015,
reconnaissance survey for this study found out that Maiduguri Metropolis has limited space
for livestock rearing, however, it was observed that several families in the metropolis
engage in livestock rearing, with all its associated challenges such as traffic hold ups along
major streets. It was also realized that the misunderstanding of various types does erupt
between livestock owners and adjacent occupants.
One still wonders whether the increasing urban livestock rearing among urban
dwellers is informed only by economic factors like the demand for livestock products or it
involves a change in urban consumption pattern and lifestyles or environmental factors.
This investigation is going to reveal specifically the ones that relate to the current trend of
urban livestock rearing in Maiduguri metropolis. Civilization and development of urban
agriculture, particularly urban livestock rearing move in an alternative manner, creating
many innovative ways of food production and management of available resources. This
study bridged this research gap by unveiling the socioeconomic and demographic
characteristics of urban livestock rearers in Maiduguri, for a sustainable development of
the sector.
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Objective of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to examine the practice and impact of urban
livestock rearing in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. The specific objectives
among others include to describe the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of those
engaged in urban livestock rearing.
Description of Study Area
The study area is Maiduguri, the capital of Borno State. It comprises of the twin
towns of Yerwa and Maiduwuri, covering an area of 208 km², and is located between
Latitudes 11°46'18" N to 11°53'21" N and Longitudes 13°03'23" E to 13°14'19" E.
Figure 3.1 Maiduguri Metropolis showing the districts.

Source: Department of Geography, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.
Based on a projection of the 2006 population census, the area had a population of
1.2 million people as at 2014 National Population Commission (NPC, 2015). It shares
boundary with Konduga Local Government Area (LGA) in the West, Jere LGA in the East
and North respectively. The metropolis is divided into seven (7) administrative districts
(Waziri, 2012). These are Bolori, Gwange, Galtimari, Maisandari, Maiduwuri, Shehuri
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North, and Yerwa. Yerwa and Gwange which are considered as high-density residential
area; Shehuri North is a medium density area and Bolori, Galtimari, Maisandari and
Maiduwuri are said to be low-density area (Waziri, 2012). New residential quarters are
also springing up at all the cardinal points of the metropolis. These include among others
settlements like Bakassi, Murumti, Gawo Mai Lalle, Fo’ori, Kuseri and Goni Kachallari.
The study area is fairly good for crop cultivation as such agricultural activities of various
types thrive in and around the area. Cereals such as millet and guinea corn are grown;
legumes of various types are also cultivated on an annual basis by rain fed agriculture.
Agricultural practices are generally intensive using chemical fertilizer and organic manure,
the latter is derived mainly from livestock and domestic waste. Livestock rearing are kept
in every household as such, it is gaining prominence in recent time. Other economic
activities are mainly artisan, tailoring and weaving, and a long list of trade women engage
in.
According to Fannami and Muazu (2012), it is not a prestige to own livestock by
urban dwellers and the keeping of goats in particular is despised and are owned mainly by
women. The term malumshi (shepherd or herdsman) refers to the downtrodden members
in Maiduguri who engage in goat rearing.
Study Site Selection: The study was carried out in the Maiduguri metropolitan area of Borno State,
Nigeria. Maiduguri was chosen because of its heterogeneous ethnic composition. Site selection
was done by displaying coordinates of the population of each ward in the Microsoft Excel
package. This was followed by the allocation of random numbers to the coordinates, after
which a serial sorting was carried out and the required sample size for each ward was taken
from the sorted coordinates.
A reconnaissance survey was first undertaken to all the thirty-two (32)
administrative wards of the study area to come up with a sample frame. A reconnaissance
survey of the study area was conducted to facilitate an overview of the study area and
dominant types of livestock species in the area. During the reconnaissance visit, ethical
permission was sought from ward heads and the study mission was explained. Multistage
sampling methods were used in reaching the respondents. Snowball sampling method was
used to select the livestock rearing households in all the wards of the area to generate the
sample frame. The unique characteristics of livestock rearers that distinguish them from
the non-rearing households have also helped in locating livestock rearing households.
Snowball method was used for easy identification of next livestock rearing household from
the initial ones with the first interviewee serving as permission to the subsequent ones. In
each of the district, computer assisted randomly picked respondents were reached with the
aid of a household random number and interviewed.
After the reconnaissance survey, a pilot survey was carried out to test the instrument
of the study (interview schedule) before the field survey was carried out. Copies of
interview schedules were administered to livestock rearers through accidental sampling.
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The outcome of the pilot survey helped the study in two ways: (i) redesign the study
instrument from an initial little technical to more plausible one, and (ii) provide insight on
how to track down the respondents. It was during the pilot survey that the final decision
was taken to use a multi-stage sampling technique.
The data collected from the respondents were compiled, edited and coded to ensure
that all obvious errors were corrected by revisiting the specific areas and respondents. The
coding of the interview schedule was done using Microsoft Excel package in conjunction
with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)/ Predictive Analytics Software
(PASW) version 20.0. All the field data were screened with the Chi-square of fitness tool
to ascertain whether the samples collected truly represent the study population. In addition,
linear regression was used to determine whether livestock rearing has contributed
significantly to the income of the livestock rearers or not.
Findings of the Study

Table 1 Demographic and Socioeconomic characteristics of urban livestock rearers
Variable Frequency Percent (%)

Gender of Respondents
Male 254 73.4
Female 92 26.6
Total 346 100
Age of respondents
10-19 13 4
20-29 134 39
30-39 120 34
40-49 45 13
50-59 28 8
60-69 6 2
Total 346 100
Household size
Less than 2 6 2
2-4 55 16
5-7 137 40
8-10 107 30
11-13 34 10
14 and above 7 2
Total 346 100
Educational Attainment
Non Formal 24 7
Primary 19 5
Secondary 142 41
Tertiary 161 47
Total 346 100
Ethnic group
Kanuri 126 36.4
Babur Bura 36 10.4
Fulani 34 9.8
Hausa 33 9.5
Other languages of the state(Glavda,Maffa etc) 30 8.7
Marghi 27 7.8
Other North-eastern language(Ngizim,T,Bolewa etc ) 22 6.4
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Other Nigerian Languages(Tiv,Igbo,Yoruba etc) 22 6.4

Shuwa 15 4.3
Foreign language( Bagirmi, kotoko etc) 1 .3
Total 346 100
Duration in livestock rearing
Less than 10 years 267 77
11-20 69 20
21-30 7 2
31-40 3 .9
Total 346 100
Mode of livestock acquisition
Inherited 19 5.5
Purchased 325 94.2
Kept in trust 1 .3
Total 346 100
Preferred livestock
Cattle 29 8.4
Sheep 158 45.7
Goats 91 26.3
Cattle and Sheep 10 2.9
Sheep and Goats 30 8.7
Cattle and Goats 2 .6
All three livestock 26 7.5
Total 346 100
Source: Field Survey, 2016

Table 1 shows that 73.4% of the respondents are males. The few women engaged
in the practice are aged, divorcees or widows. This finding supports the work of Berihu
and Tamir (2015) in Ethiopia where out of the 35 farmers sampled in Addis Ababa, 97.1%
were males. The frequency of respondents’ age shows that the age group of 20-49 years
account for 86% of the respondents. This by extension implies that most of those engaged
in urban livestock rearing are fairly young people below the age of 50 years. This finding
corresponds with the International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) definition of the
productive age group as between 16 and 60 years in any economy.
The findings of the study as presented in Table 1 reveals that the most common
household or family size are those with 5-7 members. Urban households engaged in rearing
of livestock in the metropolis are the ones constituted by average members and neither the
nuclear nor extreme extended type. The finding is not in agreement with the work of
Ogunjimi et al (2012) and Fualefac et al (2014). Ogunjimi et al (2012) found that family
with a small size tends to be more involved in livestock rearing.
Maiduguri being an urban area is made up of heterogeneous populations. Most of the
inhabitants engage in non-agricultural activities as their means of livelihood. Table 1 shows
that 47 % of the respondents have attained tertiary education level. The primary
occupations of the respondents were investigated to ascertain whether livestock rearing
forms the primary or secondary occupation. The figure below shows the percentage
distribution of the primary occupation of the respondents.
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8.1% Percent, , 0, 0%
21.1%
32.1%
38.7%
Crop farming Business(trading)

Goverment or private firm employee Artisan(tailor,blacksmith etc)
Figure 2 Primary Occupations of Livestock Rearers.

Source: Field survey, 2016.
Figure 2 reveals that 38.7% of the respondents engage in business such as trading
as their major source of income. 32.1% are primarily civil servants. 21.1% are crop farmers
while 8.1% are artisans such as tailors. For all categories, urban livestock rearing is
considered as a secondary occupation. This corroborates the submission of Ango,
Abdullahi, and Abubakar (2011) who equally reported that a majority (77%) of the
livestock rearers in Birnin Kebbi are into full intensive crop farming, 13% are civil servants
practicing urban agriculture, 6% are traders practicing urban farming, and 4% of the
respondents are hired laborers for urban farmers.
Available historical records indicate that the Fulani and the Shuwa Arab are the two
ethnic groups associated with livestock rearing. However, there has been a shift in the
ownership of livestock in the urban areas in recent times. The aforementioned ethnic
groups are now outnumbered by the Kanuri. The findings of the study (Table 1) revealed
that the Kanuri accounts for 36.4% of those engaged in livestock rearing in the metropolis.
The larger number of the Kanuris in livestock rearing could be explained by the fact that
they are the first settlers in the city and it is expected that they dominate all economic
activities. The Kanuri clans (Bodawi and Kwoyam) are those mostly engaged in rearing of
livestock. The Babur Bura account for 10.4% of the total livestock rearing households
interviewed. The salient feature discovered by this study is the few Shuwa ethnic groups
in rearing of livestock in the metropolis. Their preference for natural pasture as a basic
feeds than dry ones has limited their activities in the urban centre. The diverse ethnic
composition of livestock rearers in the metropolis conforms with that of Tchoumboue,
Mingoas Kilekoung , Nyoungui, and Toukala (2014), who revealed that many cattle
breeders in Vina division of Cameroon were from the Peulh and Mbororo’s ethnic groups
and they are original settlers of the region.
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The result of the study as in Table 1 reveals that sheep accounts for 45.7% of the
livestock reared in the city. Large numbers of sheep are kept in the metropolis. This may
probably be because of the fact it is often used for most ceremonies such as naming,
marriages and Sallah celebrations. The movement of sheep can be contained with less
economic damages unlike goats which are nasty in terms of behaviour. Another reason
could be the fact cattle consume a lot of feeds and could be expensive. This finding agrees
with Tindano, Moula, Traoré, Leroy, and Antoine-Moussiaux (2015) submission that sheep
is the most preferred species and is integrated mainly to other agricultural activities and
other livestock management. Goats and cattle jointly account for the remaining 54.3%.
Table 1 shows that 94.2% of the respondents got their livestock through purchase. The
amount paid for this purchase depends largely on the breed and quality of livestock as well
as the bargaining power of the buyer. Middle men as observed are active in the bidding
process. This is in consonant with the assertion by Ingram (2011) who stated that
externalities such as middle men activities affect the prices of livestock, inputs and
products and affect what could have been the true costs of livestock purchased.
Conclusion
This study has investigated the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of
livestock rearers in Maiduguri metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. The findings of the study
reveal that livestock rearing in the metropolis is economically beneficial to the rearers and
to those employed and trained in the management of the livestock. It is basically a
secondary occupation and helps in augmenting their income with the sales from these
livestock. This enables them to provide the basic needs of their families and maintain their
urban lifestyles. Livestock rearing also keeps them going even when salaries are delayed
or their businesses are experiencing low patronage.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made based on the findings of the study.
i. As large numbers of the productive age are involved in the practice, there is the need
to train youth in modern livestock management. This could be achieved by enrolling
them into schemes such as N-Agric which is a component of N-power. This will require
a very strong framework of testable ideas within which to collect information
pertaining to the livestock rearing/environment.
ii. There is the need to come up with researches that will identify the salient parameters
and the linkages that exist within the urban system as these are critical in determining
feed availability. This should start with the gazetting of the feed producing areas so that
their current status in terms of area and forage production potentials can be ascertained.
iii. The study area should adopt programs and policies that will encourage improved
modern livestock rearing and animal production techniques. Ranching is a good
method that needs to be adopted. This will halt straying or herding on open streets and
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refuse dumps. It will further control free traffic flow and the spread of zoonotic diseases
in the area.
References
Ango, A., Abdullahi, A. & Abubakar, B. (2011). Role of socioeconomic parameters in
determining the efficacy of urban agriculture in providing food security in Birnin
Kebbi metropolitan area, Kebbi State, North West Nigeria. International Research
Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science, 1 (6), 185-192.
Berihu, M., & Tamir, B. (2015). Socioeconomic characteristics and management practices
of small scale intensive pig production in East Shewa of Central Oromia, Ethiopia.
National Population Commission, (2015). Population Projections of Local Government
Areas. Retrieved from Maiduguri:
Fannami, M., & Muazu, M. (2012). Northern Nigerian: Traditions and challenges.
California Linguistic Notes, XXXVII(1).
FAOSTAT, F. (2013). Database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations:
FAO Rome.
Fualefac, D., Raphae, K., Bime, M., Ndebi, G., Yemele, F., Zoli, P., . . . Tchoumboue, J.
(2014). Socioeconomic and technical characteristics of pig farming in the urban and
peri-urban zone of Dschang-West region of Cameroon. Discourse Journal of
Agriculture and Food Sciences, 2 (1), 11-20.
Ingram, J. (2011). A food systems approach to researching food security and its interactions
with global environmental change. Food Security, 3 (4), 417-431.
Tchoumboue, J., Mingoas Kilekoung , J., Nyoungui, E., & Toukala, J. (2014).
Socioeconomic characteristics and husbandry practices of cattle breeders in the
Vina division, Cameroon. International Journal of Livestock Production, 5 (3), 36-
46.
Tindano, K., Moula, N., Traoré, A., Leroy, P., & Antoine-Moussiaux, N. (2015).
Characteristics and typology of sheep herding systems in the suburban area of
Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Archiv fuer Tierzucht, 58(2), 415.
Waziri, M. (2012). Spatial Pattern of Maiduguri city. Kano: Adamu Joji Publishers..17-29.
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Land Resources Management and Sustainable Agricultural Land use around Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria
Land Resources Management and Sustainable Agricultural Land use around

Bauchi Metropolis, Bauchi State, Nigeria
1
Abubakar Bashir, 1Dasin, M.S., 2Joel Mari Bwala and 3Esther Ibrahim
1Department of Geography Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola.

2Department of Geography, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri.
3Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutic, College of Medical Sciences
University of Maiduguri.
Abstract
The study analyzed the nature of land use/land cover change around Bauchi metropolis
between 1985 to 2015. The study analyzed the pattern of agricultural land, loss of urban
growth around Bauchi metropolis and assess the socioeconomic implications of
agricultural land conversion to other purposes in the study area. Analysis of land use/land
cover change was achieved through the analysis of multi spectral satellite images of 1985,
2000 and 2015 using ArcGIS 9.2 Academic Image Classification Software. A
questionnaire was administered to 300 respondents randomly selected to evaluate the
socioeconomic implications of agricultural land conversion. The results of the study have
shown that there is an unprecedented growth of built up area of 1985 when built up area
constituted 11.6% to 2015 when it constituted 83.1% of land use/land cover within the
study period. The expansion in built up area translates to loss of agricultural land with a
marked decline in land holdings such that the majority of farmers (60.20%) depends on
farm lands that are 1-5 ha in 2015 as against 56.8% that were relying on 6-10 ha in 1985
which led to decline in per capita productivity. Based on the findings of this study, it is
recommended that urban farmers should be adequately sensitized and equipped with
modern methods and implements to enhance and sustain their productivity in spite of the
smaller parcels of land they rely on.
Keywords: Agricultural land use, Bauchi Metropolis, Built-up area, Resource
Management and Sustainable agriculture.
Introduction
Urban expansion is one of the major ways through which man exert his influence
on the natural landscape. Urban expansion or urbanization is defined as the horizontal or
vertical outward extension of urban area over the neighbouring agricultural land. It’s a
natural process that consumes many hectares of most agricultural land in the peri-urban
locations (Manish, Aruna and Virek, 2012). Urban Population growth and escalating
demand for housing among other urban needs have combined to impact on land within the
urban periphery. This impact is through the alteration of non-urban land to accommodate
the expansion of urban land uses such as the construction of roads, houses and commercial
169
areas (Kavitha, Somashekar and Nagaraja, 2015; Kaifang, Yun, Bailang, Tingbao and
Linyi, 2016 and Kalu, Alozie, Oti and Onyenorah, 2017). Urban growth has resulted in
changes in land cover in the urban periphery. Land use/land cover pattern of a region is an
outcome of either one or a combination of natural and socioeconomic factors and their
utilization by man in time and space (Adam, 2015). Land use refers to man’s activities and
the varied uses which are carried out on the land. On the other hand, land cover refers to
natural vegetation, water bodies, rock/soil, artificial cover and other noticed features of the
land.
The methods of land-change science include remote sensing and geospatial analysis
and modeling, together with the interdisciplinary assortment of natural and social scientific
methods needed to investigate the causes and consequences of Land Use Land Cover
Change (LULCC) across a range of spatial and temporal scales (Robert Pontius, 2013; Uma
Maheswari, Rajkumar, Surendran and Krishnamoorthy, 2015). Thus, the application of
Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) enables the tracking of
the pattern of land use/land cover change and obtaining the socioeconomic data that enables
the understanding of the implications of these changes on the socioeconomic activities.
Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) according to Ray and
Dadhwal, 2001; Jiang, Chun and Olson, 2004; Kato and Yamaguchi (2007), have been
recognized as powerful and effective tools and widely applied in detecting the spatio-
temporal dynamics of land use and land cover. Bauchi metropolis, the Bauchi State capital,
have witnessed a remarkable expansion, growth and developmental activities such as the
construction of buildings and infrastructure as well as many other anthropogenic activities
since 1976. This has therefore, resulted in a substantial increase in urban land usage,
modification and alterations of Bauchi Metropolis and its environs over time. Although,
studies relating to changes in land use have been carried out within and around Bauchi
Metropolis (Okali, Okpara and Olawole, 2001), the problem however, is that there have
been very limited detailed and comprehensive attempts to evaluate this status as it changes
over time with a view to detecting the rate of agricultural land loss. The specific objectives
of the study are to:
i. analyze the nature of land use/land cover change around Bauchi metropolis from
1985 to 2015.
ii. analyze the nature of land lost to various urban uses around Bauchi metropolis in
2015.
iii. examine the trends and the extent of land use and land cover changes around
Bauchi metropolis between 1985 and 2015.
iv. assess the socio-economic implications of agricultural land conversion into other
uses in the study area.
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Description of Study Area

Bauchi Metropolis the study area is located between latitude 100 171 to 100 181N
and longitude 90 481 to 90 491E. The Metropolis is the headquarters of the Bauchi Local
Government, which has a population of 493,810 (a large proportion of the population
resides in Bauchi Metropolis as it is the most developed part of the Local Government
Area). The study area has undergone various transformations in its administrative status as
Provincial Capital, Local Government Headquarters and State Capital at various times in
the course of its development.
The climate of the area is tropical in nature with distinct rainy and dry seasons. The
study area receives an average annual rainfall of 1097mm3 with the highest rainfall
received in August. The soil in the study area is mainly laterite with productive clay, loam
occurring along the flood plains providing fertile soil for farming. The relief is one of the
important factors that affect the soil characteristics and suitability of the land for various
uses in the area. Bauchi metropolis spans two broad relief zones, a high plain area of hill
range, which is part of the crystalline rock area of the Northern Nigeria and central high
plain with isolated hills punctuating the high plain in several places such as Dutsen Taushi,
Guru, Kofar Wambai and Gudume. This plain is favourable for agricultural production and
settlement development.
The status of Bauchi Metropolis as state capital attracts the development of a
cocktail of land uses and socioeconomic services, thus attracting a larger proportion of the
population to the urban center, hence the change of its population in terms of size and
composition. Figure 1 and 2 shows the location of the study area and different
landuse/landcover.
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Fig 2: Map of Bauchi Town showing different landuse/landcover

Source: Bauchi State Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Ministry of Lands and Survey
Data Collection
Both primary and secondary types of data were used. The main secondary data used
in this study were land use maps and satellite images of three different periods (as shown
in Table 1), sourced from the National Space Research and Development Agency
(NASRDA) and Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) website. The remote sensing data
obtained was corrected for radiometric and geometric errors. The Arc GIS 9.2 Academic
Software was used in classifying the land use map of the study area, generated from the
classified images; the statistics were used as the basis for producing the graphs in the work.
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Table: 1 Multi-Spectral Satellite Images

S/N Satellite Type Resolution Path/Row Date of observation Source
1 Nigeria Sat-1 32 Zone/Scene 16/2/2015 NASRDA

2 Land Sat TM 30 189/54 29/12/2000 GLCF
3 Land Sat -5 30 189/54 23/12/1985 GLCF
Source: NASRDA, 2019

The primary data used was collected using questionnaires, visual observations,
institutional surveys and key informant interviews. The institutional surveys covered the
Bauchi State Urban Development Board, Bauchi State Ministry of Lands and Survey and
Ministry of Agriculture. The questionnaires were administered to obtain information on
the types and nature of land use changes, implications of land use conversion into housing
and other developmental projects.
Sample, Sampling Technique and Questionnaire administration
The random sampling technique was used. Six (6) wards were randomly selected
from the ten (10) wards in the Metropolis. The estimated population of these six (6) wards
is about 53% of the population of the ten wards of the Metropolis. 300 respondents were
randomly selected from the six selected wards. A questionnaire was administered to the
300 randomly selected respondents to elicit information on their land holdings and per
capita productivity with the view of evaluating the socioeconomic implications of
agricultural land use conversion in the study area. The distribution of the questionnaire is
shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Distribution of Questionnaire to Selected Respondents
Selected Ward Population No. of Respondents % of the

Selected sample
Yelwa 52,064 60 20
Fadama Mada 42,444 50 17
Wuntin Dada 47,365 55 18
Fed. Low Cost 32,156 35 11.7
Muda Lawan 33,897 40 13.3
Nassarawa Jahun 51,886 60 20
Total 259,812 300 100
Source: Computed from 2015 Voters’ Register, INEC and 1991 Census, NPC.
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Data Analysis
Arc GIS 9.2 software was used to characterize land cover types in the study area.
The land use/land cover in this study were grouped and classified into five. These were:
built-up area, vegetation, farmland, rock outcrop and open-space. Image Accuracy
assessment was also carried out in order to correct errors and obtain quality images for
comparison and change detection. The results of the analyzed data were presented using a
frequency distribution table, histogram, and percentages.
Analysis of Satellite imagery
In order to analyze the land use/land cover classes in Bauchi Metropolis, the multi-
spectral images were processed and five (5) land cover types were identified. These are;
built-up area, vegetation, farmland, rock outcrop and open-space. Supervised classification
was carried out using the Maximum Likelihood and a composition of band 1, 2 and 3 by
applying the false colour composite to select Region of Interest (ROI) for features like
open-space and shrubs/grass, while the true colour composite was applied in choosing the
ROI of built up area, farm land and other lands. The spectral signature of each class was
obtained from the images using ENVI. This was done through the selection of ROI for each
of the LULC categories. This classification yielded a good result after subjecting the
classified maps to a confusion matrix. An overall accuracy of 93.50% and a Kappa
coefficient of 0.92 were obtained from the 1985 map, while for the 2015 map, the overall
accuracy was found to be 89.66% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.848.
Post classification.
The three independently classified images were then run for post classification,
comparison in order to produce a change map. By using the change detection, statistical
tool of the post classification, the matrix table of ‘‘from – to’’ change class was obtained.
Finally, this classification proved to be effective because it presents the advantage of
indicating the nature and magnitude of change that has taken place through pixel by pixel
comparison.
The Nature of Existing Land Use/Land Cover Around Bauchi Metropolis
The pattern of land use/land cover around Bauchi Metropolis is a reflection of the
changing structure and political status of Bauchi over the study period. The pattern of land
use/land cover in the study area is a cocktail of land uses that confers the urban status on
Bauchi Metropolis; the land uses are mostly non-agricultural, and as the urban area expands
it encroach on the surrounding agricultural lands there by displacing the urban farmers.
Five classes of land uses/land cover were identified in the study area. Built-up area
constituted 83.1% of the land use in the study area, vegetation constituted 4.3%, farm land
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constituted 11.3%, rock outcrop constituted 0.2% and open space constituted 1.1% of the
land use within Bauchi Metropolis. The predominance of built up area is as a result of the
upsurge in population of Bauchi Metropolis. Thus the population of Bauchi rose from
38,014 persons in 1973 to 283,638 in 1991. The 2006 census gave the population of Bauchi
Local Government as 493,810 (the 2006 census results weren't disaggregated into towns
and villages, however, a large proportion of the population resides in Bauchi Metropolis
which is the most urbanized). At national growth rate of 2.79%, the population of Bauchi
Metropolis is expected to be about 633,580 in 2015(Modibbo et al, 2017). The trend in
land use/land cover changes in the study area is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Land use and Land Cover Changes around Bauchi Metropolis From 1985-
2015
Land use/ 1985 Area cover in 2000 Area cover in 2015 Area cover in
land cover square kilometer square kilometer square kilometer (km2)
type (km2) (km2)
Built-up area 11.68 km2 (10.9%) 39.06km2(36.4%) 89.23 km2(83.1%)
(settlement)
Vegetation 43.75km2(40.7%) 12.26km2(11.4%) 4.64km2(4.3%)
Farmland 36.68km2(34.2%) 40.1 km2 (37.3%) 12.16km2(11.3%)
Rock outcrop 8. 10km2(7.5%) 2.98 km2 (2.8%) 0.19km2(0.2%)
Open-space 7.18km2(6.7%) 12.99 km2 (12.1%) 1.17km2(1.1%)

(bare surface)
Total 107.39km2 (100%) 107.39km2 (100%) 107.39km2 (100%)
Trend and extent of Land use and Land Cover Changes Around Bauchi Town
between 1985 and 2015
The study findings revealed that land use and land cover around Bauchi town has
undergone transformation over the study period with a resultant increase in urban land use
and significant decrease in vegetation cover, rock outcrop and farmland. The increase in
urban land area is more pronounced between 2000 and 2015 compared with that of between
1985 and 2000 as depicted in figures 3, 4, 5 and 6.
176
Figure 3: Classified Image of the Study Area in 1985
177
178
179
90
83.1
80
70
60
50
40.7 1985
40 36.4 37.3
34.2 2000
30 2015
20
10.9 11.4 11.3 12.1
7.5 6.7
10 4.3 2.8
0.2 1.1
0
Build-up area Vegetation Farmland Rock outcrop Open-space
(settlements (bare surface
Fig. 6: Extent of changes in Land use and Land cover types around Bauchi Metropolis
from 1985 to 2015
They strive for limited land, population dynamics and unprecedented urbanization
have combined to cause changes in the land use pattern within the study area in the 30 year
study period. Thus, within the period of study built up area expanded by 500% and
farmland witness shrinkage of about 180% from 2000 to 2015 when urbanization was at
its peak.
Socioeconomic Effects of loss of Agricultural land in Bauchi Metropolis
The socioeconomic implication of land use/land cover change is far reaching and
vicious. The respondents were categorized into socioeconomic groups based on their
sources of income, land holdings and per capita production. Thus, 57% of the respondents
had farming as their primary occupation in 1985; about 12% of the respondents were not
farmers in 1985. Amongst the respondents that had farming as their primary occupation as
at 1985, farming contributed substantially to their income, however with the trend in
urbanization it is only 8% of the respondent that are having substantial proportion of their
income from farming. This implies that the majority of the respondents that were farmers
in 1985 have abandoned large scale farming for other occupations associated with
urbanization process in Bauchi Metropolis.
Landholding and per capita production are the other social, economic variables
affected by the transformation of the Bauchi metropolis to a fast growing urban area. Thus,
180
Tables 4a and 4b show the trends in land holding and crop production within the study
period.
Table 4a: Pattern of Land Holding (in Hectares) amongst Farmers in Bauchi
Metropolis in 1985 and 2015 (n=300)
Wards/Years 1-5ha 6-10ha 11ha and above Undecided
1985 2015 1985 2015 1985 2015 1985 2015
Yelwa 7 35 30 13 14 6 8 4
Fadaman 6 32 28 14 12 4 5 2
Mada 5 31 31 14 13 5 7 4
Wunti Dada 5 24 20 10 5 3 5 2
Fed. Low Cost 4 25 25 6 7 4 4 4
Muda Lawan 5 36 33 15 15 5 6 2
Nassarawa
Jahun
Total 32 183 167 72 66 27 35 18
(Frequency)
Percentage 10.6 61 56 24 22 9 11.7 6
(%)
Table 4b: Per Capita Productivity (in 100kg Bags) amongst Farmers in Bauchi
Metropolis in 1985 and 2015 (n=300)
Wards/Years 1-5bags 6-10bags 11bags and above Undecided
1985 2015 1985 2015 1985 2015 1985 2015
Yelwa 9 35 14 13 29 6 6 5
FadamanMada 7 27 11 12 28 7 4 4
Wunti Dada 5 28 10 16 32 6 9 4
Fed. Low Cost 5 22 7 9 22 5 3 2
Muda Lawan 4 24 8 10 21 4 5 3
NassarawaJah 7 29 15 17 34 7 5 5
un
Total 37 165 65 77 166 35 32 23
(Frequency)
Percentage 12.3 55 21.6 25.7 55.3 11.7 10.7 7.7
(%)
*NB: Crops grown within this period are mainly cereals (Rice, Maize and Sorghum
etc, hence the use of 100kg bag as the unit of measurement.
From the above Tables, it could be seen that there is a marked reduction in sizes of
land holdings. Whereas 66% of the respondents were having farmlands of 11ha and above
181
in 1985, it is only 27% of the respondents that have land of this size in 2015.There is also
a corresponding decline in crop production across all the wards, as shown in Table 4b, only
11.7% of the respondents produced 11 bags and above in 2015 as against 55.3% in 1985.
The implication of the scenarios presented in Tables 3a and 3b is the displacement of urban
farmers through large scale agricultural land conversion to non-agricultural land uses,
thereby increasing threat to food security and availability.
Conclusion
The study has explored the pattern of growth of urban land use through the
expansion of built up area over the period of study (1985 to 2015). The study has also
linked the trend in urban expansion to population growth and the consequences of that
growth, which is reduction in land holding among urban farmers and dwindling per capita
productivity. The rate of loss of agricultural land as revealed by this study is alarming, and
if not properly addressed, will in the long run result in displacement of urban farmers and
serious threat to urban food security.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations were made;
i. Farmers should be trained in modern farming techniques that will enable them
to produce more on smaller land holdings.
ii. Concerned agencies should fast track urban expansion from the perspective of
environmental concern. This will restore and regulate land use/land cover that
is as important as built up (i.e. vegetation).
iii. Government can also address the rapid urbanization of Bauchi metropolis by
pursuing rural development policy that will ensure a sustainable development
of rural areas which will in the long run curtail rural-urban migration.
iv. Government should also pursue agricultural development policies that will
provide improved and affordable agricultural inputs, and train farmers on
modern techniques of farming that will enable them to produce more.
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184
Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria
Personal Income Tax Generation and Utilization in Taraba State Board
of Internal Revenue, Nigeria
1
Babayo Jamilu and 2Suleiman Shatima
1Department of Accountancy, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria
2Accounting Unit, School of Preliminary Studies, Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria
Email: babayojamilu@gmail.com
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate how personal income tax generation affects tax
utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study assessed the relationship
between tax identification, assessment and collection, and tax utilization in Taraba State,
Nigeria using a sample of 234 respondents selected through simple random sampling
techniques. Primary data was collected using questionnaire while reliability and validity of
the instruments were evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha and content validity index.
Frequencies and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the population. Pearson linear
correlation coefficient was employed to examine relationship between personal income tax
generation and tax utilization. Findings of the study showed a positive relationship between
tax identification and tax utilization (r = 0.616). It also showed a positive relationship
between tax assessment and tax utilization (r = 0.673), and a positive relationship between
tax collection and tax utilization (r = 0.650). The study concluded that the various
components of income tax generation, that is, tax identification, tax assessment and tax
utilization have positive and significant influence on tax utilization in Taraba State,
Nigeria. The study recommends, among others, that the tax authorities should properly
review and evaluate the assessment and collection procedures so as to encourage
compliance among the tax payers; and that qualified personnel with the right attitude
should be recruited, trained and retrained to man the internal revenue board. More so,
deliberate efforts should be made to educate tax payers on the need to pay taxes while the
government should embark on aggressive infrastructural development to justify the taxes
received.
Keywords: Personal income tax, tax generation, tax identification, tax utilization and
Taraba State
Introduction
The importance of taxation as a catalyst for development in modern economies
needs not to be overemphasized. Income tax was introduced by William Pitt nearly 200
years ago to finance the wars against France during the reign of Napoleon. The history of
taxation in Nigeria dates back to the pre-colonial period. According to Lekan and Sunday
(2006), before the colonization of the different entities which were later amalgamated
185
under the name Nigeria, there were different systems of taxation existing in the form of
compulsory services, contribution of goods, money, labour and so on amongst the various
kingdoms, groups and tribes controlled by the Obas, Emirs, Ezes, Attah of Igala, Tor Tiv,
Ohinoyi of Ebira and so on in order to sustain the monarchs. According to Yerokun (1997),
during the colonial era; the imposition of any type of tax on citizens (individual and
corporate) took the form of promulgation of laws by the colonial authority. Examples of
such law include the Native Law ordinance cap 74 of 1917 applicable to Western Nigeria.
The Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue came into being following the creation
of Taraba State on 27th August, 1991. Like Many government departments, the Board
started operation in a temporary accommodation and moved to the present location at 56,
Hammaruwa way, Jalingo in October, 2003.On creation in 1991, the Board had area offices
at Jalingo, Wukari, Takum, and Gembu. However, due to increased volume of work and in
order to bring tax and administration closer to the people, additional offices were opened
at Bali, MutumBiyu and KarimLamido. In addition to these, area offices are collection
centres located at Zing, Pantisawa, Lau, Sunkani, Donga, Ibi, Kurmi, Serti and Lissan.
Similarly, driver’s license processing centers have been opened in Jalingo, Zing, Takum
and Gembu.
Expectedly, the Personal Income Taxes (PIT) should be a major source of income
to the government. However, PIT has not yielded the much expected results in Nigeria
(Asabor, 2012). PIT generation remains far below target, while administration of the taxes
for the benefit of all taxpayers also remains a challenge. A study by Agya et al (2015)
found out that Taraba State taxation system is lagging behind the standard of taxation
system in Nigeria and did not yield effective results The factors which hinder the activities
include inadequate and out dated revenue machineries, inadequate staff and lack of
professional personnel in revenue section, inadequate salaries and incentives for revenue
collectors, inadequate provision of social services, Market and Motor Park, Political
interference in appointment into the task force board. It is quite regrettable that despite all
the series of amendments ensued by many governments on Personal Income Tax Act; it
still faces many limitations especially as it is evident in the assessment and collection
machinery. The institutional framework within which the revenue administration operates
directly affects the effectiveness and efficiency of the tax administration in Taraba State
(Akintoye and Tashie, 2013; Asabor, 2012). The existing institutional framework in
Nigeria varied. Despite the fact that Taraba State board of taxation have pledge to use
technology to drive tax administration in order to promote accountability and transparency,
the taxation system still lagging behind. The taxation system in Taraba is faced by various
challenges, which include: lack of staff and adequate training of the available tax collectors,
lack of sensitization on the part of tax payers as regards to the importance of taxation and
administration as well as the corrupt alliance of tax collectors with tax payers to avoid tax
for them (tax collectors) to make fast money.
186
Another feature and problematic aspect of Nigeria especially Taraba State tax
system is the location of the assessment and collection functions within the tax
administration. According to Oduh (2012), problems also emanate from the frequent
changes in the tax laws; every year the annual budget estimate introduces new measures
and procedures, amends or cancels existing ones. Another institutional arrangement that
seems to impede the efficiency and effectiveness of tax administration in Nigeria which
happens at Taraba State as well is the linkage of the revenue administration with the civil
service. The revenue administration, therefore, reflects the weaknesses and structural
defects existing within the civil service organization, especially executive bureaucracy, low
morale and inadequate resources (Angahar & Sani, 2012). It is true that problem of tax
collection and administration is universal but developing countries such as Nigeria and a
typical State of it such as Taraba State seems to be more plagued and inflicted both in
weight and magnitude. On this note, given the importance of having an efficient taxation
system for the development of the country, it is necessary that a study is conducted to assess
the framework for personal income tax generation and utilization in the country.
Although different study has been carried out on taxation, most of them were
carried out in other themes such as the problems of tax administration in Nigeria, the impact
of taxation on revenue generation in Nigeria (Okpe, 2014) tax revenue generation and
Nigeria economic development (Okafor, 2012), etcetera. The objective of this study was
to evaluate how personal income tax generation affects tax utilization in Taraba State,
Nigeria. Specifically, the study aimed at analyzing whether a relationship exists between
tax identification, assessment and collection, and tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria.
Knowledge of the relationship on how personal income tax generation affects tax
utilization will benefit tax authorities in Taraba State and Nigeria at large as well as the
employees who pay the tax. It will also be useful in understanding the current framework
for personal income tax generation and utilization in Taraba State and provide lessons for
other States in Nigeria. The study will further enrich existing knowledge on the relationship
between tax identification, assessment and collection, and tax utilization in Nigeria as well
as provide literature for future researches on related subject. The remainder of this paper is
organized as follows: Section 2 contains a review of empirical literature. Section 3
describes data and methodology. Section 4 presents results and discussions, and section 5
provides conclusions and recommendations.
Literature Review
Income tax revenue is one of the major sources of revenue for Nigerian government
(Angahar & Sani, 2012; Okpe, 1998). Its importance cannot be overstated. The Nigerian
tax system even though has been employed to achieve various economic objectives at
notable periods, has basically been structured as a tool for revenue generation which are
used to finance the provision of social amenities to the citizenry by the government (Oduh,
2012). This importance assumes an accelerated dimension, in the face of the present
economic recession in Nigeria. Taxation is an instrument of fiscal policy used by
187
government (Asabor, 2012; Oduh, 2012; Ariwodola, 2000). It can be used to stimulate
growth in certain sectors of the economy as well as discourage investment in others.
Taxation serves the purpose of income and wealth distribution, where the use of
transfer payments and benefits to those members of the society who are less well-off
according to Musgrave and Musgrave (1980) is to promote social equality. Taxation as a
mechanism for income and wealth distribution holds that the burden of taxation should be
heavier for the rich in the society than for the poor so that that taxes collected are used to
pay for social services for the less fortunate (Akintoye and Tashie, 2013; Oduh, 2012;
Angahar & Sani, 2012). The essence of taxation is to raise revenue for government
expenditure or finance government projects, control consumer demand, encourage
investment and savings, fight economic depression, inflation and deflation, guarantee
equitable distribution of income and wealth, control the general trend of the national
economy, and ensure a proper allocation of national resources (Akintoye and Tashie, 2013;
Oduh, 2012).
Personal income tax generation in Nigeria is confronted with complex and multi-
dimensional challenges. According to Ola (2001), revenue collected from income tax of
individuals and corporate bodies is tend to be too low because of inadequate level of
knowledge (tax literacy), poor association between tax authorities and taxpayers, as well
as insufficient number of qualified and competent accountant among the staff of tax
authorities. Untrained and unqualified tax personnel lack skills on how to reach information
or other technical procedures on how to utilize information available for the assessment
and calculating tax in a best suitable manner.
Another challenge is the shortage of staff for tax collection. For tax collection to be
effective and efficient, there must be adequate staff. However, there is an acute shortage of
qualified and trained personnel in the tax offices. This leads to contraction in tax collection
efforts and as a consequence, tax collections are in arrears. There are a lot of problems
associated with the generation of personal Income tax. The senior tax analyst with the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), Peter Griffith as cited in (Asada, 1997; Angahar &
Sani, 2012) identified three principle factors that cause a great fluctuation in tax revenue.
The author described as exogenous; such as changes in the substance of the law, changes
in the base to which the tax applies, and changes in the quality and efficiency of the
administration. Changes in the base to which the tax applies is illustrated by the rise and
fall of revenue from taxes from year to year on export commodities due to fluctuations in
prices in the international market; changes in the substance of the law is amply illustrated
by the erratic nature of our taxation laws whereby say revenue is increased through raising
the rate of tax or is lost through increasing the exemptions from income tax; changes in the
quality and efficiency of tax laws, lack of trained personnel, lack of a database for taxable
persons, lack of adequate penalties for tax evaders, these are just a few constraints that
hinder the quality and efficiency of tax generation in Taraba State Nigeria (Sani, 2012;
Okpe, 1998).
188
The assessment and collection of Personal Income Tax from taxable individuals
have been difficult in Nigeria (Asada, 1997; Angahar & Sani, 2012). In Nigeria, it is safe
to say that Personal Income Tax is mostly paid by civil servants. This is because the taxes
are deducted before the employees receive their pay (Oduh, 2012; Ariwodola, 2000; Okpe,
1998). In private sectors, most employers do not bother with P.A.Y.E deductions. Those
that do make deductions do not remit said deductions to the State. Majority of the self-
employed citizens mostly do not pay income tax (Akintoye and Tashie, 2013). Due to this,
a lot of money is lost; money that could have been gainfully used to improve the lot of the
populace. Lack of adequate fraud control provision in our tax laws is another problem
encountered in personal income tax generation. Experience has shown that Nigeria’s tax
collectors are usually susceptible for financial inducement and therefore help tax payers to
evade tax. If the tax collectors do collect these taxes, they fail to remit the sums to the State
(Asada, 1997; Angahar & Sani, 2012; Okpe, 1998)
Tax Administration revolves around salient functions, including accountability of
all taxes collected. Therefore, to deal with the administrative problems of taxation alone is
enough to solve all the problems of taxation in Nigeria including tax evasion. Quite a good
number of scholars are of the view that the operation of any tax system and the attitude of
taxpayers are strongly influenced by the quality of its administration, as cited in Dandago
and Alabede (2006), observed that a good tax system could be turned into an instrument of
oppressing the taxpayers by a bad tax administration, while a good tax administration may
convert a bad tax system into a very good one. It will suffice now to mention that a good
support from a tax system is needed in the form of sensible tax laws to aid the efficiency
of the administration.
According to Jenkins (1991), tax system can never work better than its
administration, but that even the best tax administration would certainly fail to turn a bad
tax system into a well operating one. The author added that there cannot be a good tax
policy without efficient tax administration. Without the permanent reorganization of tax
administration and an almost daily improvement in methods of its management, it is
impossible to expect that tax reforms could be realized successfully. Alabede (2004),
however, observes that the establishment of a comprehensive and efficient tax system in
which the tax administration holds an important role, is one of the most complex and
serious macroeconomic problems that countries in transition are faced with. Dandago and
Alabede (2006) clearly state that no real regression in the indirect tax administration could
be made unless there was a concerted effort by both agencies to assess the taxes due
properly and enforces collection at a predictable and stipulated time in addition,
Mohammed (2004) emphasizes the necessity for taxation. The author opined that no matter
how efficient the tax laws and tax policies are, unless the implementation and execution
machineries are equally efficient and effective, the entire system may crumble. The author
therefore considers tax problems as purely administrative. To ensure efficient tax collection
and accounting, the study recommends the following; right orientation of staff, right
189
working environment, staff development programme, need for information procurement

and dissemination, and use of budgetary system for tax collection etc. The foregoing and
many other reasons clearly indicate the need for an efficient tax administration and that, if
the tax officials are adequately remunerated and given immense training, there would be
significant increase in their productivity and collection.
One of the major challenges of tax generation in a country is the high tax evasion.
Tax evasion is reprehensible acts committed by taxpayer or expert advisors that
deliberately violating the provisions of tax legislation (Alm, 2016). Tax evasion is a
taxpayer resistance to law provisions. Allingham and Sandmo (1972) uses Theory of
Economic Crime to understand behaviour of tax compliance, and explains that taxpayer is
not afraid to fines and administrative sanctions if the utility gained for tax evasion is greater
than the fines and penalties. Taxpayers who do tax evasion are more motivated by principle
of cost and benefit. Risk calculation also motivates the tax evasion. Taxpayers as rational
human beings will evade tax if evasion detection is lower than acceptable risk (Alm, 2016).
For Indonesia, high cases of corruption committed by bureaucrats, both at regional and
centre, becomes an important concern for taxpayer. Perceptions are formed by taxpayer,
that tax payment is used for construction of public facilities and infrastructure, such as
highway facilities, schools, bridges, hospitals, health centres, subsidized food, clothing and
shelter. But the fact is different. Tax revenue actually becomes a means to share the money
among officials. News in Republika (online), Thursday, March 7, 2013 showed news cases
of corruption committed by public officials. ".... District Government Association of
Indonesia (APKASI) showed that there were 222 regional heads in Indonesia who were
suspected as corrupt...." Both the taxpayer and government should analyze tax liability as
a social contract between the taxpayer and government.
According to Mohammed (2014), taxation is a necessity, but no matter how
efficient the tax laws and tax policies are unless the implementation and execution
machineries are equally efficient and effective, the entire system may crumble therefore
considers tax problems as purely administrative. To ensure efficient tax collection and
accounting, he recommends; right orientation of staffs, right working environment, staff
development programme, need for information procurement and dissemination, and used
of budgetary system for tax collection etc. However, these are not adequately documented
in Taraba State board of internal revenue, thereby necessitating this study to ascertain the
status of administrative efficiency in the tax body. Also, Ariwodola (2000) Angahar and
Sani (2012) postulate that for any tax system to be efficient and effective, it must have
conformed to certain principles that are universally recognized. Therefore, based on the
previous researchers; no research has been conducted exactly on “personal income tax
generation and utilization. Consequently, this study intends to close this lacuna in empirical
literature.
190
The study employed a cross-sectional descriptive survey design. Primary data was
collected through self-administered questionnaires distributed to employees of the Taraba
State Board of Internal Revenue, local political leaders, as well as the business
communities within Jalingo local government area in Taraba State. The questionnaire was
selected as an instrument to collect the data because it is straight forward and less time
consuming for respondents. The questionnaires were structured and were administered
through drop and pick later method and the researcher used e-mails and telephone calls to
contact the respondents. The target population of the study was 600 respondents’ out of
which 234 was selected using the Krejcie and Morgan's sample size determination method
(Krejcie & Morgan, 1970).
Validity was determined using Content Validity Index (C.V.I). A CVI of 0.83 was
used to declare that the study instrument was valid since it was above 0.7 which is the
minimum CVI index required to declare a study instrument valid (Amin, 2005).
Table 1: Validity of the instrument
Relevant items Non relevant items Total

Reter 1 21 3 24
Reter 2 20 4 24
Reter 3 19 5 25
Total 60 12 72
Average = 0.88 + 0.83.79=2.48=0.83
3
CVI= 60 = 83.3%
72
From the above computation, CVI for reter 1 and is 0.88 reter 2 is 0.83 while for
reter 3 is 0.79 making all average of 0.83 which shows that the instrument was valid
because it is above the minimum level of 0.20 (Amin 2005)
An instrument is reliable if it produces the same results whenever it is repeatedly
used to measure trait or concept from the same respondents even by other researchers
(Amin, 2005). Reliability (internal consistency and stability) of the instruments was tested
using Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient (Cronbach, 1946). The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient
test indicated that the questionnaires where reliable since the coefficient was above 0.5
(α=0.80).
191
Table 2: Reliability of the Instrument
Construct variables Number of items Cronbach alpha

Tax generation 13 0.82
Tax utilization 11 0.78
Mean 24 0.80
The mean of the reliability was established at 0.80 therefore the internal consistency
(reliability) of the instrumental was confirmed.
Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient (PLCC) to determine the nature of
relationship between tax identification, assessment and collection, and tax utilization in
Taraba State, Nigeria. The sign (+ or -) indicates the direction of the relationship. The value
can range from -1 to +1, with +1 indicating a perfect positive relationship, 0 indicating no
relationship and -1 indicating a perfect negative or reverse relationship.
Results of the Findings

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Gender of Respondents
The Table 3 presents the distribution gender of the respondents.
Table 3: Gender of Respondents
Frequency Percentage
Valid
152 65
Male
Female 82 35
Total 234 100
Source: Primary Data
The result in Table 3 shows that 65% of the respondents were male, and 35% of
them were female. This explains that a bigger percentage of male respondents answered
the questionnaire as compared to the females.
Age Group of Respondents

The distribution of the respondents who participated in this study is shown in Table
4.
192
Table 4. Showing Age of the Respondents
Valid 18 – 27 83 35
28 – 37 54 23
38 – 47 38 16
48 – 57 25 11
58 – 67 13 6
68 and above 21 9
Total 234 100.0
The results in Table 4 shows the age distribution of respondents, where 35% of the
respondents were aged between 18 – 27 years, 23% of them were aged 28 – 37 years, 16%
of them were aged 38 – 47 years, 11% of them were aged 48 – 57 years, 6% of them were
aged 58 – 67 years, and 9% of them were aged 68 years and above. This implied that
majority of the people involved in business in Taraba States are in their youth, a true
reflection of Nigeria’s youthful population.
Academic level
The results in table 5 show the academic level of the various respondents.
Table 5: Showing the academic levels of respondents
Valid
49 21
Master’s degree
Bachelor’s degree 70 30
Diploma 60 26
Certificate 55 23
Total 234 100.0

Source: Primary data
The information in Table 5 shows the academic levels of the respondents. Majority
of the respondents (30%) were categorized as Bachelor’s degree, others included 23% with
certificate qualification, 21% of the respondents are master’s degree qualification. 26% of
the respondents are with diploma qualification. This implied that most of the respondents
who ventured in business were those with Bachelor’s degree academic qualifications.
193
Occupation of the Respondents

The results in Table 6 present the position of the people who were involved in this research.
Table 6: Occupation of the Respondents
Valid
Taraba SBIR official 33 14
Politician 58 25
Business leader 51 22
Business man/woman 92 39
Total 234 100.0
The results in Table 6 shows that on the occupation of the respondents, majority
(39%) were businessmen/women. Also, 22% of the respondents were business leaders,
25% of the respondents were political leaders, and 14% of them were officials from the
Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue.
Duration
The number of years/duration that respondents have spent in their current position
is shown in Table 7.
Table 7: Showing the duration
Valid
1 - 3 years 88 38
3 - 5 years 65 28
5 – 8 years 40 17
8 – 10 years 29 12
Over 10 years 12 5
Total 234 100.0
Source: Primary data
The results in Table 7 show the duration/time spent in the current position. Here, majority
of the targeted respondents (38%) had been in their positions for 1 – 3 years, 28% of the
respondents had been in their current positions for 3 – 5 years, 17% of the respondents had
been in their position for 5 – 8 years, 12% of the respondents had been in their current
position for 8 -10 years, and 5% of the respondents had been in their current positions for
more than 10 years. This information implied that majority of the respondents had been in
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their current position for 1 – 3 years; therefore, they were familiar with the various
operations within the tax system in Taraba State.
The relationship between variables using Pearson’s Correlation

Table 8: Pearson’s correlation on the relationship between variables
1 2 3 4
Tax identification (1) – IV 1
Tax assessment (2) – IV .396 1
Tax collection (3) – IV .399 .474 1
Tax utilization (4) – DV .616** .673 .650** 1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The results in Table 8 show a positive relationship between tax identification and tax
utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria (r = 0.616, P-value <0.01). This implies that, tax
identification capacity has an effect on tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. This finding
was partly in agreement with earlier reports by Musgrave and Musgrave (1980), who say
that taxation serves to promote social equality. The author further added that taxation as a
mechanism for income and wealth distribution holds that the burden of taxation should be
heavier for the rich in the society than for the poor; so that the taxes collected are used to
pay for social services for the less fortunate. Additionally, Akintoye and Tashie (2013);
and Oduh (2012) have said that the essence of taxation is to raise revenue for government
expenditure or finance government projects, control consumer demand, encourage
investment and savings, fight economic depression, inflation and deflation, guarantee
equitable distribution of income and wealth, control the general trend of the national
economy, and ensure a proper allocation of national resources. According to Oduh (2012),
experience has shown that the institutional capacity to administer taxes effectively is
woefully lacking in this country. Procedures, reinforced by third party audits, appear to
ensure that taxes are paid and received albeit with potentially serious and costly internal
lags. However, Nigeria lacks capacity to assess the reasonableness of the returns submitted
by tax payers, including costs and staffing, skills, pay scale and other funding. A recurring
problem with PIT is the non-compliance of employers to register their employees and to
remit such taxes to relevant authorities. Absence of competent tax administrators due to
incompetence and absence of honest administrators, problem of tax avoidance and evasion
has reached an alarming proportion. The problem with income taxation in Nigeria is the
administration of the tax system bordering on the tax collection, assessment and
widespread corruption.
The study results show a positive relationship between tax assessment and tax
collection (r = 0.673, P-value <0.01). This implies that tax assessment process has a
195
significant effect on tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria. This finding is supported by
the literature from various authors; Asada (1997) said that assessment and collection of
personal income tax from taxable individuals have been difficult in Nigeria; Angahar and
Sani (2012) said that in Nigeria, it is safe to say that personal income tax is mostly paid by
civil servants. This is because the taxes are deducted before the employees receive their
pay, but that in private sectors, most employers do not bother with P.A.Y.E deductions,
and those that do make deductions do not remit the deductions to the respective State.
Majority of the self-employed citizens mostly do not pay income tax according to Akintoye
and Tashie (2013). Due to this, a lot of money is lost; money that could have been gainfully
used to improve lot of the populace. Lack of adequate fraud control provision in the
country’s tax laws is another problem encountered in personal income tax generation.
According to Akintoye and Tashie I. R. (2013) experience has shown that tax collections
are usually susceptible for financial inducement and therefore help tax payers to evade tax.
If the tax collectors do collect these taxes, they fail to remit the sums to the state. Also,
according to Dandago and Alabede (2006), tax assessment and realization revolves around
salient functions, including accountability of all taxes collected. Therefore, to deal with the
administrative problems of taxation alone is enough to solve all the problems of taxation
in Nigeria including tax evasion. Quite a good number of scholars are of the view that the
operation of any tax system and the attitude of taxpayers are strongly influenced by the
quality of its administration. Further evidence by Dandago and Alabede (2006) has shown
that a good tax system could be turned into an instrument of oppressing the taxpayers by a
bad tax administration, while a good tax administration may convert a bad tax system into
a very good one, and that a good support from a tax system is needed in the form of sensible
tax laws to aid the efficiency of the administration.
In addition, the results show a positive relationship between tax collection and tax
utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria (r = 0.650, P-value <0.01). This implies that tax
collection methods significantly affect the level of tax utilization in Taraba State, Nigeria.
This finding is supported by literature from Jenkins (1991), ho said that the tax system can
never work better than its administration, but that even the best tax administration would
certainly fail to turn a bad tax system into a well operating one. The Author added that
there cannot be a good tax policy without efficient tax administration. Without the
permanent reorganization of tax administration and an almost daily improvement in
methods of its management, it is impossible to expect that tax reforms could be realized
successfully. Alabede (2004), however, observed that the establishment of a
comprehensive and efficient tax system, in which the tax administration holds an important
role, is one of the most complex and serious macroeconomic problems that countries in
transition are faced with. Mohammed (2004 emphasized the necessity for taxation. The
author opined that no matter how efficient the tax laws and tax policies are, unless the
implementation and execution machineries are equally efficient and effective, the entire
system may crumble therefore considers tax problems as purely administrative. To ensure
efficient tax collection and accounting, the author recommends the following; right
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orientation of staff, right working environment, staff development programme, need for
information procurement and dissemination, and use of budgetary system for tax collection
etc. The foregoing and many other reasons clearly indicate the need for an efficient tax
administration and that, if the tax officials are adequately remunerated and given immense
training, there would be significant increase in their productivity and collection.
Conclusion
The study has examined the relationship between personal income tax generation
and utilization in Taraba State Board of Internal Revenue, Nigeria. Findings of the study
revealed that tax identification influences tax utilization, since there was a positive and
significant relationship between the two variables. Tax identification is significant in a way
that it is only when there are efficient means of identifying taxable individuals and entities
that there can be adequate mechanisms to assess and collect the taxes. Therefore, tax
identification is a crucial part of tax generation in Taraba State, Nigeria. The study also
established that tax assessment has a positive and significant influence on tax utilization.
This is underscored by the fact that an efficient tax system is based on accurate assessment
of the taxes due to be paid by each individual/entity. Therefore, tax assessment is also
crucial for tax generation in Taraba State, Nigeria. The study conclude that tax collection
has a positive and significant influence on tax utilization. This is so because without an
effective collection mechanism in place, the taxes identified and assessment cannot be
actually realized. Therefore, tax collection is also crucial for generating adequate taxes for
the government in Taraba State, Nigeria.
In order for a given government to generate adequate revenue from tax system, tax
administration is expected to work in the most effective and efficient manner. And for the
tax administration to generate adequate revenue, the various components of tax
identification, assessment and collection are expected to work in an integrated approach.
Therefore, inappropriate fit among any of the tax generation components can lead non-
achievement of objectives. For instance, in the absence of good integration in the
transformation components between informal structures and formal or between individuals
and their task requirement etc. can create enormous problems. More so, reforming one or
two components while leaving others unreformed will bring about the others to fall.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:
i. In order to improve the tax identification process, government should embark upon
other means of publicity such as radio messages, television advertisement, post bills
as well as the use of town criers to inform tax payers of changes in tax legislation
and need for compliance. Tax payer’s information and history should be
computerized and this will facilitate effective monitoring and coordination of tax
197
and income data. Deliberate efforts should be made to educate tax payers on the
need to pay taxes while the government should embark on aggressive infrastructural
development to justify taxes received.
ii. The tax authorities should properly review and evaluate the assessment and
collection procedures so as to encourage compliance by the tax payers. The usual
practice of reprinting parts of the tax laws and sending same to the tax payers
expecting that they would understand is not encouraging since these laws are
written in legal jargons or terms that are not easily understood. Moreover, tax forms
should be made less complex.
iii. In order to improve the tax collection process, qualified personnel with the right
attitude should be recruited, trained and retrained to man the internal revenue board.
Revenue Personnel should be generally trained and restrained to cope with the
demands of the job. Staff should also be motivated through good salary package to
insulate them from fraud and other corrupt practices. In-service training should also
be instituted, the staff should be conversant with applicable tax laws and this is only
possible with the training. Cash incentives should be given for best performance.
This will increase their effectiveness as well as reduce the need for corruption.
References
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Nigeria: Problems And Prospects, International Journal of Economics, Commerce
and Management United Kingdom, III(2)
Akintoye and Tashie, I.R. & Tashie, G.A. (2013). “The Effect of Tax Compliance on
Economic Growth and Development in Nigeria”. British Journal of Arts and Social
Sciences, UK, 11 (2).
Alabede, J.O. (2004). Accountability and Transparency in Tax Administration: Imperative
for improving Revenue Generation, a Paper Presented at the Second Annual
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Department of Accounting, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria.
Allingham, M. G., & Sandmo, A. (1972). Income Tax Evasion: A Theoretical Analysis.
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Asada, D. (1997). The Administration of Personal Income Tax in Nigeria: Some Problem
Areas. Nigeria Matches Publishing Ltd.
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Engineering and Intelligent Systems,5(8), 26-29
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Kano: Triumph Publishing Company Limited.
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Bureau of Fiscal Documentation, pp 588-596.
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Silicon Publishing Company.
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Project submitted to the Department of Accounting. Bayero University, Kano-
Nigeria.
Oduh, M. (2012). Revenue Implication of Nigeria Tax System, Lagos. Journal of
Economic and Sustainable Development, 3(8).
Okafor, R.G. (2012), Tax revenue generation and Nigerian economic development.
European Journal of Business and Management, 4(19), 1905-1922.
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Yerokun, O. (1997). Nigerian revenue law report. Lagos, Nigeria.
199
Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic

1
Paulina Ada Akpa, PhD and 1Sunday Igah
1Department of Political Science, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria
Email: drpaulinaakpa@gmail.com and sundayigah23@gmail.com
Abstract
The study examines political leadership and corruption in Nigeria. One of the greatest
threats to socio-economic and political development of any nation is corruption.
Democracy, on the other hand, is based on the will of the people and it is generally agreed
that it is the best form of governance suited for allowing people to live in dignity and
freedom. With huge resource expansion, unparalleled and unprecedented corrupt practices,
it is unthinkable to expect democracy to thrive and derive dividend therein. Nigeria, a
country richly endowed with natural resources and high quality human capital is yet to find
its rightful place among the comity of nations. A major reason that has been responsible
for her socio-economic stagnation is the phenomenon of corruption. The kernel of the study
rests on the fact that political leadership and corruption are interwoven and it is against this
background that it examines the corrupt tendencies of the political leadership class in
Nigeria and its implications for socio-economic development. The study adopts secondary
sources of data collection for overall understanding of the subject matter. Writings were
accumulated from works of researchers in the territory of examinations under audit. The
study contends that for corruption to be reduced in Nigeria, the constitution should be
reviewed in such a way that all pro-corruption clauses should be removed from it. For
example, the “immunity clause” which protects people in power from being prosecuted
while in office has not only hindered effective prosecution of corrupt public and private
officials in Nigeria, it has also made corruption to thrive.
Keywords: Political Leadership, Corruption, ICPC, EFCC, Fourth Republic, Nigeria.
Introduction
Nigeria’s inability to consolidate her democracy is blamed largely on the high level
of corruption in the country (Aluko 2008) Corruption can be said to be attempt to secure
wealth or power through illegal means for private gain at public expense or the misuse of
public power for private benefit. Corruption has existed in human society for a long time
and remains one of the problems in many of the world’s developing economies with
devastating consequences. Corruption, as a phenomenon, is a global problem, and exists
in varying degrees in different countries (Agbu, 2003). Corruption is not only found in
democratic and dictatorial politics, but also in feudal, capitalist and socialist economies.
Christian, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist cultures are equally bedeviled by corruption
(Dike, 2005). Corrupt practices are not an issue that has just begun today; but the history
is as old as the human society (Lipset & Lenz, 2000), Corruption not only distorts
200
competition, hinders economic growth and endangers the stability of democratic

institutions; it pulls down the moral foundation of society (Inokoba & Ibegu, 2011).
In Nigeria, corruption is one of the many unresolved problems that have critically
hobbled and skewed development (Ayobolu, 2006). It remains a long-term major political
and economic challenge for Nigeria (Sachs, 2007). It is a canker worm that has eaten deep
in the fabric of the nation. It ranges from petty corruption to political, bureaucratic
corruption or systemic corruption (International Center for Economic Growth, 1999).
World Bank studies put corruption at over $1 trillion per year accounting for up to 12% of
the GDP of nations like Nigeria, Kenya and Venezuela (Nwabuzor, 2005). Corruption is
endemic as well as an enemy within (Agbu, 2003). Corruption has been the primary reason
behind the country’s slow pace of development (Independent Corrupt Practices
Commission (ICPC), 2006). This is evident in Transparency International consistent rating
of Nigeria as one of the top three most corrupt countries in the world (Ribadu, 2003).
As part of the efforts at fighting corruption and strengthening the economy, Nigeria
has since 1999 eembarked on an aggressive pursuit of economic reforms through
privatisation, banking sector reform, anti-corruption campaigns and establishment of clear
and transparent fiscal standards since 1999. The major aim of the economic reforms in
Nigeria is to provide a conducive environment for private investment (African economic
Outlook 2006). The reform process has the following three key pillars: improved
macroeconomic management, reform of the financial sector, institutional reforms,
privatization and deregulation, and improvement of the infrastructure. The importance of
infrastructure for economic growth and development cannot be overemphasized. The poor
state of electricity, transport and communications is a major handicap for doing business
in Nigeria. The Federal Government of Nigeria through its Central Bank made progress in
consolidation of the banking system which prior to the reforms was highly fragmented,
with many banks having very small and undiversified capitalization. The reform stipulated
a minimum paid-up capital of $188 million, up from $15 million, with a deadline for
compliance at the end of December 2005. This resulted in a record number of bank mergers
and acquisitions. As a result, the number of banks in Nigeria has shrunk from 89 in 2004
to 25 in December 2005 (Aluko, 2008).
Extrapolating from the above, various governments over the years have also
continued to apply one measure or the other in stemming the tide of corruption, albeit in
an uncoordinated manner until the establishment of Economic and Financial Crimes
Commission (EFCC), the Code of Conduct Bureau (CCB) and the Independent Corrupt
Practice Commission (ICPC) by the democratically elected government of Olusegun
Obasanjo. This new approach offered a boost to anti- corruption in Nigeria. The
unprecedented powers and promise of political support given to these institutions led many
analysts to believe that a lasting solution might have been found in Nigeria’s perennial
struggle with corruption. As it later turned out, these institutions achieved very little in
201
terms of deterring Nigerian public officials and politicians from looting public resources.
Therefore, this paper therefore examines the impact of political leadership on corruption in
Nigeria.
Political Leadership and Corruption
Leadership has been defined in so many ways that it is hard to come up with a single
working definition. However, leadership may be defined as a body of people who lead and
direct the activities of a group towards a shared goal. It also denotes the ability to lead,
direct and organise a group. In line with this understanding, Ekong (2010) notes that
leadership is a process whereby an individual directs, guides, influences or controls the
thoughts, feelings or behaviors of other human beings. All the above considered, it can be
discerned that leadership is a phenomenon and occurs in a situation calling for interaction
between a group of people, the problem or task and its possible solution. Following from
this, a leader refers to a person or an actor in any social situation in which his ideas and
actions influence the thoughts and behaviors of others (Offong, 2012) Consequently,
leadership is a process of social influence by which a person inspire others to accomplish
an objective and directs the organisation in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent
(Chemers, 2002). A leader, therefore, is expected to demonstrate qualities, which include
but not limited to good character, vision, tact, prudence, and ability to lead by example.
Political Leadership refers to the ruling class that bears the responsibility of
managing the affairs and resources of a political entity by setting and influencing policy
priorities affecting the territory through different decision-making structures and
institutions created for the orderly development of the territory. It could also be described
as the human element that operates the machineries of government on behalf of an
organised territory. This includes people who hold decision making positions in
government, and people who seek those positions, whether by means of election, coup
d'état, appointment, electoral fraud, conquest, right of inheritance or other means
(Wikipedia, 2009). Broadly defined, however, political leadership goes beyond the ruling
elites that directly manage the affairs of a territory; it embraces the totality of the political
class that has the capacity to manipulate the machineries of government even from behind
the scene.
Corruption
The concept of corruption has no single generally accepted definition or meaning.
The word “corruption” has been variously defined by many scholars, agencies; writers
from different standpoints and perspectives. Sometimes, the boundaries of corruption are
hard to define. However, there are series of literature on corruption. According to Klitgaard
(1991), corruption exists when an individual illegally or illicitly puts personal interest
202
above those of the people and the ideals she or he is pledged to serve. It can involve the
use of policy instruments in the area of tariffs and credit, agricultural projects, housing
policy, the enforcement of laws and rules regarding public safety, the management of
contracts and loans among many other policy instruments.
Brooks (1979) defines corruption as the intentional mis-performance or neglect of

a recognized duty or the unwarranted exercise of power, with the motive of gaining some
advantage more or less directly personal. Alatas (1990) defines corruption as the abuse of
trust for the sake of private benefit. These definitions are indicative of the issues subsumed
under corruption but do not sufficiently bring out the prioritization process by the
individual, which is, putting self above the collective. To Gire (2001), corruption is defined
as a betrayal of trust resulting directly or indirectly from the subordination of public goals
over that of the individual. Thus, a person who engages in nepotism has committed an act
of corruption by putting his family interest over those of the larger society. The
International Monetary Fund (IMF) defines corruption as “abuse of authority or trust for
private benefit; and is a temptation indulged in not only by public officials but also by those
in position of trust or authority in private enterprises or non –profit organizations” ( IMF,
2000). To Nye (1967) as cited in Tsuwa (2011), Corruption is a behaviour which deviates
from the formal duties of a public role because of private gains regarding pecuniary or
status gain.
The World Bank (1997) defines corruption as the abuse of public office for private
gains. Public office is abused for private gains when an official accepts, solicits or extorts
a bribe. It is also abused when an official accepts, solicits or extorts a bribe. It is also abused
when private agents actively offer bribes to circumvent public policies and processes for
competitive advantage and profit. Public office can also be abused for personal benefit
even if no bribery occurs, through patronage and nepotism, the theft of state assets or the
diversion of state revenue. Accordingly, in the Anti- corruption Act (2000), the
Government of Nigeria describes corruption as “literally antithetical to development and
progress”.
Political Leadership and Corruption: The Nexus

As prior expressed from the former literary works, corruption discovers articulation
in the abuse and maltreatment of open office for private or financial purposes. From the
beginning, we said that this brand of defilement includes the infringement of open trust
which in itself is an invalidation of the aggregate implicit understandings went into
between the administered and those in charge of issues of state. It happens in two stages.
From one perspective, it includes the uunwholesome cornering or preoccupation of open
assets into private coffers through the instrumentalities of crude gathering without any
potential repercussions by the open office holder. Then again, it shows itself in the self-
assertive utilization of badly gotten riches and the compelling use of state forces to either
203
sustain itself in office or keep up the norm by each accessible methods fundamental. Preye
(2011) states that this type of corruption happens at the degree of political basic leadership
field and even at the circle of electioneering exercises.
It was Paul (1997) who argues that the nature, extension and potential for
corruption may shift starting with one nation then onto the next. This is so on the grounds
that it is just by making reference to lawful standards that the reason for politically
degenerate act can be recognized. In another measurement, vote based system, which has
shaped the reason for debasement today in Nigeria, might be portrayed as a type of
government under which the electorate practice overseeing power straightforwardly or
through their delegates intermittently chosen by them (and by and large chosen by the
forces that be). Any political clime might be named vote based system just on the off
chance that it gives empowering institutional structure to the articulation and, in the last
examination, the amazingness or generally of the prevalent will of the electorates on the
fundamental question of social bearing and strategy (Anofowose & Enemuo, 1999; Paki
& Inokoba, 2006). Alternately, the basic component of majority rule system incorporate,
however, not restricted to sacred guideline or what has been differently dedicated 'rule of
law', lead of free and rough free and reasonable decisions, assurance of minority intrigues
and opportunity of residents (yet inside the details of the law); making helpful condition
for the acknowledgment and additionally realization of residents goal and, most
importantly, relative provisioning of human existential to serve the best number (Erunke,
2012).
As needs be, Heater (1964) agrees with the perspectives on Anifowose and Enemuo
(1999), Paki and Inokoba (2006) and Erunke (2012) about the central significance and
principles of a vote based society when he asserted that majority rules system is basically
a technique for sorting out society politically, financially and socially with all its
fundamental fixings been placed into thought as a considerable column that supports such
social orders. Heater (1964) at that point plots five factors without which a general public
can't label itself really fair. They incorporate equity, power of the individuals, regard for
human right and human life, the standard of law inside the setting of reasonableness or
potentially judicious utilization of state assets for the general pleasure in the overflowing
people.
Battling corruption is an essential establishment for equitable administration and
the standard of law, which are the structure squares of manageable advancement in a nation
(TNV, 2014). In Nigeria, open jobs and duties are generally endowed to the open office
holders by the individuals in a mission for good administration, particularly in the current
popularity based framework. The vast majority of the occasions, this trust has been debased
whereby these open jobs and assets were utilized for private advantages. Investigating, the
World Bank (2000) has recognized three particular parts of administration, which are
thusly utilized as markers in dissecting the impacts of defilement on vote based
administration in Nigeria. These are;
204
i. The type of political system, which alludes to the level of democratization in the
nation
ii. The level of responsibility in the administration of the country's monetary and
social assets for national improvement
iii. The limit of governments to recognize, detail and actualize improvement
arrangements. This identifies with the fitness of government.
There is hardly any valid paper that has no theoretical construct. It is on this note
that this paper adopts “Elite theory”. In general sense, the elite theory is based on the idea
that every society “consist of two broad categories:
i. The selected few, who are able and, therefore, have the right to Supremes leadership
ii. The vast masses of people who are destined to be ruled (Varma, 1999; Agarwal,
2012). Elite theory does not actually have its origin from political science it was
developed by sociologist but was adopted by political scientists in analyzing
politics. The theory was popularized into politics by Harrold Laswell. The theory
was used to oppose socialism and democracy because the elitist argue that in every
society there is always a small clique of people that are engaged in policy
formulation and implementation, unlike the claim by socialism and democracy that
the masses are involved in governance.
The major proponents of Elite theory includes; Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923),
Garetano Mosca (1854-1941), Roberto Michels (1876 - 1936) and Ortega Y. Gasset (1883-
1955). All the proponents are of the view that in every society political leadership plays
vital roles in its development or otherwise, and society is divided into two groups ruling
and non-ruling elites Pareto on his part, believed that every society is ruled by a minority
that possesses the qualities necessary for its accession to full social and political power.
They are known as the elite. To him, the Elites consist of those successful persons who rise
to the top in every occupation and stratum of societies; there is elite of Lawyers, elite of
mechanics and others (Varma, 1999). In its pyramidal structure, Pareto used circulation of
elites” to explained that in every society, there is an unceasing movement of individuals
and “elites” from higher to lower level, and from lower to higher levels resulting in a
considerable increase of their degenerate elements in the classes which still hold power .
Mosca, on the other hand, opined that, in all societies, two classes of people appear
a class that rules and a class that is ruled. The first class, always the less numerous, performs
all political functions, monopolizes power and enjoys the advantages that power brings,
whereas the second, the more numerous class is directed and controlled by the first in a
manner that is now more or less legal, now more or less arbitrary and violent and supplies
the first in appearance at least with the instrumentalities that are essential to the vitality of
political organism. Mosca believes that, in every society elites, the governing elite tries to
find a moral and legal basis for its being in the citadels of power and represent it as the
205
logical and necessary consequence of doctrines and beliefs that are generally recognized
and accepted. Michels in his part used his concept of “Iron law of oligarchy” described
that, leadership is a necessary phenomenon in every form of social life. That all order and
civilization must exhibit aristocratic features that as organization or polity grows in size
more functions have to be delegated to an inner circle of leaders.
The majority of human beings are apathetic indolent and are incapable of self-
governing. However, Michels is of the opinion that, leaders easily take advantage of these
qualities to perpetuate themselves in power. Ortega Gasset placed his assumption that, a
nation’s greatness depends on the capacity of the masses to find their symbol in certain
chosen people (Leaders), or whom it pours out the vast store of its vital enthusiasm”. A
nation is organized as a result of selected few individuals as their leaders. In politics, the
elite denote specifically those who exercise preponderant political influence in a
community. There are differently designated as the power elite, the ruling class, political
entrepreneurs, the establishment and the governing minority. Politics is seen in terms of a
small group dominating the whole society and taking the decision which makes the mark
and history of politics. Even when there is a mass participatory democracy, consensus is
generally brought about by a few or supported by few people who constitutes informal
exclusive group (Mba, 2006).
Proponents of the theory like Pareto (1848-1923) believe that every society is ruled
by minority that possesses the essentials qualities needed for accession to full social and
political power. Those who get to the top are always the best. The elites consist of those
successful persons who rise to the top in every occupation and stratum of society. Thus,
there are elite of Lawyers, elite of mechanics, elite of thieves, and even elite of prostitutes
(Varma, 1999).
In addition, the theory assumed that, people in every society fall into two divisions;
those who have important or decisive political power and those who have none as a result
cannot exercise any decisive power over government output functions. The major argument
here is that in every society a minority of the population takes the major decisions while
the majority simply obeys. The elite perform the political functions, monopolize power and
enjoy the advantage of power. The non-elite on the other hand are directed and controlled,
they are assumed by the elitists to be indolent, slavish and un-intelligent. In other words,
what there elites are trying to point out that the elites in the society are entitled to political
leadership and by implication they influence the political system and happening
However, this theory is considered suitable for this research because since it argues
that elites are bound for political leadership as such they influence policy formulation and
implementation. Leaders in the context of this study are also viewed as political leaders
and they influence policy formulation and implementation in Nigeria. The attitudes and
conducts of leaders in office have a far-reaching impact on the development process of
their areas since they are charged with the responsibility of spear heading the affairs of the
respective society. In other words, since leaders make decision on behalf of the people or
206
masses, when the leader makes wrong decision or does things that are unethical, or morally
and constitutionally wrong. For example engaging in corrupt practices, it will definitely
impacts on the national development of the nations or society they are leading. The theory
is suitable for this study because political leaders influence policies and programmes that
engendered national development in the state. The leaders in Nigeria, at every successive
administration, their attitude and conducts in office has a far-reaching impact on the
developmental process since they are charged with the responsibility of spear heading their
affairs of the nation. Thus, leadership success or otherwise is the product of elite decision
which definitely impacted on the development of that society they are leading.
However, in spite of the usefulness of the theory in understanding formulation and
implementation of policy that thereby enhances development in a given society, the theory
is criticized as follows:
i. That the elitist has failed the scope of influence wielded by numbers of the
elite class.
ii. That the elitist believing that power is cumulative have tended to regard all
influential as exercising political which is not the case in Nigerian state as
civil society organization also influences the policies and programmes.
iii. That there is no significant correlation established between leadership on the
hand, and the hierarchies of wealth, status and power
It is unarguable that for a country to achieve growth and development, the people
must do away with all forms of corrupt practices to create an enabling environment for
development to strive. The level of corruption experienced in all spheres of Nigeria public
life has posed a serious challenge to the nation, in search of an enduring socio-economic,
political and technological development.
Corruption has been made manifest in both the economic and socio political
spheres of Nigeria. Specifically, the high incidence of corruption in Nigeria and the fourth
republic in particular (1999-date) cannot be overemphasized. Corruption is a cancerous
ailment that has eaten deep in the public sectors of Nigerian economy. In short, there is no
aspect of the public service that is spared. In fact, considering the various cases of
corruption being perpetrated in governance since 1999 till date, one can easily conclude
that corruption has actually been institutionalized in the country.
One major challenge confronting the new democratic government since 1999 is
endemic corruption in every arm of governance (Executive, Legislative and Judiciary)
including all aspects of public sectors. For example, government department such as;
Customs, Immigration, Inland Revenue, National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), Nigeria
National Petroleum Co-operation (NNPC), Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN),
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Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB), all
in one way or the other bear tails of corruption.
A number of corrupt practices have been carried out in the executive arm of
government since 1999. The corruption was not limited to federal government alone. Both
the state and local government are equally guilty of corrupt practices. For example, at the
state government level, a number of ex-governors who ruled between 1999-2007 were
alleged by EFCC to have been involved in financial impropriety when they were in
government within these years. Among them are Lucky Igbinedion f Edo State, Ayo
Fayose of Ekiti State, Peter Odili of River State, Chimaroke Nnamani, of Enugu State,
Saminu Turaki of Jigawa State, Orji Uzor Kalu of Abia, James Ibori, Diepreye
Alamieyeseigha of Bayelsa State and Rev. Jolly Nyame of Taraba State. For instance,
James Ibori was arraigned on a 170-count charge of money laundering over N9.1 Billion
(Kofarmata, 2005). Orji Uzor Kalu of Abia was arraigned on a 191–count charge of money
laundering, criminal diversion of public fund, official corruption totaling N5.2 Billion. He
was also accused of using his loot of N 3.1 Billion to fund SLOK Airline and two banks
in the Gambia and Sierra Leone, in addition to owning houses in London and U.S just to
mention a few (Kofarmata, 2005).
One important area where corruption was noticeable in the executive arm of
government with specific reference to the federal government in particular, was in the area
of road infrastructure. Since the birth of the forth republic, majority of federal roads across
the six geo-political zones were awarded contract by different successive government at
huge amount, up till today none of these roads have been completed. For example, the
report of the CBN on the survey of highways in Nigeria revealed the total number of roads
to be constructed throughout the six geo political zones between 1999 and 2001 but was
not constructed as a result of outright embezzlement. Among those notable roads are
Owerri-Onitsha roads, Enugu-Onitsha road, Owerri-Umauhia road (all in the South-East
zone) : Lagos-Ibadan-Ife road, Benin Lagos road and Ibadan Ilorin road (all in the South-
West); Akwanga- Makurdi road, Ayingba-Makurdi road (all in the North Central) and
Bauchi – Gombe road, Bauchi-Ningi,( all in the North-East) (CBN Report, 2013). The
report showed that less than 10% of the funding request made by the federal ministry of
works and housing for road maintenance was appropriated. Also, it was revealed that no
fewer than 37 contracts awarded by the federal government for the construction and
rehabilitation of roads between 2002 and 2012 awarded by the federal ministry of works
valued at N308.13billion were yet to be completed. (Sachs, 2014)
In the legislative arm of government majority of corruption being carried out deals
with cases of bribery scandals which are being levelled against chairmen and members of
the probe panels of different special commission set up within the legislative body to
investigate reported cases of corruption committed in the country. It is very pathetic that
some members of these committees who are expected to investigate cases of corrupt
practices also ended up becoming corrupt. In fact, there were several cases of this ugly
208
incidence since the fourth republic began. In the National Assembly, both the Senate and
House of Representatives were guilty of this scenario. In a bid to address cases of corrupt
practices leveled against the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA), the House of
Representatives set up a committee known as Ndudi Elumelu Committee on power probe
in 2007. The committee started well by inviting both former ministers of power and other
officials of NEPA but up till today, the report of the committee was not only disowned by
some members of the committee but drowned by counter-attacks. Besides, the chairman
of the power probe, Hon Ndudi Elumelu was alleged to have involved in corrupt practices
during the hearing of the case. (Ugochukwu, 2009).
Another noticeable area where the federal legislatures have equally involved in
corruption, is the recent allegation of bribery scandal levelled against the Chairman of the
House of Representation Ad Hoc Committee on fuel subsidy regime probe and other
members of the committee following the removal of subsidy on fuel on 1st January 2012
by the president, Dr Jonathan which led to the increase in fuel price from N65 per litre to
between N138 and N200 per liter across the country. The Nigeria Labour Congress, Trade
Union Congress (TUC) and other associations and Civil Society groups after agreement
had been reached with the presidency resulted in the partial removal of subsidy on fuel and
the reduction of fuel to N97 per liter. The development that later followed was the
investigation of fuel subsidy being paid in the importation of fuel into the country. This
made the House of Representatives to constitute an Ad Hoc Committee on fuel subsidy
regime probe. The committee was constituted and Hon. Farouk Lawal, former Chairman,
House Committee on Education was made the chairman of the committee. The committee
also started well initially like that of power probe committee (The punch, Monday 9, 2012).
Having worked for some month, the committee was able to discover about 18 oil
companies that were not registered but collected subsidy on fuel illegally from the federal
government. It was in the process of listing the names of the oil companies that it became
known that the chairman of the committee had been bribed with $3 million by one of the
oil marketers, so that the name of his company will be removed from the list. In order to
investigate the allegation of bribery scandal leveled against Hon Farouk Lawal, House of
Representative Committee on ethics and privileges was set up. The chairman of Zenon Oil
and Gas Limited, Mr. Femi Otedola was invited by the committee and thus, testified before
the committee that a sum of $620,000 was given to Hon Farouk Lawal and the clerk of the
committee, Mr. Boniface Emenalo, from agreed $3 million as part payment for the
clearance deal (Orji, 2016). It was also asserted that, Hon. Farouk Lawal gave the said
amount to Hon. Adams Jagaba, Chairman of House of Representatives Committee on
Drugs, Narcotics and Financial Crimes. But Hon. Jagaba disapproved of the allegation
levelled against him by Hon Farouk, up till now, Hon Farouk has not been able to prove
his innocence of the allegation. (Orji, 2016)
Also, in the upper House of National Assembly between 1999 -2007, there have
been allegations of corruption. In August 2000, Okadigbo was impeached for corruption
209
and misappropriation of funds, after his impeachment, Okadigbo was indicted for spending
public money on cars and car furnishing and had to resign in October of that same year
(Falana, 2012). Also in March 2005, Education Minister Fabian Osuji was fired for
allegedly bribing the National Assembly Appropriation Committee to secure more funds
for his Ministry. He formally protested that such behavior is common at all levels of
government. In April, Senator Adolphus Wabara resigned after President Obasanjo
accused him of accepting Osuji’s 51 million naira (US $400,000) bribe. In addition, the
former president daughter, Senator Iyabo Obasanjo Bello, Chairman Senate Committee on
Health was enmeshed in two different financial scandals. In December 2007, Iyabo
Obasanjo was involved in a contract scandal amounting to N3.5 billion involving her and
an Austrian firm (Falana, 2012).
In the Judicial Arm of Government, various cases of corruption since 1999 were
mainly centred on bribery involving the acceptance of financial or material gain and non -
material gain, with the sole aim of influencing judicial proceedings or administration of
justice. For example in 2005 arising from the handling of the appeal in a senatorial contest
in Anambra State, Okwuchukwu Opene and David Adeniji, both of the Nigeria Court of
Appeal, were removed from their post for well-proven act of corruption. In fact, their
judgment ended in bizarre drama when members of the audience, in an expression of anger
when the judgment was being read, forced the judges to flee in different directions. A
committee set up under the auspices of the National Judicial Council and chaired by a
retired judge of the Court of Appeal established that Opene took 15 million naira (US
$100,000) in bribe, while Adeniji accepted 12 million naira (US $80,000) (Akinkuotu, &
Affe, 2009).
This trend of corruption in the judiciary continued in 2007 following the outcome
of the general election which was recorded to be worst election ever conducted since post-
colonial Nigeria. The result of the general election spawns the largest amount of election
cases in the country’s history. Allegations of corruption were made a fresh against
members of the tribunals. Again, though no judges were caught, in some cases those
allegations contained credible claims that could have been further investigated but for the
most part were not. In Anambra State, for example, a member of one of the state tribunals
resigned as its chairman, citing pressure from unnamed sources to transfer cases on three
different occasions to another tribunal for no given reason (Oke, 2002). The chairman of
the tribunal that first examined the 2007 presidential election James Ogebe, was promoted
to the Supreme Court just days before the judgment of the tribunal apparently, reacting to
public outrage at this development, he stayed away from the tribunal on the day Judgment
was given. The government had no explanation for why the promotion not at least was
delayed until the job of the tribunal was completed.
Corruption was also noticeable in the outcome of the Court of Appeal Judgment
over the 2007 governorship election in Kebbi State. At the tribunal established in the state,
the election of Governor Usman Saidu Dakingari (PDP Candidate) was nullified.
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Meanwhile, at the Court of Appeal, strange thing happened to the earlier verdict given at
the tribunal. The Court upturned the judgment of the lower Court in favour of the PDP
Candidate, ordinarily, it is expected of the Court of Appeal to uphold the decision of the
lower Tribunal, especially where the lower Tribunal is not bias in its judgment as seen in
the similar judgment of the Tribunal and Court of Appeal in the 2007 governorship election
in Ondo, Ekiti and Edo States. (Ugochukwu 2009). The case of Kebbi State was entirely
different; a more favourable verdict went to the party whose governorship candidate of
PDP married to the daughter of late president Umaru Yar’Adua The dilemma was made
more real given that Court of Appeal did not indicate that it was departing from the earlier
judgment, as required by the principles of precedent. It however became clearer that the
Court of Appeal that upturned the tribunal judgment of the 2007 governorship election in
Kebbi State was corrupt following the judgment of the Supreme Court. All these are among
the few recorded cases of corruption levelled on the judiciary. (Falana, 2012).
Another Government department were corruption is clearly manifested is Customs

and Excises. According to allegations of corruption against officers of the department
usually take the form of collusion of officers with importers to bring in prohibited items.
Some of the officers at the Ports are involved with the actual falsification of import
documents, with a view to avoiding payment of full duty. It is on record that Customs
Officers over the years connived actively with smugglers to allow banned or contraband
goods into the country. This process allows billions of Naira that should be government
revenue into private pockets (Agboola, 2015)
Also, in the Department of Federal Inland Revenue Service, the greatest challenge
in the fight against corruption is, perhaps, the propensity of the average Nigeria to evade
tax payment at every opportunity. But this is further complicated by widespread dishonesty
and in effect collusion between the tax payers and certain personnel of the Board of Internal
Revenue Service to declare false returns usually lower than the actual income, in exchange
for underserved financial gain (Orji, 2016).
The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), like other parastatals, has its
own share of scandals and financial improprieties. One good example of corruption which
has for long been practiced is the usual collusion between certain Power Holding Company
of Nigeria, officials and electricity consumers to deny the company of its legitimate
revenue. There are even cases of certain PHCN officials who connive with other
individuals of dubious character to move from place to place stealing meter boxes and
apportioning them to other prospective electricity consumers usually at very low prices.
This is outright stealing and criminal and could be regarded as the zenith of corruption.
(Agboola, 2015).
Furthermore, the men of the Immigration Department usually liaise with their
counterpart in Customs Department. However, both departments are under the direct
control of Internal Affairs Ministry. Like other government parastatals, the department has
211
been known to produce its own bad eggs. Corrupt officials of the department have also
been known to collaborate with persons of dubious characters to rip off foreigners
especially at the airport. Immigration officials have for instance, been accused on several
occasions of giving illegal aliens easy passage into the country, usually at an agreed fee,
unscrupulous men of the department not only assist aliens, they often times secure for them
fake resident permit. This is criminal, unpatriotic and a betrayal of trust reposed on them.
(Orji, 2016).
Also, there is no gainsaying the fact that, the Nigerian police have an array of
corrupt officers. Though, the Police was primarily established to enforce law, order and
peace within the society, it has been discovered that the force has not been quite successful
in this respect because, the society inadvertently put barriers on their path. The average
Nigerian, who is quick to offer the Police constable some form of kola to escape
retributions for a crime or misdemeanour committed, will also accuse the Police of
corruption. The Police in Nigeria since the inception of the fourth republic have been
known to collaborate with dubious characters to defraud other Nigerians to even engage in
the more violent crimes of robbery (Oke, 2002)
It was reported in October 2013 that Nigeria was losing 150,000 barrels of
petroleum products daily to oil theft 'and vandalism. It was believe those criminals are
members of the president's inner circle who have turned the nation's petroleum product
into their own personal commodity, while the federal government watched in pretence as
if they are oblivious of what is going on, the nation's economic mainstay is dwindling away
(Ugaka 2015). Between January and March 2013 the Nigerian government had lost 190
billion naira to oil theft in Niger Delta (Ugaka, 2015). It is interesting to note that Nigeria's
foreign reserve was 2 billion dollars when Obasanjo came into office in 1999. Though
Obasanjo cannot be exonerated from the cause of the problems in Nigeria but at the end of
his tenure in 2007; foreign reserve had risen to 43 billion dollars. From 2007-2014, there
has not been any significant changes in the nation's foreign reserve and of course it was
announced by CBN that the nation's foreign reserve dropped from $44.8bn on November
18,2013 to $41.4bn on February 18,2014.(CBN Report, 2014). In addition to the crippling
foreign reserve, the Emir of Kano and the former governor of CBN Lamido Sanusi,
expressed dismay over the collapse of the excess crude oil from 1l.5bn to 2.5bn just within
a year. He had continued to call on President Jonathan to check the nefarious activities in
Nigerian National Petroleum Coperation (NNPC) with regards to financial misconduct.
With all the obvious proof of billions of dollars disappearing from NNPC, yet the
presidency continued to gamble with the lives of Nigerians by compromising their oath of
office. He lamented over the reckless exploitation of the nation's petroleum products.
Jonathan suspended Mr. Lamido Sanusi because he had consistently voiced concerns
against the uncontrollable level of corruption that had become a trade mark of his
government. The former CBN Governor continued to call for investigation on the 20
billion dollars that NNPC had failed to remit into the nation's account. He also stated that
212
since 2005, NNPC had not been audited. If within the period of nineteen months, NNPC
officials have lynched 20 billion dollars, one could only imagine how much had been stolen
since 2005 (Ugaka 2015). Mr. Lamindo Sanusi became a subject of ridicule by criminal
elements in Nigeria who have subjugated the state to financial and economic imbroglio.
He was labelled as the worst criminal in Nigeria simply because of his attempt to curb the
excesses in the Jonathan’s administration. (Sajo, 2015).
There is no need to state that, corruption has been institutionalized in our public
life. In fact, people seek to occupy the highest political offices in the country to have
unfettered access to huge sums of money to loot. The over $200 billion dollars earnings
from oil wealth has not translated into any meaningful development. Rather, it has become
a source of nightmare due to recent hostilities from the host-Communities in the Niger-
Delta region. What is experienced from the Niger Delta despite several years of oil
exploration are scares of pains and underdevelopment and above all excessive deprivations
and sometimes intimidation of the people of the region. (Jev, 2011).
Howeve, since the Buhari administration declared war on corruption, hitherto

untouchable Nigerians have been hauled into the EFCC’s net. Once powerful men now sit
in detention facilities of the agency and prisons across the country. High ranking politicians
and former and serving military chiefs now take turns at the EFCC’s interrogation facilities
while awaiting formal arraignment in court. Few of those arrested include those of former
governors of Imo and Jigawa States, Ikedi Ohakim and Sule Lamido, both of the opposition
People's Democratic Party (PDP). They were accused of money laundering, embezzlement
and misappropriation of funds running into the billions of naira. Mr. Timipre Sylva, a
former governor of Bayelsa State and chieftain of the ruling All Progressives Congress
(APC) who played an active role in the electioneering campaign of President Buhari was
also tried on corruption charges instituted under the present administration. Rear Admiral
Murtala Nyako, a former Adamawa State Governor and chieftain of the APC who had fled
the country shortly before his impeachment in 2014 returned to the country on Saturday
May 30, 2015, 24 hours after the swearing in of President Buhari, possibly hoping for some
solace only to be arrested and charged to court.
It was reported in the media that the police reopened a forgery case involving the
National Chairman of the APC, Chief John Oyegun, the wife of the Senate President, Mrs.
Toyin Saraki, and others such as former National Security Adviser (NSA), Sambo Dasuki
,AIT Chairman Raymond Dokpesi, former spokesman of the People’s Democratic Party
(PDP), Chief Olisa Metuh, former national leader of the PDP Chief Bode George, former
Sokoto State Governor Attahiru Bafarawa, fomer Aviation Minister Femi Fani Kayode,
former Minister of Petroleum Resources, Diezani Alison-Madueke, all were grilled by the
EFCC for corruption (Jones, 2018). It was also reported that the High Court of the Federal
Capital Territory, Gudu, Abuja, on Tuesday 12th June, 2018 sentenced Dariye, ex-
Governor of Plateau state, to 14 years’ imprisonment on the charges of criminal breach of
213
trust and misappropriation of funds (1.6 billion naira) while he was the Governor of Plateau
State.
Recently, and by extension, the searchlight of anti-graft war has moved to the
judiciary arm. In its wake, some judges, under a sting operation, carried out by men and
officers of the DSS, have been arrested. They are currently standing trials before Federal
High Courts on charges of corruption. Walter Onnoghen, the 20th Chief Justice, became the
first to be removed in a corrupt case, since 1914 when Edwin Speed, a British, assumed the
exalted position as head of the judicial arm of the government of Nigeria, presiding over the
country’s Supreme Court and the National Judicial Council. On Friday, January 25, 2019, the
President of Nigeria , Muhammadu Buhari, suspended the Chief Justice of Nigeria, Justice
Walter Nkannu Samuel Onnoghen from office, and immediately administered the judicial oath
of office to the most senior Supreme Court Justice , next in rank to him, Justice Ibrahim Tanko
Muhammed as the Acting Chief Justice of Nigeria. The CJN, instead of resigning his position
took steps to frustrate his trial. The CJN had been accused in the charges of receiving into and
retaining in many banks accounts huge sums of money in foreign and local currencies, without
disclosing them in his asset declaration forms and documents submitted to the CCB. He
however resigned and he turned in his resignation letter to President Muhammadu Buhari a day
after the National Judicial Council (NJC) recommended that he be compulsorily retired for
misconduct.
The present democratic government “has between 29th May, 2015 and 25th May, 2016”
recovered money totalling N78,325,354,631.82 (Seventy eight billion, three hundred and twenty-
five million, three hundred and fifty-four thousand, six hundred and thirty one Naira and eighty
two kobo); $185,119,584.61 (One hundred and eight five million, one hundred and nineteen
thousand, five hundred and eighty four United State (US) dollars, sixty one pennies); 3,508,355.46
Pounds Sterling (Three million, five hundred and eight thousand, three hundred and fifty-five
Pounds and 46 Pence) and 11, 250 Euros (Eleven thousand, two hundred and fifty Euros).
Moreover, the Minister of Information and Culture, Lai Mohammed reported that the recovered
loot under break relinquishment (money and resources) totalled N126,563,481,095.43 (One
hundred and twenty six billion, five hundred and sixty three million, four hundred and eighty one
thousand, and ninety five Naira, forty three Kobo; $9,090,243,920.15 (Nine billion, ninety million,
two hundred and forty three thousand, nine hundred and twenty Dollars, fifteen pennies;34
2,484,447.55 Pounds Sterling (Two million, four hundred and eighty four thousand, four hundred
and forty seven Pounds, fifty five Pence) and 303,399.17 Euros (Three hundred and three thousand,
three hundred and ninety-nine Euros, 17 pennies). In light of the details provided above, in all, the
assets anticipated, add up to $321,316,726.1 (Three hundred and twenty one million, three hundred
and sixteen thousand, seven hundred and twenty six Dollars, one penny); 6,900,000 Pounds (Six
million, nine hundred thousand Pounds) and 11,826.11 Euros. It was also reported that the non-
monetary assets, recovered (Farmlands, Plots of Land, Uncompleted Buildings, Completed
Buildings, Vehicles and Maritime Vessels) were 239 in number. If the counter corruption war of
government runs smoothly without interruption, Nigeria will change positively and the level of
corruption will drastically reduce among public institutions holders. The following is a recent
analysis of Buhari’s administration as regards money related and resource repossession, two years
into his tenure. Drawing from this investigation, it is evident that the present democratic
214
government intends to eradicate corruption completely. Many Nigerians were satisfied when the
eagerly awaited rundown on the plunderers’ activities was released by the government, as the
release of the rundown on stolen public assets has helped the masses to have greater trust in the
present government’s anti-corruption war.
The following is the breakdown of the recovered cash and assets
Interim Report on Financial and Asset Recoveries Made by the Federal Government
of Nigeria from 29 may 2015 to 25 May 2016.
Table 1. Cash Recoveries
Serial Items Naira US Dollar GB pounds Euro
1. EFCC Cash at hand 39,169,911,023.00 128494,076.66 2,355 11,250
2. Royalty/tax/payment to FGN account 4.642,958,711.48 40.727,253.65
in JP Morgan account New York
3. ONSA Funds Recovery Account in 5.665,305,527.41 8.000.000.00
CBN
4. VAT recovered from companies by 529,588,293.47
ONSA
5. EFCC Recovered Funds Account in 19.267,730,359.36 455,253.80
CBN
6. ICPC Revenue Collection Recovery 869,957,444.89
in CBN
7. Office of the Attorney General 5,500,000,000 5,500,000
8. DSS Recoveries 47,707,000.5 1.943,000.5 3,506,000.46
9. ICPC Cash Asset Recovery 2.632,196,271.71
Total 78.325,354,631.82 185,119,584.61 3,508,355.46 11.250
Table 2. Recoveries under Interim Forfeiture
Serial Items Naira US Dollar GB pounds Euro
1. Cash in bank under interim 8,281,577,248.92 1,819,866,364.73 3,800.00 113.399,17
forfeiture
2. Amount Frozen in bank 48.159,179,518.90 7,131,369,498.49 605,647.55
3. Value of properties under interim 41,534,605,998.00 77,844,600.00 1,875,000.00 190,000.00
forfeiture
4. Value of cars under interim 52,500,000.00
forfeiture
5. ONSA funds under interim 27,001,464,125.20 43,771,433.73
forfeiture
6. Value of Assets Recovered by 512,000,000.00
ONSA
7. ONSA Assets under interim 260,000,000.00
forfeiture
8. DSS Recoveries Frozen in Banks 658,929,000.00 226,476.20
9. EFCC Cash in Bank under final 103,225,209.41 17,165,547.00
forfeiture
Total 126,563,481,095.4 9.090,243,920.15 2,484,447.55 303,399.17
3
Grand Total 204,888,835,727.2 9.275,363,504.76 5.992,803.01 314,649,17
5
215
Table 3. Funds Awaiting Return From Foreign Jurisdictions

S/N Jurisdiction US Dollar GB Pounds Euro
1 Switzerland 321000000
2 UK 6900000
3 UAE 310501 11826.11
4 USA 6225.1
Total 321,316,726.1 6,900,000 11,826.11
Table 4. Non Cash Recoveries
Serial Items Quantity

ICPC EFCC ONSA
1 Farmland 22
2 Plot of Land 4
3 Uncompleted Building 1
4 CompletedBuilding 33 145 4
5 Vehicles 22 3
6 Maritime Vessels 5
Total 82 153 4
Source EFCC Report 2016
Effects of Corruption on Nigeria’s Development
The presence of corruption in a majority rule society (Nigeria inclusive) is seen as

a variation. This is on the grounds that the real practice of just standards lay decisively on
the lawful code of society. Along these lines, the presence of high rate of corruption will
in general have more genuine results on popular governments more than any type of
government. This is so in light of the fact that it presents hazardous sign to the standards
of majority rule government. There is a solid agreement among researchers that
recommends that corruption does nothing more than a bad memory to majority rules
system. Therefore, corruption disintegrates and consumes the importance, instruments and
the very embodiment of majority rule government. Once more, corruption breaks the
connection and individuals' capacity to impact aggregate choices, contribute input into the
framework, influences casting a ballot design, creates general lack of care for significant
investment (Mark, 2007) and fundamentally overheats the commonwealth because of open
irritation and disillusionments.
216
Most social orders particularly in the North African axis have deteriorated into
confusion, political agitation, fear of mongering and even avoidable war bbecause of what
has been commonly seen as elitist misinformed mission to remain on in control
unceasingly, or even due to obvious instances of poor administration coordinated by
corruption. By method for expanding the contention from the prior, since political
corruption is a degenerate conduct that hinders the principles and precepts of majority rules
system, it moreover presents perilous danger to the combination of majority rules system
in Nigeria. Corruption devastatingly affects the Nigeria since it impedes any development
in democratic government. Corruption squanders assets by twisting government strategy
against the interests of the larger part and away from its legitimate objectives. It turns the
energies and efforts of public officials and citizens towards easy money instead of
productive activities. It hampers the development of intensity, baffles endeavors to lighten
neediness and produces lack of concern and criticism. The damages brought about by
corruption, which are as various as the shapes corruption can take, have wrecked
benevolent improvement extends just as undermined great administration and
improvement in Nigeria.
Conclusion
Corruption is responsible for the Nigeria's absence of good administration, poor
development and improvement just as rot in ethics and qualities. It is helpful to see that
corruption is a genuine threat to viable majority rule administration is putting it mildly. In
reality, corruption is a central point responsible for the country's lethargic condition of
underdevelopment regardless of the copious riches. Corruption can wreck a state its
political foundations, hindering financial and social advancement for a considerable length
of time to come. As contended above, it is practically unthinkable not to be corrupt in
Nigeria as both the pioneers and the residents discover it totally difficult to limit from
compromising. The resultant outcomes incorporate a ruined economy with gigantic
negative effect on poor people. Undoubtedly, on account of corruption, the citizens have
lost trust in the political framework, its organizations and administration consequently the
fierce conflicts and cases that generally trail political race results.
Recommendations
Arising from the above, this paper further proffers the following recommendations:
i. Owing to the weak judicial system resulting in slow adjudication of cases and the belief
that the judiciary often compromise in handling corrupt cases, this research supports
the creation of special courts to try corruption cases instituted by anti-corruption
agency. It is an established fact that the commission by compromising with culprits and
causing unnecessary delays in the prosecution of cases. Special court will rather
enhance the speedy adjudication of cases, which will save the commission a lot of
troubles and nation of resources
217
ii. Anti-corruption agencies should be given autonomy to operate, government should

give total support and encouragements so as to enable it have sustainable impact on the
body policy of the country. This could be done through the removal of all illegal
political and social constraints that hamper the effective operation of the agency. The
current situation whereby the agency operates based on the “government directive”
should be discouraged. This can also be done by decoupling it from the office of the
Attorney General of the Federation. It must be totally independent such that their
salaries should be paid from the consolidation account to the extent that, its chairman
should no longer be a presidential appointee. The chairman must in addition, enjoy
security of tenure, not to be hired and fired at will.
iii. Anti-corruption agencies such as ICPC, EFCC CCB and even CCT, should be
strengthened the more to prosecute those found guilty of corruption practices. Over the
years, these commissions have indicted some people, but nothing happened after all.
This kind of attitude will definitely not scare anybody from getting involved in
corruption.
iv. It is an undisputable fact that the delays in the conventional courts in Nigeria are a big
obstacle against the quick dispensation of justice especially on cases brought in by the
anti-corruption agencies most especially the EFCC. In fact, the conventional courts, be
improved upon so as to impact on their handling of corruption cases. There has to be
ways to bolster the human and material capacity of the judiciary including the appellate
courts. Also, there has to be some reforms to the federal criminal procedure and
evidence rules, which have remained largely unmodified since the colonial period.
Counsels standing in for their client (offenders) should be made to stop their
unjustifiable dalliances in the court processes to ensure quick dispensation of such
cases.
v. In addition to the above recommendations, the constitution should be reviewed in such
a way that all pro-corruption clauses should be removed from it. For example, the
“immunity clause” which protects people in power from being prosecuted while in
office has not only hindered effective prosecution of corrupt public and private officials
in Nigeria, it has also made corruption to thrive.
218
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221
Attitudinal Change: Overcoming Lethargy in the Nigerian Civil Service

1
Buetna’an M. Bassi
1Research Department, National Judicial Institute, Abuja Nigeria.
Abstract
It is a common generalisation to hear statements such as, an average civil servant in Nigeria
is lazy and has a poor attitude to work. Such generalizations are, however, sweeping and
ought to be discouraged because attitudes to work differ and are attributable to many varied
circumstances. This study attempts an analysis of the attitude prevalent in the Nigerian
work environment. Rules and policies are also considered to present a holistic picture. The
social learning theory as propounded by Bandura has been adopted by the study. The main
methodology adopted is content analysis of mainly secondary data. Findings of the study
revealed that there are many factors which influence attitude to work in the Nigeria public
service. These factors include state of mind and disposition of the individual, diverse
backgrounds and competencies, and the prevalent work environment. Thus, the findings
showed that there is the need for total overhaul of the Nigerian civil service right from
recruitment, training and ensuring proper reward systems and job security to ensure
maximum utilisation of the work force. The study concludes with a call for change in
attitude to work in the workplace. It further makes recommendations that will help the
Federal Government and other policy makers to ensure a positive change in the attitude
and predisposition of workers in the Nigerian Civil Service.
Keywords: Attitude, Change, Civil service, Lethargy and Workplace.
Introduction
The Nigerian public service sector under the 1999 Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria consists of (though not limited to) civil service, ministries and extra
ministerial agencies and public bureaucracy composed of service of States and National
Assemblies. Others are the Judiciary, Armed forces, Paramilitary, Educational and
Regulatory Parastatals/ Agencies. The International Labour Organisation ILO during the
UN General Assembly in 2015 made stipulation for decent work and the four pillars of the
decent work agenda; employment creation, social protection, rights at work and social
dialogue to become integral elements of the new 2030 agenda for sustainable development
and provides that ‘decent work involves opportunities for work that is productive and
delivers a fair income, security in the workplace and social protection for families, better
prospects for personal development and social integration, freedom for people to express
their concerns, organize and participate in the decisions that affect their lives and equality
of opportunity and treatment for all men and women’.
In line with this, the Federal Ministry of Labour and Employment in Nigeria created
its National Employment Policy 2013 which was reviewed and approved by the federal
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executive council on 19th July 2017. The National Employment Policy, Nigeria 2018 has
as one of its aims, to promote decent work in line with international labour standards…
incorporating issues of social protection, fundamental rights of workers and social dialogue
promoting labour productivity. Other components of the policy include; human capital
development, employability of labour force, skills acquisition, labour based public works
and decent work components. The workplace environment should be ideal to properly
incentivise and engage workers at all levels. Lethargy refers to a state of mind that is
despondent or without enthusiasm. This is prevalent in the Nigerian civil service due to a
variety of factors such as poor conditions of work, lack of leadership and resources. This
inevitably leads to demotivated workers who lack motivation and commitment. The
Nigerian Civil Service has been described as shoddy, with a debilitating environment, low
educational standard, lacking in training and inferior management standard (Yesufu, 2000).
Civil service
The civil service can be defined as the administrative machine within which the
work of government is carried out (Ezeani, 2006). Idode (1986) defined it as the array of
administrative and professional staff employed, on permanent and pensionable basis to
established posts to advise and execute the policies of State. The Civil Service is built up
of a body of men and women employed in a civil capacity and non-political career basis
by the Federal and State Governments primarily to render and faithfully give effect to their
decisions and for implementation (Ipinlaiye, 2011).
Attitude
Myer (2002) defines attitude as a favourable or unfavourable evaluative reaction
towards something or someone often rooted in one’s belief and exhibited in one’s feelings
and intended behaviours. Attitude can therefore simply be defined as our opinion or feeling
about something usually shown by our behaviour. A worker’s attitude is the sum of his
feelings towards his work, contract, organizational situation or environment.
Lethargy
Lethargy refers to diminished energy or capacity and a general lack of enthusiasm.
When this concept is added to the workplace, it is observed that lethargy which can be
internal to a person or extrinsically generated plays a role in the engagement of workers,
their motivation and overall performance (Macy and Schneider, 2008).
Workplace
Workplace can simply be defined as the space or place where people carry out their
jobs or perform functions in the course of their work. Work place can also be used to define
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the environment within which people work. The work place must be a safe environment or
zone free from disrespectful behaviour, harassment or bullying. The workplace
encompasses the physical, psychological and social working conditions under which an
employee is expected to perform. Workplace policies form part of the environment that
can influence workers and lead to high performance. The workplace environment is critical
in the civil service today and ought to be diverse and constantly changing.
While many theories abound on attitudes and behaviour as they relate to the work
place such as Daryl Bem's self-perception theory of attitudinal change which asserts that
people adjust their attitudes to match their own previous behaviour, and the classic theory
by Leon Festinger of cognitive dissonance, that addresses inconsistencies in behaviour and
attitudes based on the principle that people prefer their cognitions, or beliefs, to be
consistent with each other and with their own behaviour.
This study however adopts the Social Learning Theory as propounded by Albert
Bandura in 1977. Bandura theorises that most human behaviour is learned observationally
through modelling where individuals can learn by observation in the workplace. The theory
involves specific actions undertaken by an individual learner through a four-stage process
of attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Therefore, new employees observe the
status quo and work culture of the organisation from their superior and other older staff
rather than following the rulebooks or guides given upon their employment. Consequently,
observing the actions of their co-workers and attendant consequences, influences them. If
for instance, a colleague stays away from work or resumes late repeatedly and gets off with
a slight warning or not at all, many of the new workers will attempt same and will soon
internalise this as the normal behaviour in such work place or environment. Workers are
thus more likely to behave properly when a good example has been set for them. There are
other factors that influence the attitude and behaviour of the average worker such as
perceived loyalty from their employers. This theory states that these social behaviours at
work places are also internalised by the response of management of such organization to
their actions and consistent and equal treatment of all workers. This means that behaviours
that positively affect performance must be contingently reinforced. This reinforcement is
primarily by money, feedback and social recognition. It is clear therefore that where one
gets into the civil service, they learn in a short time by observation the acceptable behaviour
and outcomes or consequences. This theory however has its shortcomings because some
people are innovators and come into an organisation or work place to create change rather
than follow the status. Focus may not always be on behaviour but on established structures
and rule books. Additionally, some workers may decide to observe and deviate or keep
away from perceived mistakes of others instead of joining the crowd mentality.
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Research Methodology
The method adopted in this work is qualitative content analysis through review of
mainly secondary data. Existing literature on the topic such as books, journals, conference
papers, policy handbooks and credible internet sources were used to generate information
used in this study.
Attitude and Behaviour in Workplace in the Nigerian Civil Service

The Business Dictionary (2018) defines attitude as, ‘a predisposition or a tendency
to respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object, person or situation.
Attitude influences an individual’s choice of action and responses to challenges, incentives
and rewards (altogether called stimuli). Other than as provided for by the law and public
service rules governing the workplace, attitude plays a part in our ethical behaviours and
conduct; lack of ethical behaviour is seen clearly by the actions of workers in the civil
service such as corruption, embezzlement of government funds, creating bureaucratic
bottlenecks and seeking gratification to perform every mundane task, and lack of
confidentiality; resulting in leaking or outright sale of secret government documents. There
are agencies that have been set up to investigate and prosecute erring civil servants, and
ensure right conduct such as Independent Corrupt and Other Related Offences Commission
(ICPC) and SERVICOM which was established by the Presidency in 2004 to monitor and
report the progress made by Ministries and Agencies in the performance of their
obligations.
It is a generally accepted fact that there are problems with the Nigerian civil service.
Wammako (2013) said, in almost all its faces without exception, the civil service in Nigeria
was characterized by indiscipline, inefficiencies, ineffectiveness, lack of commitment to
service, disloyalty, partisanship, absence of ethics, disregard for procedures, disrespect for
constituted authority, rules and regulations, poor work attitudes, lack of commitment, etc.
The courage to accept change is subject to our own mental power, the more we
resist, the bigger the problem. The only thing permanent is change; it is inevitable. With
the myriad of problems in the system as enumerated above, there is need for a change in
the attitude of workers towards their job to ensure productivity and full realisation of their
potential.
Many Nigerians have not imbibed the culture of queuing up in public places. This
is observed daily in banks, bus stops and filling stations. It is also not unusual to see people
urinating or defecating in the open and in unauthorised places or civil servants misusing
governments’ property put in their care. These negative attitudes have been of great
concern to the government over the years. Various programmes, including the War Against
Indiscipline (WAI) were introduced to sensitise Nigerians on the need to develop the right
attitudes. The Nigerian civil servant has often been described as, ‘lazy and non-chalant;
tardy and unwilling to put in a day’s job and driven by a mind-set that takes work
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performance as unattainable and unnecessary leading invariably to a lack of work

commitment’ (Odiaka, 1991).
Relationship Between Attitudes and Behaviour

It is said that attitudes do not always translate to behaviour since many variables
influence a person’s behaviour (Chrismani, 1986). Three major approaches have been
utilised in understanding behaviour in the workplace according to Davis & Luthans (1989);
i. Behaviour as a function of the person; which uses internal psychological
reasoning to understand personality traits and perceptions.
ii. Behaviour as a function of the environment; concerned with the role that
contingencies play in maintaining and changing behaviour.
iii. Behaviour is a function of a person and his environment; this recognizes both
internal cognitive variables and external environmental variables.
Considering these approaches, every worker in the civil service comes from a
different background or environment. Everyone has his own psychological makeup based
on factors such as upbringing, beliefs and other value systems that will influence his
attitudes and behaviour. The work environment will also have an influence on behaviour;
is it a hostile environment, is it welcoming, is there a willingness to learn and impart
knowledge? Or is everyone secretive and guarded. Once an individual finds himself in any
of the environments above, he will without doubt adapt by developing a coping mechanism,
which may be to copy what he has witnessed, or retreat into himself (especially where the
environment or behaviours are alien to his personal value system.
Factors affecting Attitudes/Behaviour to Work in Organisations.
It is typical in the work place to see people doing the barest minimum, which may
be just coming to work because a staff bus is available. This mind-set that it is not your
personal business often creates a lackadaisical attitude to work.
In the work place, some factors that can influence ones attitude include;
i. Being underpaid and overworked (poor motivation/remuneration).
ii. A Boss who ‘dislikes’ you.
iii. Being a favourite
iv. Tribal\religious sentiments
v. Educational qualification/Skills
vi. Envy/rivalry
vii. Job security and satisfaction
Positive attitudes lead to attributes such as;
i. Integrity which leads to honesty and dependability
ii. Self discipline and self development which will help one push himself to attain a
high standard and drive one to perform better and seek new knowledge to develop
oneself.
226
iii. Diligence in the discharge of duty where a person displays diligence, the result will
be satisfactory outcome of work or assigned tasks.
iv. Punctuality is a good attribute as it shows respect for rules and consideration of
others.
v. Work ethics refers to the moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour or the
conducting of an activity. There is a need therefore to work on our ethics. There is
a marked difference between knowing what is right and the willingness to do what
is right. There are many guiding principles such as the Public Service Rules, and
the Bangalore Principles of Ethical Conduct for staff of the Judiciary. Adopted in
Nigeria in 2003.
Negative attitudes lead to;

i. Insubordination and disdain for constituted authority is prevalent in the system,
as many workers have been employed by nepotism or to fill quotas. There is
widespread wilful disobedience as some workers see themselves as superior to
their bosses or feel they have friends or family in high places who can protect
them even when they misbehave. This works both ways because some superiors
who were only appointed by virtue of their connections may be looked upon
with disdain by the junior staff especially where they are unable to perform the
functions of their office.
ii. Primarily the work environment in the civil service causes late
coming/absenteeism. Workers have no designated seat or office and are left to hang
around or malinger in the corridors or general places. It then becomes easy for
someone to come at any time he decides or absent himself from work totally
considering that the possibility of being looked for is slim. Most offices have
notebooks where workers are expected to sign in when they resume work but there
is no proper monitoring so many people sign for their colleagues and falsify
signatures or do not sign entirely.
Many workers lack initiative and are unable to work without detailed supervision.
This can be traced to poor recruitment practices, lack of educational qualification
or sometimes, there are too frequent policy changes and reversals which workers
are unable to keep up with and inevitably feel confused or demotivated. (Obasa,
2015).
iii. Age falsification and certificate forgery is caused by a number of factors in Nigeria.
The social policy and care for retirees leaves much to be desired hence the
apprehension for workers to truthfully declare their ages. The pressure of life after
retirement with no prospects for other source of income and family needs lead to
such behaviour. In other cases, the workers know that the civil service does not
have proper records or facilities to confirm details of age or certificates from the
schools and use the opportunity to perpetrate fraud in the system.
227
Attitudinal Change and Behavioural Modification

Attitude change occurs whenever an attitude is modified. Thus, change occurs when
a person goes from being positive to negative, from slightly positive to very positive, or
from having no attitude to having one. Because of the functional value of attitudes, the
processes that change them have been a major focus throughout the history of social
psychology.
Attitude change processes require a greater use of mental resources. When a person
is motivated and able to invest high effort in making a judgment about an issue or object,
attitude change can occur due to characteristics of his or her thoughts (e.g., whether the
thoughts are favourable or unfavourable).
Behaviour modification refers to techniques used to try and increase or decrease a
particular type of behaviour or reaction. There are various methods employed in ensuring
a change of behaviour, such as social influence; positive reinforcement and punishment.
Social Influence
According to Kelman (1963) there are three processes of social influence;
compliance, identification and internalization. Compliance is said to occur "when an
individual accepts influence from another person or group because he hopes to achieve a
favourable reaction from the other. Sarri and Vinter (1976) have pointed out the role of
compliance in-group work with juvenile delinquents. One of the consequents of
compliance is that when the group worker wishes to change an induced response, he must
change the perception of the conditions for social rewards. Identification can be said to
occur when an individual adopts behaviour derived from another person or a group because
this behaviour is associated with a satisfying self-defining relationship to this person or
group." The relationship is self-defining because it gives one a sense of identity. It is all-
important precisely because it gives one a sense of identity. Identification can be defined
in terms of the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of the individual. Finally, Internalization
occurs ''when an individual accepts influence because the induced behaviour is congruent
with his value system." The important factor here is the individual’s credibility. Put
technically, the subject accepts certain attitudes because he perceives them as conducive to
the maximization of his values. There will of necessity be selectivity as the group member
does not feel bound to adopt all the opinions of the group leader, because he is
concentrating on the intrinsic worth or validity of what is said or expressed and not on the
attraction of the group worker.
Positive Reinforcement
This includes the attachment of a positive stimulus to good behaviour. This may be
in form of public commendation, praise, an award or a gift. This creates a positive attitude
in an individual, which then inspires him to do even better.
228
Punishment
This is designed to weaken behaviour that is considered bad or unpleasant by
attaching a n unpleasant stimulus to such behaviour. A query, demotion and other
punishments are consequences designed to deter an individual and steer his thoughts away
from perceived negative behaviour. This will ultimately lead to a change in attitude.
Conclusion
This study has examined the prevailing attitude and behaviour in workplace in
Nigeria civil service and the problem of lethargy. The study has shown that there are many
attributes needed to ensure commitment and the eradication of lethargy in the work place.
Workers must have positive attitudes, skills and be intentional about putting in their best
at work. It all starts with an individual decision to do better and live a positive life.
Governments however need to address such issues as poor wages and poor working
conditions. Lack of incentives and opportunities for career growth also dampen workers
morale. It is pertinent to state here however that the average worker needs to do better with
self-development and advancement. Another important factor that comes to play is
competence. Proficiency motivates one to perform. Workers will be eager to show their
competence in the work place by performing their tasks diligently. On the other hand,
where one is not fully competent, there will be a greater tendency to shy away from work.
The work environment is another crucial factor to be considered; are there adequate seats
and facilities and amenities. In all, there is a correlation between job satisfaction and
productivity so policies should be efficient and tailored to fit the Nigerian workforce to
ensure greater productivity.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:
i. Great care must be taken not to generalise and give bad labels to the entire work
force in the public sector. Many hard working workers remain in the system
and should always be recognised and appreciated.
ii. Work conditions must be improved upon for maximum performance; obsolete
equipment and inefficient infrastructure and services.
iii. Adequate incentives and provision of adequate trainings and advancement
opportunities to close the skill and knowledge gap.
iv. Holistic approach should be employed in understanding the psyche and
mentality of the Nigerian worker especially with regards to corruption and
mediocrity, lack of positive examples and consequences of all actions.
To improve is to change; to be perfect is to change often. – Winston Churchill
229
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230
The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic Development of Taraba State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park
The Importance of Tourism Development to Socioeconomic Development of Taraba

State: A Case Study of Gashaka Gumti National Park
1Akombo Elijah, I., 1Joseph John & 1Evelyn A. Nwagu
1Department of History, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria
Emails: akomboelijah@gmail.com; johnjosepha91@gmail.com & eziamakachibuzo@gmail.com
Abstract
It is not arguable that tourism is a social phenomenon developed by God in the Garden of
Eden. The Garden was a social place God usually visited in the cool of the evenings to
socialize with man. Today, tourism is fast becoming the most fashionable and lucrative
enterprise the world over due to its socio-economic dividends. The commonest feature of
the tourist industry is the development of recreation centres such as parks, museums, zoos,
stadia, game reserves, among others. It is repeating the obvious to say that tourism is being
enhanced and facilitated by the globalization process. The main thrust of this study is,
therefore, not only to appraise the socio-eonomic dividends of tourism industry, but also to
examine the specific factors that have been major impediments in the development of
tourism industry in Taraba State, and with specific focus to the Gashaka Gumti National
Park. A multi-disciplinary approach has been adopted for data collection spread mainly
across oral and written sources. Effort has also been made to proffer some
recommendations as the panacea for the development of tourism industry in Taraba State
in particular. The effort by the Taraba State Government to develop tourism industry is,
therefore, basically the desire of the State to key into the global trend due to its socio-
economic dividends. The case of the Gashaka Gumti National Park by the Federal
Government of Nigeria is equally a leaf from the global trend. Of crucial importance to
note, however, is the fact that very crucial capital intensive variables are needed to develop
an attractive tourism industry of both national and international standard. The variables
range from money, manpower, security (peace), to infrastructure, among others. The
inadequacy of these variables adversely hampers the development of any level of tourism
industry in any place across the world, including Taraba State.
Key words: Gumti, Gahaka Globalization, Taraba State & Tourism.
Introduction
It is not arguable that tourism industry as a social phenomenon was developed by
God in the Garden of Eden. The Garden was a social environment God developed, which
He usually visited in the cool of the evenings for recreational purposes, specifically to
socialize with man. For instance, the Holy Bible (Genesis 2: 8-9, 15; 3: 8) testifies that:
The Lord planted a garden to the east of Eden--- And the
Lord Made to grow out of the garden every tree that is
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pleasing to the eyes and for food--- Then the Lord God took
the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work the
ground and care for it--- Then they heard the sound of the
Lord God walking in the garden in the evening---
Today, billions of years after God developed the first tourism centre otherwise
referred to as the Garden of Eden, tourism is fast becoming about the most lucrative and
fast growing enterprise. This is basically because tourism has become a very significant
tool for socio-economic development in any society. The reason is simple; tourism has the
potential of bringing to limelight, hitherto unknown cultures, peoples and places. Dubai
today is a very good example in this regard. It serves as a catalyst for sustained social and
economic development, especially when properly harnessed, organised and marketed to a
wider audience. In addition to this, tourism has the potential to promote cultural exchange
of values and experiences, which in the long run, tends to promote global peace, tolerance
and understanding.
The exposure to an entirely new and distinct culture, race and people is crucial in
understanding and appreciating the diversity of the human race. No other human endeavour
does this better than tourism. Apart from this, it also serves as a booster to an economy.
This is made possible because of the exchange of cash that accrues when tourists visit a
tourism destination. Thus, an improvement in the tourism sector of Taraba state would, in
no small measure, spur rapid socio-economic development of the State.
Taraba state, dubbed “Nature's Gift to the Nation", has been greatly endowed by
providence with abundant tourism potentials. Worthy of mention are; the Mambilla Plateau
(which comprises mountain chains of Adamawa, Obudu, Shebshi and Alantika), with a
height of about 1,830 metres above sea level, (www.cometongeria.com, 2018), the
Gashaka Gumti National Park (Nigeria's largest National Park), Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve
(about 60km West of Gashaka Gumti National Park), Donga River Basin, Mamara
Crocodile Pond in Wukari, among many others (www.cometonigeria.com, 2018).
In addition to these natural tourist sites, cultural festivals of the diverse groups that
make up Taraba state, when properly supported and organized, have the tendency to
transform tourism, which shall ultimately result to socio-economic development.
Prominent among these cultural festivals are; the Nwonyo Fishing Festival in Ibi Local
Government Area, Matau Festival in Zing/Yorro Local Government Areas, Kungana in
Bali Local Government Area, Puje in Wukari Local Local Government Area, Kuchicheb
Festival in Ussa/Takum Local Government Areas (NYSC, 2018, p.5), just to mention a
few. It is against this backdrop that this paper examines the importance of tourism to the
socio-economic development of Taraba state, with focus on the Gashaka Gumti National
Park.
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Socio-economic Importance of Tourism Development to Taraba State

The United Nation's World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) aptly describes
tourism as an "economic and social phenomenon" (www.unwto.org, 2018). Tourism is also
multifaceted because it exists in different types. There are basically two major aspects of
tourism across the globe today. These are tourism for leisure, that is, when people travel to
relax, watch things and generally enjoy themselves as well as medical tourism, which deals
with people travelling in search of medical treatment (Agbidye, 2014). There is also
cultural tourism.
Other aspects of tourism, although not widely acknowledged, are educational and
spiritual tourism. This is when people travel in search of knowledge and religious purposes
respectively. These two have significantly contributed to the socio-economic growth of
countries such as the USA, UK, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Italy (Vatican), Egypt, etc.
The Saudi Government, for instance, makes billions of dollars annually from the hajj
performed by millions of Muslims the world over. Despite her oil wealth, substantial
foreign exchange and revenue of the country come from religious tourism (hajj).
It is interesting to note that Taraba State has potentials for medical tourism. A lot
of medicinal herbs abound in Sardauna Local Government Area. Proper identification,
processing and branding of these products as well as establishing world class hospitals with
modern equipment and highly skilled medical professionals can promote medical tourism
in the area and the state at large (Agbidye, 2014). What that means for the state is that there
would be more jobs for the relatively young population and more revenue to the coffers of
the state.
In the last two decades, tourism has been closely linked to socio-economic
development, encompassing a growing number of destinations. It has continued to
experience steady growth and deepening diversification, thus becoming one of the fastest
growing sectors of the world's economy. Surprisingly, the business volume of tourism
today equals or even surpasses that of oil exports, food products and automobiles
(www.unwto.org, 2018). From Dubai to London, Hong Kong to Paris, Mecca to Jerusalem,
tourism accounts for a greater number of people visiting these cities from different parts of
the world. This simply translates to an increased level of cultural/racial interaction as well
as more money made by local businesses, ranging from taxi operators, hotels, airline
operators, food vendors, supermarkets/malls and many others.
By implication, the development of tourism in Taraba state is capable of stimulating
an unprecedented level of socio-economic growth and development. In the social front,
tourism has the potential of curbing the growing monster of youth unemployment. An
improvement in tourism would create more opportunities for young people to engage in
productive ventures such as transportation, food processing, laundry services, tourists'
guide/museum curator services, local craft production, security guard services, hospitality,
etc. In essence, this tackles two knotty problems; poverty and crimes. Having jobs, means
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steady income for young people, which leads to an improvement in the standard of living
as well as an increase in purchasing power, ultimately reducing the tendency of young
people to engage in criminal activities.
In addition, tourism has the potential of promoting the level of cultural/racial
interaction between the people of the state and tourists. It could either be local (domestic)
or international (foreign). A Yoruba man from Ogbomosho in Oyo state, for instance,
visiting Ibi for the annual Nwonyo Fishing Festival would learn more about the Jukun
(Wanu) people, and in like manner, the people of Ibi would also learn certain aspects of
Yoruba culture from the visiting Ogbomosho man, so also a German tourist and vice versa.
Tourism also facilitates the promotion of urbanisation, through the construction of
infrastructural facilities such as roads, airports, rail lines, electricity, water supply, parks,
stadiums, cinemas, etc. These facilities are necessary not only for the comfort of tourists,
but also for the residents.
Economically, the construction of infrastructural facilities can contribute
substantially to trade and commerce, which uplifts the economic and financial status of the
people. Tourism can stimulate the establishment and expansion of small, medium and large
scale businesses in Taraba state. The key business to benefit from this is the hospitality
industry. Tourists' do not sleep on trees; neither do they sleep in people's homes. Most
tourists the world over either lodge in hotels or specially rented apartments. Therefore,
hotel business stands the chance to experience a boom and unprecedented growth. The Burj
Khalifa, also known as Burj Dubai, in the city of Dubai, United Arab Emirate (UAE), is an
example of what tourism can do to the hospitality industry in Taraba State. The hotel
reputed to be the tallest skyscraper in the world, has become an "architectural wonder of
the 21st century” (Bianchi, Stefania and Critchlow, 2010). Inaugurated in 2010, the hotel
has a total height of 829.8m (2,722ft) and a roof height (excluding antenna) of 828m
(2,717ft) (https:en.m.wikipedia, 2018). This magnificent edifice has continued to attract
millions of people, the world over, to Dubai. It may be a very lofty dream, but it is possible
to erect an edifice, may be not as huge as the Burj Khalifa, but something magnificent,
capable of attracting millions, the world over to the beautiful Mambilla Plateau.
Next to hospitality are transportation and food processing respectively. Tourists
would need to be conveyed from one point to another. The implication of this is that, airline
operators, taxi operators and rail line operators would witness a boom in their businesses,
thereby making more money. Restaurants with specialty in local and continental cuisines
would also emerge, with existing ones expanding to meet the feeding needs of tourists. The
spill-over effects of all these would be felt in agriculture, energy services, automobile
maintenance, banking, etc. Local craft/art industry in the state operates largely on a small
scale basis. Since most communities in Taraba State have distinct crafts that they specialize
in, there will be large number of tourists who would buy their products, such as calabash,
mats, pots, caps, cloth, etc, as souvernirs. This would lead to the boom of the local craft art
industry in Taraba State.
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Photography would also not be left out. For instance, Four Seasons Hotel in
Hangzhou, China, runs a private dinner and tour where tourists are taken to the local food
market where they can enjoy authentic Shanohainese and Cantonese cuisine
(www.millionmetrics.com,2018). This is good business for local farmers who produce
pigs, chickens, green tea as well as fishermen. The Cuisine Museum in the eastern city of
Hangzhou is one of a growing number of food museums in China. In fact, it is probably
the most magnificent, attracting thousands of people annually
(www.bbc.com/news/magazine, 2018).
Another good example of the multiplier effects of tourism on local craft is the
development of open-air markets in Dubai. The Ripe Market takes place across the city
throughout the year, and is packed with artisans' craft, stylish labels, food trucks, and fresh
organic produce straight from the Ripe Farm (www.visitcalabar.com, 2018). The Arte
Market is home to the "Artisans of the Emirate". Every Friday, in various locations around
the city, painters, artists, crafters and bankers converge to show off their pieces, handmade
with love (www.visitcalabar.com, 2018). The markets attract many tourists on a daily basis,
who throng them in order to purchase the different items on display.
Tourism can indeed be a goldmine when properly harnessed. India, for instance
makes so much money from medical tourism today. It is now a thriving sector, currently
valued at a whopping $3billion, which is further expected to reach $8billion by 2020
(www.qura.com, 2018). An unusual combination of modern medical infrastructure, highly
qualified doctors, latest world-class technology and superior quality medical attention,
have today contributed to making India a top choice for medical tourism (www.qura.com,
2018). Taraba State can take a cue from this. The potentials and resources are there, what
is needed is a clear cut blueprint and the political will to see to its implementation.
Another importance of tourism development as regards the economy is the increase
in the Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) of Taraba State. The increase in commercial
activities brought about by the influx of tourists would lead to the state making money
through taxes and rates. The increase in IGR, when prudently utilized, would promote
overall economic development of the state. A good example of this is the Cross River State.
According to Donald Duke, a former Governor of the state, "I developed and promoted the
tourism assets of Cross River State to increase the Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) of
my state (Duke, 2016). Interestingly, Cross River State today is one of the leading states in
Nigeria, as far as tourism is concerned. Tourism destinations such as the Obudu Mountain
Resort, Tinapa Business Resort and the Cross River National Park are some of the foremost
and most visited tourist sites in Nigeria. The Calabar Carnival which takes place every
December has unarguably become the largest and most organized carnival in Nigeria,
attracting millions of tourists from different parts of the world. The 2017 edition of the
carnival tagged "Migration", attracted millions of fun seekers from 26 different countries
(Ikobi, 2017). One can only imagine how much revenue accrued to the state as a result of
the month long carnival.
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To further elaborate the importance of Tourism to socio-economic development,

Duke (2016) explains:
After putting the necessary machineries in place, tourism
brought about 2.3 million people to the state within a month.
New hotels kept springing up in the state, yet they were not
enough. What we generated within a month, through Calabar
Carnival was more than our Internally Generated Revenue
in 11 months. Not only that, Calabar Airport became the
busiest in Nigeria.
It therefore means that Taraba State can generate more revenue, if the enormous
tourism potentials of the state are properly utilized and harnessed. This would go a long
way in reducing its over reliance on Federal Allocation to meet its financial obligations,
such as paying workers salaries, embarking on capital projects, etc.
Another example is the Rio Festival in Brazil, which attracts millions of people
from different parts of the world, who spend millions of dollars, thereby boosting the
Brazilian economy. Rio Festival dates far back as 1723 (https://en.m.wikipedia.org, 2018).
It is a cultural and religious festival celebrated in honour of the gods and to respect the
great waters. It takes place between February and March every year. It begins on the last
Friday before Ash Wednesday at noon (https://en.m.wikipedia, 2018). Therefore, there is
absolutely no reason why tourism (festival), when well organized, given the multi-
culturalism and richness of Taraba State would not produce the kind of result obtained in
Brazil.
Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP)

The groundwork for the establishment of the Gashaka Gumti National Park began
in 1969, when the then North-Eastern State commissioned a Consultant to extensively
survey the areas described as Wildlife Sanctuaries of Gashaka, Gumti and Serti, which later
became known as the Gashaka Gumti Game Reserve in 1976 (Mafindi, 2016, p. 25). With
the creation of Gongola State in 1976, the ownership of the Game Reserve was transferred
to the newly created state. However, due to improper management of the Game Reserve
by the defunct Gongola State, the Federal Government took over the management of the
place in 1991, renaming it Gashaka Gumti National Park (Mafindi, 2016, p.25).
The Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP) is regarded as the largest National Park
in Nigeria. It has a wide variety of terrains, such as the savannah grasslands, montane
forests and steep mountainous regions. These multiple terrains lead to the diversity of
wildlife in the park. In particular, the savannah grassland is covered with coarse, tall grasses
and fringing forests, with the montane forest rarely closed, allowing for rich vegetation on
the highland floor. The tallest trees are the stragglers, like the ficus and other species of fig
(https://sites.google.com, 2018).
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In terms of size, the GGNP covers a total area of about 6,402km, with altitude
ranging from about 457m (1,499ft) in the Northern flatter corner of the park, up to 2,419m
(7,936ft) at Chappal Waddi, Nigeria's highest mountain peak in the Southern Section. It is
an important water catchment area for Benue River and there is abundant river flow, even
in the dry season (Nwanne, 2017).
The animals in the Gashaka Gumti National Park are diverse. About 103 species of
mammals have been recorded at censuses. These species include, African Golden Cat
(Profelis Aurata), The African Buffalo, Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes), The Kob Antelope
(Kobus Kob), African Elephant (Loxodonta Africana), and the West African Wild Dog
(Lycaon Pictus Manguensis), among others. There exist also a great variety of birds. There
are more than 500 species of birds found in the park. It is believed that the red faced
lovebird can only be found in GGNP and nowhere else in Nigeria
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org, 2018). All these provide tourists with a great variety of
animals, not forgetting the different species of flowers, shrubs and trees.
Socioeconomic Importance of the Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP)
The Gashaka Gumti National Park has significantly benefitted the host community
of Serti (Gashaka), Taraba and Nigeria as a whole. Although the Park has, in recent times,
been plagued by several difficulties, its contribution to the socio-economic development of
the host community is commendable. Its contribution in the areas of job creation,
educational research and scholarship, as well as the development of settlements is
significant.
Aside the primary aim of establishing the Park, which is to protect, preserve,
conserve and manage representative samples of indigenous plants and animals, it has also
created opportunities for jobs, especially for the people of the host community. About 20%
of the employees in the Park are the indigenous people, while the remaining 80% is shared
between Taraba (40%) and Adamawa (40%) (Mafindi, 2016, p.26). The employees include
cleaners, rangers, security guard, clerks, managers, etc. That apart, a number of tourists
who visit the Park usually patronize the local artisans’ craft, especially the mats and
baskets, as well as other businesses.
Also, the GGNP has become a centre for academic research and scholarship.
Scholars such as Anthropologists, Biologists, Ecologists, Geographers, Conservationists,
Historians, among many others from both within and outside the country, visit the Part for
one form of research or the other (Mafindi, 2016, 25). Students from various Universities
and Colleges, especially from Departments such as Biology, Anthropology, Geography,
Forestry, Wildlife, etc also visit the Park for field work and excursion. Furthermore,
researchers in the field of medicine have carried out several studies on diseases and
Immunology, solely dependent on the availability of wildlife in the Park (Mafindi, 2016,
p.25).
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Gashaka Gumti National Park also serves as a settlement for people in the host
community and environs, through the provision of settlement enclaves such as Fillinga,
Mayo Sabere, Chappal Dalam, Chappal Sirgu, Selbe, etc. Portable water and primary
schools as well as clinics have been constructed in the enclaves, thus improve their quality
of life (Mafindi, 2016 p.26)
Challenges Confronting the Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP)
The Gashaka Gumti National Park (GGNP) has continued to battle with series of
challenges. These Challenges have resulted in the lack of optimal utilization of the tourism
potentials of the Park, thus contributing very little to the socio-economic development of
Taraba State. The major challenges are; lack of adequate infrastructure/recreational
facilities, low level of patronage, poor funding, inadequate publicity and poaching
(https://www.sciencedomain.org, 2018).
Low patronage is the major problem confronting the park. Only a few tourists visit
the GGNP annually, despite its richness and diversity. Research findings between the
period of 2005 and 2015 shows that the Park only received about 6,713 local and 612
International tourists, with about 33% of these foreign tourist from Britain. This invariably
resulted in only a paltry 44million ($114,000) generated as revenue within the period
(https://www.sciencedomain.org---, 2018). This, by every standard, is abysmal and
therefore calls for serious concern. The problem of low patronage has been attributed to
the remote location and poor accessibility within the Park
(https://www.sciencedomain.org, 2018). Although nothing has been done about the former,
everything can be done about the latter. It behoves on the Taraba State Government to liase
with the Federal Government to solve the problem of poor accessibility within the Park, so
as to attract more people from across the globe.
Poor funding has also been identified as another major problem confronting the
GGNP. The effective management of any Park of that magnitude requires huge funds.
Consequently, the dwindling allocation to the Park, coupled with the very low revenue
accruing to it, has continued to militate against the effective and efficient running of the
day to day activities of the Park. This is further compounded by the persistent drop in the
meagre allocation to the Park by successive governments, despite its huge size and
potentials (Mafindi, 2016).
Inadequate Publicity has further continued to militate against the popularity of the
GGNP. The Park has not been adequately publicized to a wider audience. Tourists mostly
get interested in visiting a place they constantly see or hear about, especially distant ones,
on the media, be it conventional or social. Invariably, the lack of adequate publicity of the
Park has continued to be a major stumbling block to its development (Obong, 2018).
Another challenge to the Gashaka Gumti National Park is that, infrastructural and
recreational facilities within and around the Park are obsolete and highly inadequate. Most
of the facilities available are in a state of disrepair. Roads, service vehicles, power supply,
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water and other basic amenities that can make life comfortable in the Park are grossly
inadequate. For instance, it becomes near impossible to drive all the way from the Park’s
gate at Bodel into Gashaka Village and beyond during the rainy season (June to
November), due to over flooding of a number of rivers in the Southern section of the GGNP
(Adams, 2018). Also in the Northern sector of the Park, the journey to Toungo after Ganye
becomes difficult once the rains start, because the heavy downpour usually cuts off
accessibility to areas beyond Tounga (Adams, 2018). Reception of GSM network within
the Park is also limited, making communication with the outside world difficult. Thus the
creation of buffer dams and drainages to control and reduce the impact of flood on the
roads within the Park is necessary for easy navigation especially during the rainy season.
In addition to these problems, the illegal activities of humans within and around the
Park have been identified as another stumbling block for the GGNP. Poachers, miners,
herders, hunters, and even settlers in the enclaves located within the Park have continued
to pose serious problems to its viability and sustenance. At a special event to commemorate
the World Rangers Day in Serti, head quarter of Gashaka Local Government Area, the
Conservator of the Park, Sylvester Viashima (2018), identified increasing illegal logging
activities and indiscriminate grazing as major man-made factors killing Park life in the
GGNP. Viashima (2018) further explained that;
Gashaka Gumti National Park has had its fair share of human pressure
on the Park’s resources, ranging from activities of poaching, logging,
illegal grazing, mining, fishing and farming. Of particular concern is
the current spate of desperation for illegal logging of Rosewood,
commonly called Madrid.
Further compounding the problem of illegal activities within the Park is the
shortage of manpower. The protection staff strength is slightly above 139 wild life rangers,
largely ill-equipped and trained. This is grossly Inadequate to watch over and protect an
area of over 6,000sqkms (Mafindi, 2016).
Challenges of Tourism Development in Taraba State
Tourism in Taraba State is faced with several daunting challenges. These
challenges have continued to militate against the development of tourism, thereby denying
the state the numerous benefits it stands to gain. These challenges include: Insecurity,
inadequate infrastructure, inadequate funding, lack of proper media coverage, and lack of
political will.
Insecurity: It is a fact that no meaningful development can take place in an
environment that is devoid of peace, harmony and tranquillity. For tourists to visit any
place of interest, there has to be a reasonable sense of safety, for their lives and properties.
However, where this is not the case, tourism, as well as all other productive aspects of
human endeavor, would suffer greatly. It is imperative for peace to reign in Taraba State,
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if tourism and its enormous potentials are to be maximized. A former Special Adviser on
Tourism to then Governor of the State in 2014 (Agbidye), lamented thus:
We were planning very seriously to launch the Nwonyo
Fishing Festival, when the ethno-religious crisis in Southern
Taraba State surfaced. The crisis seems to have caused
tourism activities not to be vibrant. You cannot promote
tourism when there is insecurity in the area.
Also, the very important Kuchicheb cultural festival of the Kuteb in Takum/Ussa
areas has not been held since 2008 due to insecurity (Andeyaba, 2018). Kuchicheb is a
cultural festival of the Kuteb ethnic group which takes place in March every year. It is a
thanksgiving festival organised to appreciate God for the farming season. Apart from
depicting the Kuteb’s unique way of dressing, respect for law and order, food and drinks,
farming and hunting tools, it also attracts hundreds of people from far and near (Andeyaba,
2018). These people, in their numbers, usually witness the beauty of the Kuteb culture, in
addition to learning about them (Kuteb people). It also provides opportunities for trade and
commercial transactions. Unfortunately, a ban was placed on the celebration of the festival
in 2008, because of the violent clashes that broke out between some Jukun/Chamba and
Kuteb youths, during the celebration of "Takachiyawa Festival" of the Chamba in
December 2008, which led to the death of some persons and the destruction of properties
in Takum town.
Similarly, in other parts of Africa, for instance, in Kenya, the political uncertainties,
fueled by ethnic politics in the country, which resulted in the post-election violence that
engulfed the country in 2007, severely damaged the fortunes of tourism in that country
(Moses, 2001). Kenya Bureau of Statistics reports shows that the number of international
arrivals declined sharply by 33.8% from 1.8million in 2007 to 1.2million in 2008. In
addition, the number of visitors to Game Parks and National Reserves declined from
2.5million in 2006 to 1.6million in 2008, representing a decline of 34.5% (Ikara, 2001,
p.11). All these happened because of the volatile security situation in the country.
Generally, violence and other forms of social unrest have the tendency to slow down any
meaningful development of tourism. By implication, likewise in Taraba State, unless the
problem of insecurity is checked, tourism and other economic activities would continue to
suffer a lot of setback, as it is currently being witnessed in the state.
The problem of inadequate infrastructural and recreational facilities has become a
clog in the wheel of progress for tourism in Taraba State. The shortage of basic amenities,
such as roads, water supply, cinemas, electricity, etc, has become a very serious challenge.
It is a fact that not many people can endure the long and very scary drive up the hill to
Sardauna Local Government Area, where the amazing Mambilla Plateau is located.
However, if an airport is constructed in the area, a good number of tourists would like to
fly into the Mambilla to savour the beauty of nature in the area.
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A vivid picture of the foregoing issue was painted by a former Sales Manager of
the Nigeria Breweries Limited in Gembu while advising an intending visitor to Gembu,
describes the journey as “hours stretching into sleep, edgy, undulating and rolling hills on
the Plateau” (https://samadeleke.com, 2017). Another user of the road claims that cars go
slowly, so they do not collide on narrow roads. That if a vehicle should fall off the road
that will be the end. It goes deep down the rocky hills that no one will even know anything
happened (Victor, 2018). He concluded that the road leading to Gashaka up into Mambilla
Plateau surely qualifies, and is the most scary route in Nigeria. “Whoever has travelled to
the area can testify” (Lingmu, 2018).
Inadequate Funding: “To fix the infrastructure, we need huge sum of money, which
the state does not have at the moment” (Agbidye, 2014). Developing tourism usually
requires huge investments. When the funds are not readily available, it becomes extremely
difficult to make any headway. Agbidye (2014) concluded that:
The potentials are there but untapped. I have divided the State into
three zones- A, B, and C in terms of tourism. My desire is to ensure
that at least we develop an attractive cultural/tourist centre in each of
the zones. But looking at the amount of resources needed to build
these infrastructures to a point of attracting national and international
tourists, it wouldn't be that easy, because we don't have that kind of
resources.
Furthermore, the lack of media coverage in the tourism sector in Taraba so far is
another serious challenge for its development. At a one day workshop organized by the
Nigerian Association of Women Journalist (NAWOJ), tagged "The Role of Media in
Promoting Tourism", the problem of inadequate and poor coverage of the tourism
potentials in the state was brought to the fore (www.tarabastate,gov.ng, 2018). In his
remark, the keynote speaker, Sylvanus Giwa (2018), expressed worry over the level of
neglect the Media has for tourism in the state. Giwa, a former Special Adviser to the
Governor on Media and Publicity, charged the journalists to passionately promote the rich
tourism potentials of the State, adding that it was their responsibility to positively project
the tourism potentials, which the state has been endowed with to the outside world. Tourist
destinations that attract millions of people from different parts of the world have been
greatly publicized to attain the enviable status they enjoy today.
It is because of the importance of massive media coverage to tourism that the Cross
River State Carnival and Festivals Commission has over the years engaged the services of
different Marketing Communications Consultancy Firms, to lead the sponsorship and
marketing drive of the Calabar Carnival (Mwantok, 2017). This is among other reasons
why the Calabar Carnival has grown to become Africa's biggest and most successful
tourism destination brand (Mwantok, 2017).
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Also, the production of documentaries on the various tourism destinations in Taraba

State can go a long way in boosting the publicity drive and efforts towards the sector. For
instance, in the state of Kentucky, USA, the Kentucky Department of Tourism (KDT) is
responsible for marketing Kentucky as a tourism destination (https://www.ktia.com, 2018).
A one-percent state-wide hotel room tax is levied on all hotels, which is then used for
advertising and marketing. Tourism generates about $1.57billion in tax revenues for
Kentucky Government, and it is worth over $15billion (https://www.ktia.com, 2018).
Documentaries and short videos are produced and uploaded on the internet by young
people (millennials), and as such millions of people, the world over view these. This helps
to positively promote the tourism potentials and image of Kentucky (https://www.ktia.com,
2018). Taraba State can learn from this, leveraging on the wider reach of the conventional
and social media would greatly promote tourism in the state. This is because tourism
destinations are made known to tourists before they set off and these destinations are
publicized among tourists by mostly the media.
Lack of Political Will: Beyond the lip service government officials pay to tourism
development, there has not been any concrete blueprint or workable plan to transform
tourism in the state. Political speeches and rhetoric which do not translate to reality,
through concrete and deliberate actions, have become the bane of tourism development in
Taraba State. A very good example of this is the much celebrated deal between the Taraba
State Government and an airline operator. Overland Airways, which has really not done
much to tourism development to the state (Sobowale, 2016). The government has not
demonstrated very strong political will in order to create the enabling environment for
tourism to thrive. One good option is the promotion of public- private partnership, since
government cannot do everything. In the area of safeguarding the physical environment,
the government seems to neglect the strict implementation of environmental laws necessary
for protecting, preserving and conserving the environment for the present and future
generations.
Conclusion
Statistics and several research findings have shown that tourism, when properly
harnessed and marketed, can serve as a catalyst for all round societal transformation and
development. Example from Dubai (UAE), Mecca (Saudi Arabia), Calabar (Nigeria),
Jerusalem (Israel), among many others, all go to show that any significant investment in
tourism has tremendous socio-economic benefits.
Taraba State equally stands to gain much from tourism just in the same manner as
the communities mentioned above have benefited from, and are still doing so, and will
continue to eternity all things being equal. But the crucial issue about tourism is that the
industry demands much money and related resources for its development. All the
communities have devoted much money and resources to push tourism industry to the
levels they have taken it to.
242
Recommendations
The foregoing suggests that tourism industry cannot prosper if the needed variables
are not adequately provided. These variables, as pointed out are finance, manpower, peace,
security, infrastructure, among others. And to many societies, the inadequacy of these
variables has remained the main impediments to the development of tourism industry.
Taraba State tourism industry has continued to experienced serious setback due to the
inadequacy of these variables.
This paper, therefore, recommends that what is now left for the Taraba State
Government is to do the followings in order for tourism industry to be developed:
i. To carefully identify and study the problems enumerated in this paper.
ii. To exhibit an open mind and the willingness to put the necessary machinery and
framework in place, in order to support the development of tourism.
iii. To provide adequate infrastructure for tourism industry to strive.
iv. To enact tourism friendly laws.
v. To ensure safety and security of lives and properties as well as a positive change in
the attitude of both government and the governed, among other measures.
It is believed that the foregoing measures can instigate the development of tourism industry
in Taraba State if adequately complied with. This, in the long run, would bring about
significant socio-economic development to Taraba State.
References
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Chuks, Nwanne (2017), "Destination... Gashaka Gumti National Park”, in Guardian
Newspaper, 8th July.
Donald, D. (2016), "Tourism in a Diversified Economy: A Paper Presented at the
National Summit on Tourism and Culture, held in Abuja, 9th May.
Ikara, M. M. (2001), Vision and Long-Term Development Strategy for Kenya’s Tourism
Industry, Kenya Institute for Public Research and Analysis, p.11
Ikobi, I. (2017), Interview in Vanguard Newspaper, 21st November.
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Taraba State, from 1991-2016", B. A Project, History and Archaeology, Taraba
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243
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Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences Volume 2, Number 1 December, 2019 Page i-v

EDITORIL BOARD MEMBERS

Editor: Dr Chiakaan G. Jacob, Department of Mass

Deputy Editor: Dr Jev Amos Asongo, Department of Public

Associate Editors: Professor Abel A. Adebayo, Department of Geography,

Prof. Joseph S. Rishante, Department of Mass

Dr. Akombo I. Elijah, Department of History, Taraba State

Secretary: Prof. Patrick Oromareghake Oroborome, Department of

Assistant Secretary: Gabriel Iornumbe Yina, Department of Political Science,

i. Prof Abdulsalam Jibril Dept of Business Administration, Adamawa State

AIM AND SCOPE

GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS

1. Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General 1-12

Politics and Violence in Nigeria: An Assessment of the 2019 General

1Department of History & Diplomatic Studies, Taraba State University, Jalingo.

The Concept of Democracy

Concept of Political Culture

Historical Evolution of Political Violence in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic

Any candidate, person or association who engages in campaigning or broadcasting

ii. Volatile security situation/inadequate security.

Table 1: Reported Cases of Violence during Campaigns in Taraba State, 2019

S/N Nature of Violence Place Date

S/N Place Death (s) Date

Nwolise, O. (2007). “Electoral Violence and Nigeria’s 2007 Elections” Journal of

Local Government Administration and Minority Rights Issues in Michika and

The restructuring and reconstitution of local government councils, though simple

Creation of Local Government in Nigeria: Historical perspective

In recent times in Nigeria, there seems to be a continuous conflict between the

Further changes in the administrative composition of the country where the

It is imperative to note that, the existing structures of local government councils in

Table 1: Local Government Councils between 1976 and 1996

Years Number of local governments

Source: Fieldwork, 2018.

Table 3: Previous participation in minority issues

S/No. Responses Frequency Percentage

Table4shows that the decision on minority issues were partially implemented as

Table 5: Settlement of disagreement

Table 6: Satisfaction with minority issue exercise

i. Decision making on minority issues in the local government councils of study;

Table 7: Decision-making process for Madagali and Michika on minority issues

LD = Local government development

Operationalizing the formula, the coefficients of the regression (b-value) as seen in

LD = 0.366 x1 + 0.257 X2+ 0.556 x3 + 0.594 x4 + 0.217 x5 1.99.

i. Final Decision on Minority issue (FD) 18.39%

Terms of Reference and Committee’s Decisions

Table 8. Effect of Terms of Reference on Committee’s Decision on Minority Issues.

Dependent Variable: Local government development

Where: LD = Local government development

The opinions and responses from the community

Table 9. Effect of decision acceptability on local government development.

Result of the Findings

implementation of the decision. On the operational problems, decisions as well as their

Settling disagreements from inability to implement decisions on minority issues

From Table 5, disagreement over non-implementation of decision on minority

Satisfaction with the mode of minority issues’ exercise

Terms of reference of minority issues

After a series of cross-examination, analysis, findings and discussions based on the

3. There should be adequate, implementation of the decisions reached on minority issues