4.

4 Potential Equations 81

div D =P (-4-52)

Together with the equation of matter D =E E and with

E = grad cp we obtain

div E E =P .or div grad cp = - £. (4-53)

E

For instance, for a scalar field cp(x,y,z) with space charges, the
sequential application of the differential operators grad and div
yields

div grad cp
a2 cp
= :\..-2 +
a::l.r2
2 cp
+
aa2 cp2 = - -p (4-54)
VA vJ Z E

or

(4-55)

The differential equation V2cp = - pIE is called Poisson equation.

Its solutions are composed of two components, a Newton -
potential function of the space charges p, and a Laplace -
potential function of the arrangement without space charges

cp(r) = CPN(r) + cpdr) (4-56)

For example, let us consider the field of a parallel-plate cap-

acitor with uniform space-charge distribution cp(x,y,z) = const.,
as depicted in Figure 4.8.
82 4 Gradient, Potential, Potential Function

'P(d)=O 'P (d)

1
I
I
I
v -Q<O I
• I
I
I
I
d I

x
x
Figure 4.8: Parallel-plate capacitor with uniform space charge
distribution p(x,y,z) = const.. Fringing fields neglected.

Its field is described by the one-dimensional Poisson equation

_£. (4-57)
£

Two-fold integration yields

(4-58)

The integration constants are evaluated exploiting the given

boundary values

q>(O) = V = K2
(4-59)
p p V
q>(d) = 0 = - - d 2 + Kl d + V ~ Kl = - d - -
2£ 2£ d

Hence, we obtain the solution

4.4 Potential Equations 83

p p V V p
<p(x) = - - X2 + -xd - -x + V = - -x + V - 2<> (x2 - xd) , (4-60)
2e 2e d d ~

p V
<p(x) = - - (x2 - xd) - -x + V
2e d

(4-61 )

The x- component of the field-strength vector is obtained by a

gradient operation

d<p(x) p p V
E = - grad <p(x) = - - - = - x - - d + -
x dx e 2e d

E =E.(x_d)+V (4-62)
x e 2 d·

Concerning the difficulties of an analytic solution of Poisson's

equation, the aforesaid remarks for the Laplace equation still
hold.

To summarize, because curl X(r) = curl grad <p(r) = 0 in vortex-

free fields or vortex-free regions of arbitrary vector fields, a
vector field X(r) can be represented as gradient of a scalar
potential function <p(r). In other words, such fields can be de-
rived by differentiating a scalar potential function <p(r) according
to the grad rule. Moreover, if the vector field is also source-free,
i.e. div X = 0, one obtains <p(r) as a solution of Laplace's equation
v2<p = o. If the vector field contains sources, i.e. div X(r) = p(r},
one obtains <p(r) as a solution of Poisson's equation V2<p = - pIe.
84 4 Gradient, Potential, Potential Function

4.5 Electric Vector Potential

When dealing with fields of charge- and current-free regions,
for example wave guides, the electric vector potential F is en-
countered.

Because of the absence of sources we have div D=O and div E=O,
and because of the fact that the differential operators div and
curl sequentially applied to an arbitrary vector field F always
yield zero (see A3) we also have div curl F=O. Hence, all vortex
fields derived Via the operator curl from a primary vortex field
must satisfy the source-density equation of vortex fields. If we
introduce curl F into the equation for the source density of D
(or if we equate div D=O and div curl F=O) we formally obtain
upon integration, i.e. upon applying the operator {div}-l to both
sides of the equation (undoing the div operation)

div D = div curl Ii' (4-63)

D = curl F or curlF=D
(4-64)

Hence, the electric flux-density vector D can be represented as

the vortex density of another vector field F, referred to as
electric vector potential.

The symbol {div}-l is a new integral operator inverse to the dif-

ferential operator div (considering a unique solution which is,
in general, provided by problem-specific boundary conditions).
This straight-forward procedure is equivalent to the usual
statements of the type "... a source-free vector field D, char-
acterized by div D=O, can, because of div curl F=O, be repre-
4.5 Electric Vector Potential 85

sented by D = curl F ... ". The interested reader may look up

appendix A4 to see what (div}-l mathematically stands for.

The electric vector potential has the dimensions As/m Uater we

shall encounter the magnetic vector potential A[Vs/m), see5.3)

Here the question of the uniqueness of F must again be raised.

As with electrostatic fields, where various scalar potential
functions cp(r) and cp*(r) can be associated with the same vector
field E(r) (see 4.2),

E(r) = - gradcp(r) = - grad [cp(r)+CPo):= - gradcp*(r) , (4-65)

various vector potential functions F(r) exist for one and the
same electric flux density D(r),

D(r) = curl F(r) = curl [F(r)+Fo): = curl F*(r) (4-66)

A spatially independent component Fo = const. vanishes during

differentiation and must be supplemented upon integration in
form of an integration constant.

In addition to Fo, another term does not appear, and that is the
source field component Fa. Its absence is due to the fact that
the curl operator applied to the source field Fa(r) = grad a (or
to the gradient of any scalar potential function) will always yield
zero

curl grad Q(r) = curl Fa(r) = 0 (4-67)

Hence

D(r) = curl F(r) = curl [ F(r) + grad n(r)]: = curl F* * ( ~

~----------------------------------------------~.
(4-68)
86 4 Gradient, Potential, Potential Function

In general, the vector-potential function of an electric field may

indeed be composed of a vortex field F vCr) and a source field
Fs(r) = Fn(r) = grad nCr), a fact already mentioned in section 2.3

F(r) = Fy(r) + Fs(r) = Fy(r) + Fn(r) = Fy(r) + grad O(r). (4-69)

In other words, the equation curl F = D does not define the

vector potential function F(r) uniquely. It merely.makes a state-
ment about the vortex field component of the electric vector
potential. Uniqueness is only given if there exists also infor-
mation about the divergence of the source field component
Fn(r) derived from any possible scalar field nCr).

Determination of the integration function, or gauge functton

nCr) (this resembles the determination of the integration con-
stant C of a simple indefinite integral) follows from the problem
definition (see also 5.3).

Whereas the electric scalar potential <per) is valid only for static
and quasi-static states of equilibrium, the electric vector
potential F(r) can describe time-varying electric fields.

Instead of starting with div D = 0 one could as well derive a

vector potential for div E = 0

E=curlF or curlF=E
(4-70)

This vector potential's unit is the volt M. Regarding its

uniqueness, the considerations made above apply in the same
way.

Apparently, each general vector field consisting of a vortex and

a source component can be assigned an infinite number of
scalar and vector potentials (in much the same way as indefinite
integrals and differential equations possess an infinite number
4.5 Electric Vector Potential 87

of solutions). A unique solution is obtained only upon intro-

duction of problem-specific boundary conditions.

Finally, it is to be noted that the potential equations of this

chapter qualify only for the calculation of static and quaSi-static
fields, that is for true or only slowly varying states of equili-
brium. For the calculation of rapidly varying fields the more
powerful wave equations and so-called retarded potentials must
be utilized (see 6).

4.6 Vector Potential of Conduction Fields

In dealing with eddy current problems, the vector potential of

the conduction field is encountered.

Because of the absence of sources in an electric conduction

field - div J c = 0 (see 3.2.5) - and because of the fact that the
differential operators div and curl sequentially applied to an
arbitrary vector field T always yield zero (see A 3) - div curl
T=O - the flux density J c of the electric conduction field
(current denSity) may be represented as the vortex density of a
vortex field T, the vector potential of the conduction field.
Equating both equations

div J c = div curl T (4-71)

a~d integrating both sides (undoing the div operation, {div}-l)

yields

J c = curl T or curl T = J c
(4-72)
88 4 Gradient, Potential, Potential Function

Here the question of uniqueness of T must again be raised. As

with electrostatic fields where various scalar potential functions
'P(r) and 'P*(r) can be associated with the same vector field E(r)
(see 4.2).

E(r) = - .grad 'P(r) = - grad ('P(r) + 'Po]:= - grad 'P*(r) , (4-73)

various vector potential functions T(r) exist for one and the
same current-density field Jc.

JcCr) = curl T(r) = curl (T(r) + To]:= curl T*(r) (4-74)

A spatially independent component To = const. vanishes during

differentiation and must be supplemented upon integration in
form of an integration constant.

In addition to TO another term does not appear. and that is the

source field component Tn(r). Its absence is due to the fact that
the curl operator applied to the source field Tn(r) = grad 0 (or
the gradient of any scalar potential function) will always yield
zero

curl grad O(r) = curl Tn(r) = 0 (4-75)

Hence.

Je(r) = curl T(r) = curl [ T(r) + grad O(r)): = curl T* * (r)

(4-76)
4.6 Vector Potential of Conduction Fields 89

In general. the vector-potential function of a conduction field

may indeed be composed of a vortex field Tv(r) and a source
field Ts(r) = To(r) = grad n(r). (s. also 4.5). In other words. the
equation curl T = J c does not define the vector-potential func-
tion T(r) uniquely. It merely makes a statement about the vortex
field component of the electric vector potential. Uniqueness is
only given if there exists also information about the divergence
of the source field component To(r) derived from any possible
scalar field O(r). Determination of the integration function. or
gauge function O(r) (this resembles the determination of the
integration constant C of a simple indefinite integral) follows
from the problem definition (see also 5.3).

Whereas the electric scalar potential q>(r) is valid only for static
and quasi-static states of equilibrium. the vector potential T(r)
of the conduction field can describe time-varying electric fields.
5 Potential and Potential Function of
Magnetostatic Fields

Magnetostatic fields exist inside and outside of conductors car-

rying direct current, in the surroundings of permanent mag-
nets, and around electric· fields changing at a constant rate
(magnetostatic fields of a constant displacement-current den-
sity D). Here, we will illustrate the potential concept for
magnetostatic fields resulting from dc-currents.

5.1 Magnetic Scalar Potential

A magnetic scalar potential CPm(r) can be derived for vortex-free

regions of magneto static fields from a given current distribution
(see Chapter 4), like an electrostatic field, where a scalar
potential function cp(r) can be derived from a given charge
distribution by virtue of the absence of vortices,

CPm = - JH . dr + CPmo
(5-1)

The magnetic scalar potential's unit is ampere (A).