NT, Rising Star

Rising Star Academy
Number Theory
By U. R. Tyagi
(Ex. Lecturer in Govt. College Bahadurgarh)

RISING STAR ACADEMY
28-A, Jia Sarai, Near Hauz Khas Metro Station, New Delhi, Mob : 07838699091
439/29,Chhotu Ram Nagar, Near Power House,Delhi Road, Rohtak , Mob : 09728862122
NET Number Theory Page 1
1. Divisibility
Def. Natural Numbers : The numbers 1 , 2 , 3 , ….. which are used for counting are called natural numbers.
Def. Integers : The numbers ......3,  2,  1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …… are called integers.
Note : In this, we shall use the word number to represent an integer.
Def. Divisibility : A non-zero integer a is said to divide an integer b if there exists an integer c such that
b = ac
We also represent this fact by saying that a is a divisor of b or b is a multiple of a .
Symbolically, we write a/b. If a does not divide b, then we write a \ b.
Properties of divisibility :
1. Every non-zero integer a divides 0 i.e. a/0
2. 1 divides every integer a
3. Every non-zero integer divides itself i.e. for any integer a ( 0), we always have a/a
4. If a and b are integers and a/b, then a/bc for every integer c
5. If a, b, c are integers such that a/b and b/c, then a/c
6. If a, b are natural numbers such that a/b and b/a then a = b
7. If a and b are integers such that a/b and b/a then a =  b
8. If a and b are integers such that a/b and |b| < |a|, then b = 0
9. If a, b, c, x, y are integers such that a/b and a/c, then a/ (bx + cy)
10. If a , b, c are integers such that a/b and a/c then a/b+c and a/b c i.e. if a non-zero integer divides two
integers then it also divides their sum and difference.
Def. Even Number : A number which is divisible by 2 is called an even number. e.g. 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ....
An even number can always be expressed as 2k , where k is any number.
Def. Odd Number : A number which is not divisible by 2 is called an odd number e.g. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
An odd number can always be expressed as 2k + 1, where k is any number.
Properties :
1. Product of two even numbers is again an even number.
2. Product of two odd numbers is again an odd number.
3. Product of an even number and an odd number is an even number.
4. Out of two consecutive numbers one is always even and other is odd.
5. Sum of an integer and its square is even.
www.risingstarmath.com
2
6. Product of two numbers is even if at least one of them is even.
7. The difference between the square of any number and the number itself is even.
Def. Unit : 1 is called the unit in natural numbers.
Def. Prime Number : A natural number p > 1 is called a prime number if no natural number other than 1
and p itself divides p. e.g. 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 11 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 23 ,…….. are prime numbers.
Def. Composite Number : A natural number n > 1 is called a composite number if atleast one natural
number other than 1 and n divides n. e.g. 4 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 ,…….. are composite numbers.
Remark : The unit 1 is neither a prime nor a composite.
Equivalent forms of the natural numbers :
1. 4k  1  4k  3 2. 6k  1  6k  5 3. 8k  1  8k  7
4. 8k  3  8k  5 5. 10k  1  10k  9 6. 10k  3  10k  7
7.  4k  1 4k ' 1  4k " 1 8.  4k  3 4k ' 3   4k " 1 9.  4k  1 4k ' 3  4k " 3
10.  6k  1 6k ' 1  6k " 1 11.  6k  5  6k ' 5   6k " 1 12.  6k  1 6k ' 5   6k " 5
13.  8k  1 8k ' 1  8k " 1 14.  8k  7  8k ' 7   8k " 1 15.  8k  1 8k ' 7   8k " 7
16.  8k  3 8k ' 3  8k " 1 17.  8k  5  8k ' 5  8k " 1 18.  8k  3 8k ' 5   8k " 7
19. 10k  110k ' 1  10k " 1 20. 10k  9 10k ' 9   10k " 1 21. 10k  110k ' 9   10k " 9
22. 10k  3 10k ' 3  10k " 9 23. 10k  7 10k ' 7   10k " 9 24. 10k  310k ' 7   10k " 1
25. (2k  1) 2  8k  1
Results :
1. Product of any r consecutive integers is divisible by r!.
2. nCr is an integer.
3. If m , n are positive integers, then (m + n)! is divisible by m! n!.
Def. Common divisor : A number c dividing two numbers a and b is called a common divisor of a and b.
e.g.  1 ,  2 ,  4 are common divisors of 8 and 12.
Def. Greatest common divisor : The greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) of two integers a and b, not both
zero, is the largest positive integer which divides both a and b. It is denoted by (a, b). e.g. (8 , 12) = 4 ,
(10 , 11) = 1, (5 , 16) = 1, (15 , 20) = 5, (5, 0) = 5
Note : The above definition of g.c.d, although simple and clear, is not of practical use in the proofs of
theorems. So we define g.c.d. symbolically as follows
Def. Greatest Common divisor : A positive integer d is the g.c.d. of two integers a and b if
(i) d/a and d/b (ii) If d'/a and d '/b then d '/d .
Def. Co-prime Integers (or Relatively prime integers) : Two integers a and b are said to be co-prime or
relatively prime if their g.c.d. is 1 i.e. (a , b) = 1. e.g. (4 , 9) = 1 i.e. 4 and 9 are co-prime but
RISING STAR ACADEMY
(8, 10) = 2 and so 8 and 10 are not co-prime.

Note : Two co-prime integers need not be both prime. e.g. 4 and 9 are co-prime but they are not prime
numbers.
Def. Least Common Multiple (l.c.m.) : The least common multiple of two integers a and b is the least
positive integer divisible by both a and b ; it is denoted by [a , b]
OR
An integer m is called the least common multiple of a and b if
(i) a/m and b/m (ii) If a/c and b/c then m/c
Results :
1. Division Algorithm : For any two integers a and b where b > 0, there exist unique integers q and r such
that a  bq  r , 0  r < b . The integers q and r are called the quotient and remainder respectively.
2. If a  bq  r then  a, b    b, r  . OR The g.c.d. of a and b is the same as g.c.d. of b and r, where r is
the remainder obtained on dividing a by b.

3. If  a, b   d then there exist two integers x and y such that d  ax  by . Further d is least positive value
of the values ax + by where x and y are integers.

Remark : The representation of d as the Linear combination of a and b is not unique.
For illustration g.c.d.  4, 6   2 and we have 2   1 4   1 6  , 2   2  4    1 6 
4. If a and b are co-prime, then  a, b   1 , so by above result there exist integers x and y such that
1  ax  by
Remark : Converse of result (iii) is not true in general. However converse of result (iv) is always true.
e.g. 2(12) + (1) 6 = 18 but g.c.d of 12 and 6 is not equal to 18. In fact g.c.d. of 12 and 6 is 6.
Let us prove the converse of result (iv) i.e.
If there exist integers x and y s.t. ax + by = 1, then  a, b   1 .
Proof : Let d   a, b 
 d/a and d/b  d / (ax  by )
 d /1 [  ax + by = 1]
 d 1.
5. Gauss Theorem : If a/bc and (a , b) = 1, then a/c
6. If a/c, b/c and (a, b) = 1 then ab/c. OR If two co-prime numbers divide the same number, then their
4
product will also divide the same number.
7. If p is a prime number and a is any integer, then either p/a or  p, a   1 . OR If p is a prime number
and a is any integer then either p divides a or p is co-prime to a

8. If p is prime, and p/ab, then p/a or p/b.
9. If p is prime and divides the product a1 . a2 . ….ak then p must divide at least one of a1 , a2 ,….,ak .
10. Product of two natural numbers is equal to the product of their l.c.m. and g.c.d.
a b
11. If  a, b   d then  ,   1 .
d d
12. (a , b) = (a + b, b).
a b
13. If c/a , c/b and  ,   1 then (a, b)  c
c c
14. If (a , b) = 1 and c/a , then (c , b) = 1.
15. If (a , b) = 1 then (ac , b) = (c , b).
16. If m  0 , then (ma , mb) = m (a , b) or the g.c.d. of ma and mb is m times the g.c.d. of a and b.
17. If p, q are distinct primes and a is any integer such that p/a, q/a then pq/a.
18. Every two consecutive integers are co-prime.
19. If a, m, n are non-zero integers, then (a , m n) = 1 iff (a , m) = 1 and (a , n) = 1.
20. If a/b , c/d and (b , d) = 1, then (a , c) = 1
21. If (a, b) = 1, then (a2, b2) = 1.
22. If (a , b) = 1 , then (am , bn) = 1 where m and n are natural numbers.
Example 1 : Find the positive integer a and b such that  a, b   20 and  a , b   840 .
Solution : Here  a, b   20
 20 / a and 20 / b
 a  20 x and b  20 y ……(1)
 a b 
We have  ,  1
 20 20 
  x, y   1 ……(2)
Further, we know that  a, b   a, b   ab
 20. 840  20 x .20 y
 xy  42 ……(3)
The integers satisfying (2) and (3) are
x 1 , y  42
x2 , y  21
RISING STAR ACADEMY
x3 , y  14
x6 , y 7
Using these values of x and y in (1), the different values of a and b are
a  20 , b  840
a  40 , b  420
a  60 , b  280
a  120 , b  140
Note : In above example, if values of x and y are interchanged then the four values of a and b will also
interchange. But we should not consider these values because gcd(a, b) and gcd(b, a) are essentially same
thing.
Example 2 : (i) Prove that there are no pair of integers x, y satisfying x  y  100 and  x, y   7
simultaneously.
(ii) Prove that there are infinitely many pairs of integers x, y satisfying x  y  100 and  x, y   5
simultaneously.
Solution : (i) Let, if possible, there exist integers x, y satisfying
x + y = 100 and (x, y) = 7 simultaneously.
Then, 7 / x and 7 / y
 7/ x y  7 /100 , which is a contradiction.
Hence our supposition is wrong and therefore there are no pair of integers x, y satisfying given equations
simultaneously.
(ii) Given equations are x  y  100 ……(1)
 x, y   5 ……(2)
By (2), there exist integers m and n such that
mx  ny  5 ……(3)
Putting y = 100  x from (1) in (3), we get
mx  n100  x   5  mx  nx  100n  5
5  100n
  m  n  x  5  100n  x
mn
Since x is an integer, so we have to choose m and n in such a way so that x may be an integer. Clearly there
are infinitely many such choices of m and n e.g. m = 2, n = 1; m = 3, n = 2 etc.
6
Thus there are infinitely many x and hence infinitely many pairs of integers x, y satisfying (1) and (2)
simultaneously.
Results :
1. Every natural number other than 1 has atleast one prime factor.
2. Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic : Every natural number > 1 can be expressed as a product of
primes in one and only one way (except the order of the factors).
3. Euclid’s theorem : The number of primes is infinite.
4. Every odd prime can be put either in the form 4k + 1 or 4k + 3 (i.e. 4k  1), where k is a positive
integer.
5. Every odd prime can be put in the form 6k+1 or 6k+5.
6. Every odd prime can be put in the form 8k+1, 8k+3, 8k+5, or 8k+7.
7. Let a and b be two integers with the following decompositions :
a  p11 p2 2 ........ pn n and b  p11 p22 ........ pnn where  i ,  i  0
(By assuming some exponents to be zero, we can always assume that both decompositions contains exactly
the same primes pi). Then
g.c.d.  a, b   p1min 1 , 1  p2min  2 , 2  ........ pnmin  n , n 
l.c.m.  a, b  p1max 1 , 1  p2max  2 , 2  ........ pnmax  n , n 
The following example illustrate this technique :

Use the canonical decompositions of 1050 and 2574 to find their g.c.d. and l.c.m.
We have 1050  2 . 3 . 52 . 7
and 2574  2 . 32 . 11 . 13
To include the same primes in both decompositions, we can write them as
1050  21 . 31 . 52 . 71 . 110 . 130
and 2574  21 . 32 . 50 . 7 0 . 111 . 131
 1050, 2574   2min 1,1 . 3min 1, 2  . 5min  2, 0  . 7 min 1,0  . 11min  0, 1 . 13min  0, 1
 21 . 31 . 50 . 7 0 . 110 . 130  6
1050, 2574   2max 1, 1 . 3max 1, 2  . 5max  2, 0  . 7 max 1, 0  . 11max  0,1 . 13max  0, 1
 21 . 32 . 52 . 71 . 111 . 131  450450
Example 3 : Find the g.c.d. of 858 and 325 and express it in the form m.858+n.325.
Solution : 858 = 325.2 + 208 ......(1) (dividing 858 by 325)
325 = 208.1 + 117 ......(2) (dividing 325 by 208)
208 = 117.1 + 91 ......(3) (dividing 208 by 117)
RISING STAR ACADEMY
117 = 91.1 + 26 ......(4) (dividing 117 by 91)

91 = 26.3 + 13 ......(5) (dividing 91 by 26)
26 = 13.2
The last non-zero remainder in this procedure is the g.c.d., so g.c.d. of 858 and 325 is d = 13.
Now from (5) , d = 13 = 91 – 26.3
= 91  3 (117  91.1) [By (4), 26 = 117  91.1]
= 91  3.117 + 3.91
= 4.91  3.117
= 4(208  117.1)  3.117 [By (3), 91 = 208  117.1]
= 4 .208  4 .117 3.117
= 4.208  7.117
= 4.208  7(325  208.1) [By (2), 117 = 325  208.1]
= 4.208  7.325 + 7.208
= 11.208  7.325
= 11(858  325.2)  7.325 [By (1), 208 = 858325.2]
= 11.858  22.325  7.325
= 11.858  29.325
= m . 858 + n . 325 , where m = 11 and n =  29
Exercise 1
1. (i) Find the g.c.d. of 595 and 252 and express it in the form 252 m + 595n
(ii) Find the greatest common divisor d of the numbers 275 and 200 and then find integers m and n such
that d = m. 275 + n.200
2. Use the division algorithm to find the g.c.d. of given integers and also express the g.c.d. of each pair as a
linear combination of the given integers.
(i) 1024, 1000 (ii) 256, 1166 (iii) 7200, 3132 (iv) 2076, 1076
3. Find the l.c.m. of the following pair of integers
(i) 252, 360 (ii) 119, 272 (iii) 227, 143 (iv) 110, 210
4. Find the positive integers a and b such that
(i)  a, b  3 and  a, b   231 (ii)  a, b   10 and  a , b   100
5. (i) Prove that there are no integers x, y satisfying x  y  100 and  x, y   3 simultaneously.
8
(ii) Prove that there are infinitely many pairs of integers x, y satisfying x  y  100 and  x, y   10
simultaneously.
Answers
1. (i) g.c.d. = 7 , m = 26 , n = 11 (ii) g.c.d. = 25 , m = 3 , n =  4
2. (i) 8 and 8 = 42.1024  43.1000 (ii) 2 and 2 = 41.256  9.1166
(iii) 36 and 36 = 23.3132  10.7200 (iv) 4 and 4 = 164.1076  85.2076
3. (i) 2520 (ii) 1904 (iii) 32461 (iv) 2310
4. (i) a  3, b  231 ; a  21, b  33 (ii) a  10, b  100 ; a  20, b  50
2. Congruences
Def. Congruence : If a and b are two integers and m is a positive integer, then a is said to be congruent to
b modulo m if m/a  b i.e. a  b is a multiple of m.
Symbolically, we express it by writing
a  b (mod m ) or a  b  0 (mod m)
For example, 18  2(mod 4) since 4/(18  2) i.e. 4/16
17   3 (mod 5) since 5/(17(3)) i.e. 5/20
If m does not divide a  b i.e. m / a  b then we say that a is incongruent or not congruent to b and we
express it by writing a  b (mod m)
e.g. 18  3(mod 4) since 4 / (18 3) i.e. 4 / 15
Results :
1. Two integers are congruent modulo m if and only if they leave the same remainder when divided by m.
2. If r is the remainder on dividing a by m, then a  r(mod m) i.e. an integer is congruent to its remainder.
3. (i) a  a (mod m) for every integer a.
(ii) If a  b (mod m), then b  a (mod m)
(iii) If a  b (mod m) and b  c (mod m), then a  c (mod m).
OR
The relation of congruence is an equivalence relation i.e. it is reflexive , symmetric and transitive.
Remark : In the congruence a  b(mod m), a is called L.H.S., b is called R.H.S. and m is called modulus of
congruence
4. (Addition and Multiplication by a constant) : If a  b (mod m) and c is an integer then
(i) a + c  b + c (mod m) i.e. a constant can be added on both sides of a congruence
(ii) ac  bc (mod m) i.e. a constant can be multiplied on both sides of a congruence
RISING STAR ACADEMY
(iii) ac  bc (mod cm) i.e. a constant can be multiplied on both sides and the modulus of a congruence .
Remark 1: The converse of part (ii) of above result is not true. i. e. it is not always possible to cancel a
common factor from a congruence. For example, 16  8 (mod 4 ) [ 4/16 – 8]
If we cancel the common factor 8 from number 16 and 8, we get 2  1 (mod 4) which is a false result
because 4 / (2  1).
Remark 2 : The converse of part (ii) of above result is not true but it will be true under some conditions as
given in the next theorem.
5. Cancellation Theorem :
 m
(i) If ac  bc (mod m) and (c , m) = d, then a  b  mod 
 d
(ii) If ac  bc (mod m) and (c , m)  1, then a  b(mod m)
(iii) If ac  bc (mod mc), then a  b (mod m)
6. (Addition , subtraction and multiplication of congruences) : If a  b (mod m) and c  d (mod m), then
(i) a + c  b + d (mod m) (i.e. two congruences of same modulo can be added)
(ii) a  c  b  d (mod m) (i.e. two congruences of same modulo can be subtracted)
(iii) ac  bd (mod m) (i.e. two congruences of same modulo can be multiplied)
7. If a  b (mod m), then a2  b2 (mod m)
8. If a1 , a2 ,......., an are respectively congruent to b1 , b2 , ........, bn (mod m), then a1 a2.......... an  b1
b2..........bn (mod m). i.e. any finite number of congurences with same modulo can be multiplied.
9. If a  b (mod m), then a k  b k (mod m) for every positive integer k.
10. (i) If a  b (mod m1), a  b(mod m2) and l.c.m. [m1 , m2] = m, then a  b (mod m).
(ii) If a  b(mod m1) , a  b(mod m2) and (m1 , m2) = 1, then a  b (mod m1 m2)
(iii) If a  b(mod m1 ) , a  b(mod m2 ) and (m1 , m2) = d , then a  b(mod d).
Remark : The converse of the part (i) is true but part (iii) is not true.
Proof : Converse of (i) : Let a  b (mod m) where m is the l.c.m. of m1 and m2 .
 m / a b
But m1/m and m2 /m [ [m1 , m2] = m]
so, we have m1 / a  b and m2 / a  b
i.e. a  b (mod m1) and a  b (mod m2)

10
Converse of (iii) Here we give an example to show that the converse of part (iii) is not true.
Let m1 = 4 and m2 = 6  d = (m1 , m2 )  (4, 6)  2
Let a = 10 and b = 8
Thus, we have 10  8 (mod 2) i.e. a  b (mod d)
but 10  8 (mod 4) i.e. a  b (mod m1) and 10  8 (mod 6) i.e. a  b (mod m2)
11. (i) If a + b  c(mod m) and b  d(mod m), then a+d  c (mod m)
(ii) If ab  c (mod m) and b  d (mod m), then ad  c (mod m).
Remark : Above result can be stated in the verbal form as follows : “A term (or factor) on any side of a
congruence can be replaced by an integer which is congruent to that term (or factor)” .
Example 1 : Find the remainder if 340 is divided by 23.
Solution : We have 31  3 (mod 23)
 32  9 (mod 23)
 33  27 (mod 23)
 33  4 (mod 23) ......(1)
( 4 is the remainder when 27 is divided by 23)
Raising power 3 to both sides of (1) ,we get ,
(33)3  43 (mod 23)
 39  64 (mod 23)
 39  5 (mod 23) ........(2)
( 5 is the remainder when 64 is divided by 23)
Squaring on both sides of (2), we get
318  25 (mod 23)
 318  2 (mod 23)
Again squaring on both sides, 336  4 (mod 23) .......(3)
Multiplying (1) and (3), we get 339  16 (mod 23)
Multiplying both sides by 3, 340  48 (mod 23)
 2 (mod 23)
40
Hence 2 is the remainder when 3 is divided by 23.
Exercise 2
1. Find the least positive integer :
(i) mod 7 to which 331 is congruent (ii) mod 11 to which 334 is congruent.
RISING STAR ACADEMY
(iii) mod 11 to which 282 is congruent. (iv) mod 13 to which 287 is congruent.
2. Find the remainder obtained on dividing
(i) 220 by 7 (ii) 2340 by 341 (iii) 235 by 7 (iv) 3181 by 17
(v) 3247 by 17 (vi) 1653 by 7 (vii) 4849 by 7 (viii) 3247 by 25

3. Find the remainder on dividing the sum
(i) 1!  2!  3!  4!  ........  99!  100! by 12 (ii) 1!  2!  3!  4!  ........  999!  1000! by 8
Answers
1. (i) 2 (ii) 4 (iii) 7 (iv) 1
2. (i) 4 (ii) 1 (iii) 4 (iv) 5 (v) 11 (vi) 4 (vii) 6 (viii) 12
3. (i) 9 (ii) 1
3. Solution of Linear Congruences
Def. Linear congruence : A congruence of the form

ax  b(mod m) or ax  b  0(mod m)
where a, b, m are integers is called a linear congruence.
Def. Solution of linear congruence : An integer x0 is called a solution of a linear congruence ax  b (mod m)
if it satisfies this congruence i.e. ax0  b(mod m) .
e.g. x = 3 is a solution of the linear congruence 3x  4(mod 5) as 3.3  4 (mod 5).

But x = 4 is not a solution of 3x  4(mod 5) because 3.4  4(mod5)
Results :
1. If x0 is a solution of ax  b(mod m) and x1 is an integer such that x1  x0 (mod m), then x1 is a solution of
ax  b(mod m).
Remark : Another way to represent the above result is as follows : “If x0 is a solution of ax  b(mod m),
then every integer of the form x0 + km is also a solution of ax  b(mod m).”.
Proof : Clearly if x1  x0 (mod m) then m/x1  x0 .
 x1  x0 = km for some integer k
 x1 = x0 + km for some integer k
12
Remark : Whenever it is required to find a solution of a linear congruence ax  b(mod m), we first search
out an integer x0 in the set {0, 1, 2, .................., m  1} which satisfies the given congruence
i.e., ax0  b(mod m) . If such a x0 is found then we say that x  x0(mod m) is a solution of ax  b(mod m) If
no such integer x0 is found in the set {0, 1, 2, ....., m 1} then ax  b(mod m) has no solution.
2. The linear congruence ax  b(mod m) has a solution if and only if (a, m) divides b.
3. In the linear congruence ax  b(mod m) if (a, m) = 1 then it has a unique incongruent solution modulo m.
4. In the linear congruence ax  b(mod m) if (a, m) = d and d/b then it has exactly d incongruent solutions
modulo m.
5. The linear congruence ax  b(mod m) has a solution if and only if d = (a, m) divides b and has exactly d
km
incongruent solutions given by x  x0  where k  0,1,2,...., d  1 and x0 is one of the solution of
d
ax  b(mod m).
Method I : Method to solve a linear congruence having unique incongruent solution.
(i) Write the given congruence in the form
ax  b(mod m) ......(1)
(ii) Verify that (a, m ) = 1 so that the given congruence has one and only one incongruent solution.
(iii) Consider the multiples of m i.e., m, 2m, 3m .......... . Out of these integers select the first integer, say tm,
such that tm + b is divisible by a.
(iv) Take the congruence 0  tm (mod m) ......(2)
(v) Add the congruences (1) and (2), cancel out ‘a’ from both sides and the solution is obtained.
Method II : Method to solve the linear congruence ax  b(mod m) having more than one incongruent
solutions modulo m.
(i) Write the given congruence in the form ax  b(mod m) ......(1)
(ii) Let (a, m) = d and verify that d/b so that (1) has exactly d incongruent solutions modulo m.
(iii) Divide the congruence (1) throughout by d to obtain
a b m
x   mod  ......(2)
d d d
(iv) Now solve (2) by Method I and let the solution x  x0 is obtained.
(v) The all incongruent solutions of (1) are then given by
km
x = x0  where k = 0, 1, 2, .................., d  1.
d
Method III : General method to solve linear congruence ax  b(mod m) with unique solution.
(i) Write the congruence as ax  b(mod m) ......(1)
(ii) Verify that d = (a, m) = 1 so that the given congruence has one and only one incongruent solution.
RISING STAR ACADEMY
(iii) Express 1 in the form 1 = au + mv

(iv) Multiply above equation by b to get b = abu + mbv
(v) Put this value of b in (1) to get ax  abu  mbv (mod m) ......(2)
(vi) Now write the congruence 0  mbv (mod m) ......(3)
(vii) Adding (2) and (3) to get ax  abu (mod m)
(viii) Cancel a from both sides to obtain the solution x  bu (mod m) .
Method IV : General method to solve the linear congruence ax  b(mod m) having more than one
incongruent solution.
(i) Write the given congruence as ax  b(mod m) ......(1)
(ii) Let d = (a, m) > 1 and d/b so that (1) has d incongruent solutions.
ax b  m
(iii) Divide (1) throughout by d to obtain   mod  ......(2)
d d d
(iv) Solve (2) by Method III and let x  x0 be the solution thus obtained.
(v) Now d incongruent solution of (1) are given by

km
x  x0  where k = 0, 1, 2, ............, d  1
d
Example 1 : Find the solution of the linear congruence by inspection 3x  5 (mod 7)
Solution : Here m = 7 so we have to search out a solution in the set {0,1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6}.
Putting x=0 , 3.0  5(mod 7) which is false
Putting x=4 , 3.4  5(mod 7) which is true
 The congruence 3x  5(mod 7) has only one solution given by x  4(mod 7).
Example 2 : Solve the linear congruence 15x  6 (mod 21).
Solution : The given congruence is 15x  6(mod 21) ......(1)
Comparing it with ax  b(mod m), we have a = 15 , b = 6 , m = 21.
Here, d = (a,m) = (15, 21) = 3 and d = 3 divides b = 6.
14
Therefore, the congruence (1) has exactly d = 3 incongruent solutions.
Dividing the congruence (1) throughout by d = 3, we get
5x  2(mod 7) ......(2)
Consider the multiples of 7 i.e., 7, 14, 21, 28, 35,.........
Out of these we see that 28 + 2 = 30 is divisible by 5 so we take the congruence
0  28 (mod 7) ......(3)
Adding (2) and (3), we get 5x  30(mod 7)
Cancelling 5 as (5, 7) = 1, we get x  6 (mod 7) is one solution of the congruence (2).
 x0 = 6 is a solution of congruence (2).
Therefore, all the three incongruent solutions modulo 21 of 15x  6(mod 21) are given by
km
x = x0 + , where k = 0, 1, 2, ......., d  1.
d
Here x0 = 6, d = 3, m = 21
 x = 6 + 7k , where k = 0 , 1 , 2
i.e., x = 6 , 13 , 20
Thus x = 6(mod 21), x  13(mod 21) and x  20 (mod 21) are three incongruent solutions modulo 21 of
the linear congruence 15x  6 (mod 21).
Example 3 : Solve the congruence 7x  5(mod 256).
Solution : The given congruence is 7x  5(mod 256) ......(1)
Comparing it with ax  b(mod m) , we have a = 7 , b = 5 , m = 256
Here d = (a, m) = (7, 256) =1 therefore (1) has a unique incongruent solution modulo m.
We express 1 in the form 7u + 256v. For this we write
256 = 7.36 + 4 ......(i) [On dividing 256 by 7]
7 = 4.1 + 3 ......(ii) [On dividing 7 by 4]
4 = 3.1 + 1 ......(iii) [On dividing 4 by 3]
By (iii), 1 = 4  3.1
= 4  (7  4) [ 3 = 7  4 by (ii)]
= 2.4  7
= 2(256  7.36)  7 [ 4 = 256  7.36 by (i)]
= 2.256  7.72  7
= 2.256  73.7
 1 = 7. ( 73) + 2(256)
Multiplying both sides by b = 5, we get
RISING STAR ACADEMY
5 = 5.7 ( 73) + 5.2 (256)

Putting this value of 5 in (1), we get
7 x = 5.7 (73) + 5.2 (256) (mod 256) ......(2)
Writing 0   5.2 (256) (mod 256) ......(3)
Adding (2) and (3), we get 7x  5.7 (73) (mod 256)
Cancelling 7 as (7, 256) =1 we get x   365 (mod 256) ......(4)
To obtain the positive solution, we write 0  512 (mod 256) ......(5)
Adding (4) and (5), we get x  147(mod 256) which is the required solution of (1).
Exercise 3
1. Find the solution of the following linear congruences by inspection.
(i) 4 x  2(mod 7) (ii) 3 x  1(mod8) (iii) 3 x  6(mod9)
2. Do the following congruence possess a solution
(i) 4 x  5(mod 6) (ii) 84 x  16(mod35) (iii) 12 x  4(mod 6) (iv) 3 x  7(mod10)
3. Find the number of incongruent solutions of following linear congruences
(i) 3 x  5(mod 7) (ii) 10 x  3(mod5) (iii) 15 x  20(mod10)
4. Solve the following linear congruences
(i) 13 x  10(mod 28) (ii) 4 x  3  4(mod5) (iii) 2 x  1  0(mod 7) (iv) 51x  32(mod 5)
5. Solve the congruences
(i) 55x  1 (mod 7) (ii) 51x  32(mod 5) (iii) 77x  1(mod 5) (iv) 342x  5(mod 13)
6. Solve the following congruences
(i) 36x  27 (mod 45) (ii) 15x  12 (mod 36)
(i) 90 x  10 (mod 14) (ii) 108 x  4(mod 20)
(i) 98x  1 (mod 139) (ii) 13x  3(mod 47)
(i) 15x  10 (mod 145) (ii) 9x  6 (mod 210)
Answers
1. (i) x  4(mod 7) (ii) x  3(mod8) (iii) x  2,5,8(mod 9)
2. (i) No (ii) No (iii) No (iv) Yes
16
3. (i) 1 (ii) No solution (iii) 5
4. (i) x  18(mod 28) (ii) x  4(mod 5) (iii) x  3(mod 7) (iv) x  2(mod 5)
5. (i) x  6(mod 7) (ii) x  2(mod 5) (iii) x  3(mod 5) (iv) x  11(mod13)
6. (i) x  2  5k , k  0,1,2,.....,8 (ii) x  8, 20,32(mod36)
7. (i) x  4 ,11(mod14) (ii) x  3,8,13,18(mod 20)
8. (i) x  61(mod139) (ii) x  40(mod 47)
9. (i) x  20  29k (mod145), k  0,1, 2,3,4. (ii) x  24,94,164(mod 210)
4. Chinese Remainder Theorem
Chinese Remainder Theorem : Let the integers m1 , m2 ,....., mn are relatively prime in pairs i.e., (mi , mj) = 1
for i  j and a1 , a2 ,....., an are any integers, then the congruences x  a1 (mod m1 ), x  a2 (mod m2 ),...... , x 
an(mod mn) have a common solution. Further any two common solutions of these congruences are congruent
modulo m, where m = m1 m2 ………mn.
Remarks : (1) If x0 is a solution of (1) and x is any general solution then by above theorem
x  x0 (mod m)
 m / x  x0
 x  x0  mk where k is any integer
 x = x0  mk where k is any integer
This gives the formula for all solutions of (1).

(2) If the congruences in (1) has a common solution then it has infinite solutions.
Method : Method to solve three linear congruences simultaneously.
(i) Let the given congruences are
x  a1 (mod m1 ) 

x  a2 (mod m2 )  ...…(1)
x  a3 (mod m3 ) 
(ii) Verify that m1, m2, m3 are relatively prime in pairs so that given congruences may have a common
solution.
m m m
(iii) Let m = m1 m2 m3 and form three integer b1  , b2  , b3 
m1 m2 m3
(iv) Consider the three new congruences
b1 x  1(mod m1 )
b2 x  1(mod m2 )
RISING STAR ACADEMY
b3 x  1(mod m3 )
Solve these congruences and let x1 , x2 , x3 be their solution respectively.
(v) Then x0 = b1a1 x1  b2 a2 x2  b3a3 x3 gives the required common solution.
(vi) If least positive solution is asked in the problem then divide x0 by m and the least positive reminder,
say r, is the least positive solution.
(vii) All solutions of (1) are then given by
x = r  km where k is any integer.
Example 1 : Find the least positive common solution of the following linear congruences.
x  1 (mod 3), x  2(mod 4), x  3 (mod 5)
Solution : Given congruences are
x  1(mod 3) 

x  2(mod 4)  ...…(1)
x  3(mod 5) 
Comparing (1) with x  a1 (mod m1 )
x  a2 (mod m2 )
x  a3 (mod m3 ) ,
We have a1 = 1 , a2 = 2 , a3 = 3
m1 = 3 , m2 = 4 , m3 = 5
Here (m1, m2) = (3, 4) = 1, (m2, m3) = (4 , 5) = 1 and (m1 , m3) = (3, 5) = 1
So m1 , m2 , m3 are relatively prime in pairs and therefore congruences in (1) have common solutions.
Let m = m1 . m2 . m3 = 3. 4. 5 = 60
m 60
and b1 =   20
m1 3
m 60
b2 =   15
m2 4
m 60
b3 =   12
m3 5
Now we consider the three new congruences one by one.
First we consider b1 x  1 (mod m1) ……(2)
i.e. 20x  1 (mod 3)
18
we have 18x  0 (mod 3)

Subtracting above two, 2x  1 (mod 3)
Also 0  3 (mod 3)
Adding above two , 2x  4(mod 3)
Cancelling 2 as (2 , 3 ) = 1, we get x  2 (mod 3)
 x1 = 2 is a solution of (2).
Now we consider the congruence
b2 x  1 (mod m2) ……(3)
i.e. 15x  1 (mod 4)
we have 12x  0 (mod 4)
Subtracting above two, 3x  1 (mod 4)
Also 0  8 (mod 4)
Adding above two , 3x  9(mod 4)
Cancelling 3 as (3 , 4) = 1, we get x  3(mod 4)
 x2 = 3 is a solution of (3)
Finally we consider the congruence b3 x  1 (mod m3) ……(4)
i.e. 12x  1(mod 5)
We have 10x  0 (mod 5)
Subtracting above two , 2x  1 (mod 5)
Also, 0  5 (mod 5)
Adding above two , 2x  6 (mod 5)
Cancelling 2 as (2, 5) = 1, we get x  3 (mod 5)
 x3 = 3 is a solution of (4).
By Chinese Remainder Theorem , we know that
x0 = b1 a1 x1  b2 a2 x2  b3 a3 x3 is a common solution of congruences in (1).
i.e. x0 = 20.1.2 + 15.2.3. + 12.3.3 = 40 + 90 + 108 =238
The least positive solution is the remainder obtained on dividing x0 ( = 238) by m ( = 60).
The remainder obtained is 58, therefore x = 58 is the least positive common solution of the given
congruences.
Exercise 4
1. Find the least positive common solution of the linear congruences x  2(mod 3), x  3(mod 5) ,
x  5(mod 2) .
2. Solve the congruences x  1 (mod 4) , x  0 (mod 3) , x  5(mod 7) simultaneously.
RISING STAR ACADEMY
3. Find the least positive integer (except x  1 ) which satisfies the congruences x  1 (mod 3),
x  1 (mod 5) and x  1 (mod 7) simultaneously.
4. Find all integers that give the remainder 2, 6, 5 when divided by 5, 7, 11 respectively.
5. Solve the congruences 2x  3(mod 5), 4x  2(mod 6) and 3x  2(mod 7) simultaneously.
6. Find the least positive integer x such that x  5 mod 7  ; x  7 mod 11 ; x  3 mod 13 .
Answers
1. 23 2. x = 33 + 84 k 3. x  106
4. x  27  385k 5. x = 59 + 105 k 6. 887 (mod 1001)
5. Diophantine Equations
Diophantus lived in Alexendria , Greece around A.D. 250. Not much is known about his life. Diophantus
developed general methods for finding solutions to some surprisingly difficult integer problems, which has
inspired a field of study known as Diophantine Equation.
Def. Diophantine equation : An algebraic equation in which coefficients of variables and constant term are
integers and solutions are also restricted to be in integers is called a Diophantine equation. e.g.
6 x 2  y 2  z 2 , x  5 y 2  7 , 2 x  3 y  4 z  8, 3 x  5 y  7 all are Diophantine equations if x, y, z are
restricted to be integers.
Def. Linear Diophantine Equation : The equation ax + by = c, where a, b, c, x, y all are integers is called
Linear Diophantine equation.
e.g. 2 x  3 y  4 , 5 x  2 y  1 , x  6 y  7 all are linear Diophantine equation if x, y are restricted to be
integers only.
Def. Solution of linear Diophantine equation : Let ax + by = c is a linear Diophantine equation. The integers
x0, y0 which satisfy this equation i.e., ax0  by0  c is called a solution.
Note : Students are again warned here that solution of Diophantine equation is to be considered from
integers only.
Important Remark : We consider the linear Diophantine equation
2x + 3y = 13 ...…(1)
If we put x = 2 , y = 3 in (1), it is satisfied and so x = 2 , y = 3 is a solution of (1).
Similarly x = 5 , y = 1 is also a solution of (1).
In fact, we shall notice in our further study that it has infinitely many solutions.
20
Now consider another linear Diophantine equation
2x + 6y = 7 ...…(2)
This equation (2) has no solution because its L.H.S. is always even for all integers x and y and its R.H.S. is
odd.
By these two equations, one thing is clear that a linear Diophantine equation may or may not have a
solution. We shall study now that under what conditions does a linear Diophantine equation has a solution
and if it has a solution then how many solutions it can have .
Results :
1. A linear Diophantine equation ax + by = c has a solution if and only if (a , b) divides c.
2. The linear Diophantine equation ax + by = 1 has a solution if and only if (a , b) = 1.
3. Let ax + by = c be a linear Diophantine equation where (a , b) = 1. If x = x0 , y = y0 is a solution of this
equation, then all solutions are given by x = x0 + kb , y = y0  ka for all integers k.
4. Let ax  by = c be a linear Diophantine equation where (a , b) = 1. If x = x0 , y = y0 is a solution of this
equation, then all solutions are given by x = x0 + kb and y = y0 + ka for all integers k.
Remark : The linear Diophantine equation ax  by = c , where a, b, c are positive integers always have
infinitely many solutions in the positive integers whereas the equation ax + by = c can have at most finitely
many solutions in the positive integers. Due to this reason, in numericals of finding positive solutions of
linear Diophantine equations, student will be asked to find solution in positive integers of ax + by = c
whereas he or she will be asked to find general solution in positive integers of ax  by = c.
Remark : Now we develop a method to solve a linear Diophantine equation in two variables.
Method : Method to solve a linear Diophantine equation ax + by = c
(i) Given Diophantine equation is ax  by  c ...…(1)
(ii) Verify that d = (a , b) divides c so that (1) has a solution.
(iii) Two cases are possible : either a = b or a  b
Case (a) : If a = b then just put x = 1 and find the value of y by solving. Thus one solution is x = x0 , y = y0
is obtained.
Case (b) : If a  b then either a is smaller or b is smaller. We assume a < b because if b < a then method
runs in the same fashion.
We have a < b. Express b and c as b = aq1  r1 and c = aq2 + r2 .
Put these values in (1) to obtain ax  (aq1  r1 ) y  aq2  r2
 a( x  q1  q2 )  r1 y  r2 ...…(2)
Put x  q1  q2 = z so that (2) becomes az  r1 y  r2

If a/r2, put y = 0 and if r1/r2 , put z = 0. Then by simple substitutions one solution x = x0 , y = y0 of (1) can be
obtained.
RISING STAR ACADEMY
If neither a nor r1 divides r2 , then apply the above process again.

Continue the process until coefficient of one variable divides the R.H.S. At this stage put the other variable
(whose coefficient does not divide R.H.S.) equal to zero. Then the solution x = x0 , y = y0 is obtained by
simple substitutions.
(iv) After obtaining one solution x = x0 , y = y0 , all the solutions are obtained by the formula
x  x0  bk , y  y0  ak where k is any integer.
Remarks : (i) If only positive solutions are asked then find the values of k by putting
x  x0  bk  0 and y  y0  ak  0
(ii) The above method is also applicable for linear Diophantine equation ax  by = c
Example 1 : Find all the solutions in positive integers of the equation 40x + 63y = 521.
Solution : The given equation is 40 x  63 y  521 ...…(1)
Comparing it with ax + by = c , we get a = 40 , b = 63 , c = 521
Here d = (a , b) = (40, 63) = 1 and d = 1 divides c = 521 so the given equation has solutions in integers.
Out of a = 40, b = 63, we see that a = 40 is smaller so we divide 63 and 521 by 40 and express them as
63  1.40  23 and 521 = 13.40 + 1
Using these values (1) becomes
40 x  (1.40  23) y  13.40  1
 40 x  40 y  40.13  23 y  1
 40( x  y  13)  23 y  1
Put x + y  13 = z ...…(2)
so that we obtain 40 z  23 y  1
Here coefficient of z (= 40) and coefficient of y (= 23) both does not divide 1 so we again write
40 = 1.23 + 17 and obtain
(23  17) z  23 y  1
 23( y  z )  17 z  1
 23t  17 z  1 where y + z = t ...…(3)

Again applying the above process, we have
(17  6)t  17 z  1
 17(t + z) + 6t = 1
 17u + 6t = 1 where t + z = u ...…(4)
22
 (2.6 + 5) u + 6t = 1
 6(2u + t) + 5u = 1
 6v + 5u = 1 where 2u + t = v ...…(5)
 (5 + 1) v + 5u = 1
 5(v + u) + v = 1
 5w + v = 1 where v + u = w ...…(6)
Here the coefficient of v = 1 divides the R.H.S. (= 1) so we put the other variable (i.e., w) equal to zero
Putting w=0 , 5w + v = 1 gives v=1
By (6) , 1+u=0  u=1
By (5) , 2+t=1  t =3
By (4) , 3+z=1  z=4
By (3) , y4=3  y = 7 (= y0)
By (2) , x + 7  13 =  4  x = 2(= x0)
Thus x = x0 = 2 and y = y0 = 7 is a solution of (1).
Now all solution of (1) are given by
x = x0 + kb and y = y0  ka where k is any integer.
i.e., x = 2 + 63k and y = 7  40 k ...…(7)
To obtain solution in positive integers, we put
x>0 and y>0
i.e., 2 + 63k > 0 and 7  40k > 0
i.e., 63k >  2 and  40 k >  7
2 7
i.e., k> and k<
63 40
2 7
i.e.,  k
63 40
 Only possible value of k = 0.
Using k = 0 in (7), we get that only solution in positive integers is x = 2, y = 7.
Example 2 :Find the general solution in positive integers of linear Diophantine equation 13 x  17 y  996 .
Solution : The given equation is 13 x  17 y  996 ...…(1)
Comparing it with ax  by = c, we have a = 13 , b = 17 , c = 996
Here d = (a , b) = (13, 17) = 1 and d = 1 divides c = 996 so the given equation has solutions in integers.
Out of a = 13 and b = 17, we see that 13 is smaller so we express b = 17 and c = 996 as
17 = 1.13 + 4 and 996 = 76 . 13 + 8
Using these, (1) becomes
RISING STAR ACADEMY
13 x  (13  4) y  76.13  8
 13x  13y  13.76  4y = 8
 13(x  y  76)  4y = 8
 13 z  4 y  8 where x  y  76  z ...…(2)
Here coefficient of y (=  4) divides R.H.S. (= 8) so we put other variable (i.e., z) equal to zero.
Putting z = 0 in 13z  4y = 8 we get 0  4y = 8  y =  2(= y0)
By (2), x  (2)  76  0  x  74( x0 )
Thus x = x0 = 74 and y = y0=  2 is a solution of (1).

Now all solutions of (1) are given by
x  x0  kb and y  y0  ka
where k is any integer.

i.e., x  74  17k and y  2  13k ......(3)
To obtain solutions in positive integers we put
x>0 and y>0
i.e., 74 + 17k > 0 and  2 + 13k > 0
i.e., 17k >  74 and 13k > 2
74 2
i.e., k> and k>
17 13
2  2 74 
i.e., k>
13  13   17 
i.e., k = 1, 2, 3, 4,….
Therefore (3) gives general solution in positive integers of equation (1) for k = 1, 2, 3, 4,….
Exercise 5
1. Which of the linear Diophantine equations has solutions :
(i) 12x + 501y = 1 (ii) 12x + 501y = 274 (iii) 8x + 64y = 24
(iv) 3x  64y = 24 (v) 11x  33x = 121
2. Find all the solutions in integers of the following linear Diophantine equations.
(i) 13x + 101y = 2 (ii) 5x + 3y = 52
3. Find all the solutions in positive integers of following Diophantine equations.
(i) 123x + 57y = 531 (ii) 5x + 3y = 52
24
4. Find the number of solutions in positive integers of 11x + 15y = 1031.
5. Find the general solution in positive integers of the equations :
(i) 29x  42y = 5 (ii) 13x  17y = 5 (iii) 13x  17y =  5 (iv) 5 x  11y  92
6. Find the general solution and least positive integral solution of the equations :
(i) 455x  519y = 1 (ii) 436x  393y = 5
Answers
1. (iii) , (iv) , (v) 2. (i) x  62  101k , y = 8  13 k (ii) x  1  3k , y  19  5k
3. (i) x  2, y  5 (ii) x = 2 , y = 14 ; x = 5, y = 9 ; x = 8, y = 4 4. Seven
5. (i) x   23  42k , y  16  29k , k  1, 2 , 3 , 4,.......
(ii) x  20  17k , y  15  13k , k  1 , 0, 1, 2 ,......
(iii) x   20  17k , y  15  13k , k  2 , 3 , 4,.......
(iv) x = 3, y = 7; x = 14, y = 2
6. (i) x  73  519k , y  64  455k ; x  446 , y  391
(ii) x  320  393k , y  355  436k ; x  320 , y  355
6. Euler’s -function
Def. Euler’s -function : Let m be any positive integer, then Euler’s  function is defined as :
(1) = 1 and (m) = number of natural number less than m which are relatively prime to m.
For Example ,  (2)  1,  (3)  2,  (4)  2,  (10)  4 etc.
Def. Multiplicative function : A function f  n  is said to be multiplicative if it is not
identically zero and f  m n   f  m  f  n  whenever  m , n   1
Results :
1. (n) is a multiplicative function i.e. (m n) = (m) (n) where (m , n) = 1.
2. If p is a prime, then   p   p  1
 1
3. If p is a prime and k >0 , then  ( p k )  p k  p k 1  p k  1   .
 p
4. Let n  p1k1 p2k2 ........... prkr be any natural number where p1 , p2 ,....., pr are prime numbers then
 1  1   1 
(n) = n 1  1   ....... 1  .
 p1  p2   pr 
5. For n > 2, (n) is even.

6.   n   n iff n  1 .
RISING STAR ACADEMY
n
7.   n   iff n  2k for some integer k  1.
2
8.  10 n   4  10n 1 .
9. If p and p + 2 are both primes, then   p  2     p   2 .
Example 1 : Evaluate the following :
(i)  92  (ii)  385 (iii)  1575
Solution : (i) We have n  92   2 2  231  p1k1 p2k2
where p1  2, p2  23 and k1  2, k2  1 .
We know that if n  p1k1 p2k2 ........ prkr
 1  1   1 
then   n   n 1    1   ........  1  
 p1   p2   pk 
 1 1  1 22
  92   92  1   1    92    44
 2   23  2 23
(ii) Here, n  385  5 . 7 . 11  p1k1 . p2k2 . p3k3
where p1  5, p2  7, p3  11 and k1  k2  k3  1
 1  1  1 
Using   n   n 1    1    1   , we get
 p1   p2   p3 
 1  1  1
 385  385  1   1    1  
 5   7   11 
4 6 10
 385     240
5 7 11
(iii) We have n  1575  32 5 2  7 1  p1k1 . p2k2 . p3k3
where p1  3, p2  5, p3  7 and k1  2, k2  2, k3  1
 1  1  1 
Using   n   n 1    1   1   , we get
 p1   p2  p3 
 1  1  1
 1575  1575 1    1    1  
 3  5  7
2 4 6
 32 52  7 1        720
3 5 7
26
Example 2 : (i) Find the number of positive integers  3600 that are co-prime to 3600.
(ii) Find the number of positive integers  3600 that have a factor greater than 1 in common with 3600.
Solution : (i) We have n  3600   2 4 32 52  p1k1 . p2k2 . p3k3
where p1  2, p2  3, p3  5 and k1  4, k 2  2, k3  2
We know that number of positive integers  3600 that are coprime to 3600 is  3600  . So we have to
calculate  3600  .
 1  1  1 
Using   n   n 1   1   1   , we get
 p1   p2   p3 
 1  1  1
 3600   3600 1    1   1  
 2  3  5
1 2 4
  2 4 32 52        960
2 3 5
(ii) In above part we have evaluated that there are 960 positive integers  3600 that are coprime to 3600. The
remaining positive integers  3600 are those which are not coprime to 3600 i.e., they have a factor greater
than 1 in common with 3600. So, number of such integers is 3600  960 = 2640.
Exercise 6
1. Evaluate
(i)  800  (ii)   450 (iii)  1260  (iv)  1002 
2. (i) Find the number of positive integers  1800 that are relatively prime to 1800.
(ii) Find the number of positive integers  1800 that have a factor greater than 1 in common with 1800.
3. Find all possible values of n for which   n   11 .
Answers
1. (i) 320 (ii) 120 (iii) 288 (iv) 332 2. (i) 480 (ii) 1320 3. No such n exist
7. Fermat, Euler and Wilson Theorem
Pierre de Fermat (1601 – 1665) born near Toulouse, France , is remembered as a leading mathematician in
the first half of the 17th century. Fermat has contributed to several branches of Mathematics, but he is best
known for his work in number theory. A lawyer by profession, he devoted his free time to the Mathematics
as a hobby.
Results :
1. If p is a prime number and a and b are any integers , then (a  b) p  a p  b p (mod p ) .
2. If p is a prime number and a1 , a2 , ...., an are any integers , then
RISING STAR ACADEMY
(a1  a2  ...  an ) p  a1p  a2p  ...  anp (mod p)
3. If p is a prime number and a is any integer, then a p  a (mod p )

4. Fermat Theorem : If p is a prime number and a is an integer such that (a , p) = 1, then a p  1  1(mod p).
Remark : It should be noted that result 3 is applicable for any prime p and any integer a but Fermat
Theorem is applicable when (a , p) = 1. Let us illustrate it by an Example .
Let a = 6 and p = 3 then a p  a(mod p) becomes
63  6(mod3)
i.e., 216  6 (mod 3) i.e., 3/216  6 i.e., 3/210, which is true.

But if we put a = 6 and p = 3 in the Fermat Theorem namely a p 1  1(mod p) , we get
631  1 (mod 3) i.e., 36  1(mod 3) i.e., 3/361 = 35, which is false.
Therefore, before applying the Fermat Theorem , student should verify that (a , p) = 1.
Euler’s Theorem : If (a , m) = 1 then a(m)  1(mod m)
Remark : Above Theorem is also known as Euler’s Generalization of Fermat’s theorem.
Cor. Fermat’s Theorem : Let p be a prime s.t. p / a , then a p1  1(mod p) .
Wilson Theorem : John Wilson (1741-1793) was born in Westmoreland , England. In the year 1770, Wilson
guessed by pattern recognition that if p is a prime then p divides (p  1)! + 1, however he was unable to give
a proof. Joseph-Louis-Lagrange (1736-1813) provided the first proof of this theorem in 1771, although this
theorem is known by Wilson’s name.
1. Wilson Theorem : If p is a prime number then (p  1) ! + 1  0 (mod p).
2. (Converse of Wilson Theorem) : If n > 1 and (n  1)! + 1  0 (mod n) then n is a prime number.
Example 1 : Show that n5  n is divisible by 30.
Solution : We know that a p  a (mod p ) where p is a prime.
Putting a = n and p = 5 (as 5 is a prime ), we get
n5  n ( mod 5)  5/n5  n ……(1)
Now, n5  n = n(n 4  1)  n(n 2  1)(n 2  1)
= n(n  1)(n  1)(n 2  1)

Now (n  1) n(n + 1) is the product of three consecutive integers and so it is divisible by 3! = 6
Therefore , we have 6/n5  n ……(2)
By (1) and (2), as (6 , 5) = 1, we get 30/n5  n
28
[ If a/c, b/c and (a , b) = 1 then ab/c]
Example 2 : Prove that 2 26 !  1  0 mod 29 .

Solution : By Wilson’s theorem, we know that, if p is a prime then
 p  1!  1  0 mod p 
Taking p = 29,
28! 1  0 mod 29
 28  27 !  1  0 mod 29 
  29  1 27 !  1  0 mod 29 
 1 27 !  1  0 mod 29   29  27 ! is divisible by 29 

 1 27  26!  1  0  mod 29 
 1 29  2   26 !  1  0 mod 29
 1 2 26!  1  0 mod 29
 1 29  26! is divisible by 29 
 2  26!  1  0  mod 29
Exercise 7
1. (i) Show that n17  n is divisible by 17 for any integer n.
(ii) Show that n30  1 is divisible by 31 if (n,31)  1 .
2. Prove that a12  b12 is divisible by 13 where a and b are co-prime to 13.
3. Show that n7  n(mod 42) , where n is any integer.
4. (i) Prove that square of every integer is of the form 3k or 3k  1 , where k is some integer.
(ii) Show that square of every number is of the form 5m or 5m  1 or 5m  1 , where m is some integer.
(iii) Show that fourth power of every integer is of the form 5k or 5k  1 for some positive integer k.
(iv) Prove that ninth power of every integer is of the form 19k or 19k  1 for some positive integers k.
5. Show that the difference of the squares of any two odd primes greater than 3 is a multiple of 24.
6. Show that 391  4(mod 23) .
7. If p is an odd prime then show that 1p  2 p  3 p  ..........  ( p  1) p  0(mod p ) .
8. Divisor and sum functions
Def. Number of divisors function : The number-of-divisors function is denoted by d  n   or   n   and is
defined as number of positive divisors of n. Symbolically , we write d  n   1 .

d n
RISING STAR ACADEMY
Def. Sum-of -divisors function : The sum-of-divisors function is denoted by   n  and is defined as the
sum of all positive divisors of n. Symbolically, we write   n    d

d n
Def. Multiplicative function : An arithmetic function f(n) is said to be multiplicative if it is not identically
zero and f  m n   f  m  f  n  whenever  m , n   1
Results :
1. d  n   2 iff n is a prime.
2.   n   n  1 if and only if n is a prime.
3. The number -of -divisors function d(n) is multiplicative .

4. The sum-of-divisors function (n) is multiplicative.
5. Let n be a positive integer with prime power factorization n  p11 p2 2 ...... pk  k where p1 , p2 ,......, pk are
the distinct primes, then

(i) d  n   1  1 2  1 .......  k  1
p11 1  1 p2 2 1  1 p  k 1  1
(ii)  n  ...... k
p1  1 p2  1 pk  1
Remark : Above two formulas can be rewritten in the product notation as follows
k k
pi i 1  1
d  n     i  1 ,  n  
i 1 i 1 pi  1
6. d(n) is odd iff n is a perfect square.
7. (n) is odd iff n is a perfect square or twice of a perfect square.
Example 1 : Evaluate d  3000  and   3000  .
Solution : First we find the prime power factorization of 3000.

2 3000
2 1500
2 750
3 375
5 125
5 25
5 5
30
 3000 = 23. 31. 53 = p11 p2 2 p33 where p1  2, p2  3, p3  5 and 1  3,  2  1,  3  3
Now d  n   1  1 2  1 3  1 =  3  11  1 3  1  4.2.4  32
p11 1  1 p2 2 1  1 p3 3 1  1 231  1 311  1 531  1

and  n  =
p1  1 p2  1 p3  1 2  1 3  1 5 1
15 8 624
= . .  9360
1 2 4
Exercise 8
1. Find the number and sum of positive divisors for the following integers
(i) 15 (ii) 18 (iii) 43
2. Evaluate d(n) and (n) where n =
(i) 3000 (ii) 1560 (iii) 3655
(iv) p 2 q3 where p and q are distinct primes. (v) 6120
3. Let n be an integer which contains k distinct primes in its prime factorization, then prove that d  n   2k
4. Find the smallest integer n for which d(n) = 6.

5. If n is a power of 2 then prove that (n) is odd.
Answers
1. (i) 4 , 24 (ii) 6, 39 (iii) 2 , 44
2. (i) 32, 9360 (ii) 32, 5040 (iii) 8 , 4752
(iv) 12 , ( p 2  p  1)(q 3  q 2  q  1) (v) 48, 21060
4. 12
9. Greatest integer function
Def. Greatest Integer Function : For any real number x, the symbol [x] denotes the greatest integer less than
or equal to x.
 3  29   15 
For example [7] = 7 , [] = 3 ,    = – 2 ,   = 9 ,    0 etc.
 2 3 17 
Def. Fractional Part : For any real number x, the symbol {x} denotes the fractional part of x and is given by
{x} = x – [x]
 29  29  29  29 2
For example {7}  7   7   0 ,        9
3 3 3 3 3
 3 3  3 3 1
           (2) 
 2 2  2 2 2
RISING STAR ACADEMY
Results :
1. By the definition of greatest integer, it is clear that every real number x can be expressed as
x   x    , where 0   1 and  is a real number.
2. Again by definition of greatest integer,  x  is the unique integer such that x  1   x   x
3. For an integer x, we have  x   x .
4.  x   x   x  1
5. If m is an integer then  x  m    x   m
6.  x   y    x  y    x   y   1
 0 if x is an integer
7.  x    x   
1 otherwise
 21    21  
  x  x  21     2   10 
8.    e. g. If x  and m  3 then  2           3
 m  m 2  3   3  3
   
9. If n and a are positive integers then the number of integers among 1, 2, 3,.........., n which are divisible by
n
a is  
a
k
n
10. Let p be a prime and n is a positive integer. Then the highest power of p which divides n! is  p  i
i 1  
where p k is the largest power of p such that p k  n i.e. p k  n  p k 1
11. (de Polignac’s formula) Let p be a prime and n is a positive integer. Then the highest power of p

n
which divides n! is  p  i
i 1  
Example 1 : Find the highest power of 3 which divides 100 !
Solution : Here p = 3 and n = 100 , we have
 n  100 
 p    3   33
   
32
 100   100  
 n  100   3    3     x    x  
and  p 2    32    3    3        
         m  m 
   
 33 
=    11
3
 100   100  
 n  100   32    32     x    x  
 p 3    33    3    3        
         m  m 
   
11 
=  3
3
 n  3  n  1 
 p 4    3  = 1 (Using above argument) and  p5    3   0
       
Therefore , the highest power of 3 which divides 100 ! is
n  n   n   n   n 
 p    p 2    p 3    p 4    p 5  = 33  11  3  1  0  48.
         
Exercise 9
1. Evaluate
(i) the highest power of 3 which divides 1000 ! (ii) the highest power of 7 contained in 1000 !
(iii) the highest power of 6 contained in 500! (iv) the highest power of 5 which divides 100 !
(v) the highest power of 2 dividing 533 ! (vi) the highest power of 3 dividing 533 !
(vii) the highest power of 6 dividing 533 ! (viii) the highest power of 12 dividing 533 !
2. Evaluate
(i) the highest power of 12 that divides 500 ! (ii) the highest power of 70 contained in 533 !
3. How many zero would be there at the right end of 100 ! when it is written out in the ordinary decimal
notation without factorial sign.
4. Find the real number x which satisfy the following
(i)  x   x   2 x (ii)  x  3   x   3
 1  1
(iii)  x  3  x  3 (iv)  x     x     2 x  (v)  9 x   9
 2  2
Answers
1. (i) 498 (ii) 164 (iii) 247 (iv) 24
(v) 529 (vi) 263 (vii) 263 (viii) 263
RISING STAR ACADEMY
2. (i) 247 (ii) 87 3. 24

1
4. (i) All x with fractional part  (ii) All x (iii) All integers
2
1 10
(iv) All x with fractional part  (v) All x such that 1  x 
2 9
10. Unit digits
Results : In the following results n is a positive integer and  ....k  represents a natural number with unit digit k.
n
1. Unit digit of  ....1  1 .
4 n1 4 n 2
2. (i) Unit digit of  ....2  2 (ii) Unit digit of  ....2  4
4 n3 4n
(iii) Unit digit of  ....2  8 (iv) Unit digit of  ....2   6
4 n1 4 n 2
3. (i) Unit digit of  ....3 3 (ii) Unit digit of  ....3 9
4 n3 4n
(iii) Unit digit of  ....3 7 (iv) Unit digit of  ....3  1
2 n1 2n
4. (i) Unit digit of  ....4  4 (ii) Unit digit of  ....4   6
n
5. Unit digit of  ....5   5 .
n
6. Unit digit of  ....6   6 .
4 n1 4 n 2
7. (i) Unit digit of  ....7  7 (ii) Unit digit of  ....7  9
4 n3 4n
(iii) Unit digit of  ....7  3 (iv) Unit digit of  ....7   1 .
4 n1 4 n 2
8. (i) Unit digit of  ....8 8 (ii) Unit digit of  ....8 4
4 n 3 4n
(iii) Unit digit of  ....8  2 (iv) Unit digit of  ....8   6 .
2 n1 2n
9. (i) Unit digit of  ....9  9 (ii) Unit digit of  ....9   1 .
n
10. Unit digit of  ....0   0 .
Exercise 10
Find the unit digit of the following numbers :
1. 2100 2. (6112)1398 3. (2016)2016 4. 81000 5. (2134)1201
34
Answers
1. 6 2. 4 3. 6 4. 6 5. 4
11. Last two digits
Result 1 : Squares of first 25 natural numbers :

12  1 22  4 32  9 42  16 52  25
62  36 7 2  49 82  64 92  81 102  100
112  121 122  144 132  169 142  196 152  225
162  256 17 2  289 182  324 192  361 202  400
212  441 222  484 232  529 242  576 252  625
2 2 2
Result 2 : Last two digits of x 2 ,  50  x  , 100  x  , 150  x  ,..... are same.
2
Example : Last two digits of 892 = last two digits of 100  11 = last two digits of 112  21
Result 3 : Last two digits of a power in which unit digit of base is 1 :

.... y
Last two digits of  ....x1 are (unit digit of xy )1.
Example : Last two digits of 49183  (Last digit of 9  3 )1 = (last digit of 27)1 = 71
Result 4 : If the unit digit of base is 3, 7, 9 then convert the base with unit digit 1 by using the fact that
34  81, 7 4  2401 and 92  81.
Example : Last two digits of 789121 = last two digits of 89121

60
= last two digits of  892   89 
 
2 60
= last two digits of 100  11   89
 
60
= last two digits of 112   89
= last two digits of 01 89

= 89
odd even
Result 5 : (i) Last two digits of  210  are 24. (ii) Last two digits of  210  are 76.
Result 6 : If the unit digit of base is 2, 4, 6, 8 :

Case (i) : When the number is of the form 2n : In this case we express the given number 2n in the form
10 m
2  2 k where 0  k  9 and then use the result 5.
Example : Last two digits of 2643 = last two digits of 2640  23
RISING STAR ACADEMY
64
= last two digits of  210   23
= last two digits of 102464   23
= last two digits of 76  8

= 08
Case (ii) : When numbers are not of the form 2n : Separate the number into two parts. One is of the form 2n
and remaining part is odd.
283
Example : Last two digits of 56283  last two digits of  23  7 
283
= last two digits of  23   last two digits of 7 283
283 280 3
Last two digits of  23   last two digits of  23    23 
84
= last two digits of  210   29
= last two digits of 24  29 = 12

Last two digits of 7 283 = last two digits of 7 282  7

140
= last two digits of  50  1  73
70
= last two digits of  01  73  43
 Last two digits of 56283 = last two digits of 12  43 = 16
Result 7 : Last two digits of a number ending in 5 : If the digit in the ten’s place of the base is odd and the
power is odd then it will end in 75 otherwise the last two digits will be 25.
Example : (i) Last two digits of 7565 = 75.
(ii) Last two digits of 3572 = 25.
n
Result 8 : Last two digits of a number ending in 0 : Last two digits of  ....0   00 , where n  1 .
Example : Last two digits of 100283  00 .
36
Exercise 11
1. Find the last two digits of
(i) 37 2 (ii) 46 2 (iii) 582 (iv) 642 (v) 77 2 (vi) 932
2. Find the last two digits of (i) 121123 (ii) 7331486 (iii) 417 (iv) 851246
3. Find the last two digits of (i) 13242 (ii) 287100 (iii) 37100
4. Find the last two digits of (i) 84384 (ii) 92452 (iii) 2935
5. Find the last two digits of (i) 7235632 (ii) 635329
Answers
1. (i) 69 (ii) 16 (iii) 64 (iv) 96 (v) 29 (vi) 49
2. (i) 61 (ii) 81 (iii) 81 (iv) 01
3. (i) 69 (ii) 01 (iii) 01
4. (i) 72 (ii) 36 (iii) 68
5. (i) 25 (ii) 75
RISING STAR ACADEMY
----------------- S C Q ---------------- 10. The number of 4 digit numbers with no two

1. The highest power of 3 in C10 is50 digits common is
1. 4536 2. 3024
(1) 0 (2) 1
3. 5040 4. 4823
(3) 2 (4) 3
(CSIR NET June 2011)
2. The largest integer n such that 33! is divisible
11. The unit digit of 2100 is
by 2n is
1. 2 2. 4
(1) 15 (2) 20
3. 6 4. 8
(3) 30 (4) 31
3. The number of zeros at the end of 75! is
(1) 75 (2) 10 12. The number of multiples of 1044 that divide
(3) 20 (4) 18 1055 is
1. 11 2. 12
4. The remainder when 250 is divided by 7 is 3. 121 4. 144
(1) 1 (2) 2 (CSIR NET Dec 2011)
(3) 3 (4) 4
13. The number of words that can be formed by
100 permuting the letters of ‘MATHEMATICS’ is
5. The remainder when  r ! is divided by 12 is 1. 5040 2. 4989600
r 1 3. 11! 4. 8!
(1) 5 (2) 7 (CSIR NET June 2012)
(3) 9 (4) 11
14. The number of positive divisors of 50,000 is
6. The least positive common solution of the 1. 20 2. 30
linear congruences 3. 40 4. 50
x  2  mod 3 , x  3  mod 5 , x  5  mod 2  is (CSIR NET June 2012)
(1) 23 (2) 24
2011
(3) 25 (4) 46 15. The last digit of  38  is
1. 6 2. 2
7. If  a,7   1, then a12  1 is divisible by k, 3. 4 4. 8
where k is (CSIR NET June 2012)
(1) 3 (2) 5
(3) 7 (4) 8 16. The last two digits of 781 are
1. 07 2. 17
8. One of the solution for the equation 3. 37 4. 47
15 x  6  mod 21 is (CSIR NET Dec 2012)
(1) 5 (2) 6
(3) 7 (4) 8 17. What is smallest positive integer in the set
9. The number of elements in the set 24 x  60 y  2000 z | x, y, z   ?
{m :1  m  1000, m and 1000 are relatively 1. 2 2. 4
prime} is 3. 6 4. 24
1. 100 2. 250 (CSIR NET June 2013)
3. 300 4. 400
38
18. For any integers a, b let N a ,b denote the 1. n  p k where p is prime, k  1 .

number of positive integers x  1000 2. n  pq where p and q are distinct
satisfying x  a  mod 27  and x  b  mod 37  . primes.
Then, 3. n  pqr where p, q, r are distinct
1. there exist a, b such that N a ,b  0 primes.
4. n  p where p is prime.
2. for all a, b, N a ,b  1
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
3. for all a, b, N a ,b  1
4. there exists a, b such that N a ,b  1 , and 24. The remainder obtained when 162016 is
there exist a, b such that N a ,b  2 divided by 9 equals
1. 1 2. 2
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
3. 3 4. 7
19. If n is a positive integer such that the sum of
all positive integers a satisfying 1  a  n and
GCD  a, n   1 is equal to 240n , then the 25. What is the remainder when 3256 is divided
by 5 ?
number of summands, namely,   n  , is 1. 1 2. 2
1. 120 2. 124 3. 3 4. 4
3. 240 4. 480 (CSIR NET June 2017)
(CSIR NET June 2014) 26. Let S be the set of all integers from 100 to 999
which are neither divisible by 3 nor divisible
20. An ice cream shop sells ice creams in five by 5. The number of elements in S is
possible flavours : Vanilla, Chocolate, 1. 480 2. 420
Strawberry, Mango and Pineapple. How many 3. 360 4. 240
combinations of three scoop cones are (CSIR NET June 2017)
possible ? [Note : The repetition of flavours is 27. Let f :     / 4     / 6  be the
allowed but the order in which the flavours are
function f  n    n mod 4, n mod 6  . Then
chosen does not matter.]
1. 10 2. 20 1.  0 mod 4,3mod 6  is in the image of f
3. 35 4. 243
2.  a mod 4, b mod 6  is in the image of f,
for all even integers a and b
21. What is the total number of positive integer 3. image of f has exactly 6 elements
solutions to the equation 4. kernel of f  24
 x1  x2  x3   y1  y2  y3  y4   15 ? (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
1. 1 2. 2
3. 3 4. 4 ------------------ M C Q -----------------
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
1. Let a, b be integers not both zero, then which
22. Which of the following statements is FALSE? of the following(s) is/are true ?
There exists an integer x such that : 1. If gcd  a, b   1, then
1. x  23 mod 1000 and x  45 mod 6789 gcd  a  b, a  b   1 or 2
2. x  23 mod 1000 and x  54 mod 6789
3. x  32 mod 1000 and x  54 mod 9876 2. If gcd  a, 4   2  gcd  b, 4  , then
4. x  32 mod 1000 and x  44 mod 9876 gcd  a  b, 4   4
3. gcd  a, b   gcd  a, b  ac  for any
23. Given a natural number n  1 such that integer c
(n  1)!  1 (mod n). We can conclude that 4. gcd  a 2 , b 2   gcd  a, b 
RISING STAR ACADEMY
2. If d is a positive integers such that 7. Which of the following primes satisfy the
d 13n  6, d 12n  5 for some integer n, then congruence a 24  6a  2 mod 13 ?
possible values of d are 1. 41 2. 47
1. d  1 2. d  3 3. 67 4. 83
3. d  5 4. d  7 (CSIR NET June 2015)
3. Which of the following(s) is/are true ? 8. Which of the following intervals contains an
1. 56  1 mod 7  integer satisfying the following three
congruences : x  2  mod 5  , x  3  mod 7 
2. 5  7  1 mod 7 
and x  4  mod 11 .
3. 57  5  mod 7 
1.  401,600 2.  601, 800
4. 5  7   5  mod 7 
3. 801, 1000 4. 1001, 1200
4. Let x and y are the values of remainder when (CSIR NET Dec 2015)
2100 is divided by 11 and 2105 is divided by 11
respectively, then which of the following 9. For any prime number p, let Ap be the set of
is/are true ? integers d  1, 2,....,999 such that the power
1.   x  y   10 of p in the prime factorization of d is odd.
2.   xy   6 Then the cardinality of
1. A3 is 250 2. A5 is 160
3.   xy   4
3. A7 is 124 4. A11 is 82
4.   x  y     x    y 
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
5. Consider the congruence x n  2  mod13 . 10. Let S be the set of polynomials f  x  with
This congruence has a solution for x if
integer coefficients satisfying
1. n  5 2. n  6
3. n  7 4. n  8 f  x   1mod  x  1
6. We are given a class consisting of 4 boys and f  x   0 mod  x  3
4 girls. A committee that consists of a
President, a Vice-President and a Secretary is Which of the following statements are true
to be chosen among the 8 students of the class. 1. S is empty
Let a denote the number of ways of choosing
the committee in such a way that the 2. S is a singleton
committee has at least one boy and at least 3. S is a finite non-empty set
one girl. Let b denote the number of ways
choosing the committee in such a way that the 4. S is countably infinite
number of girls is greater than or equal to that
of the boys.
Then
1. a  288 2. b  168
3. a  144 4. b  192
40
Answer Key
SCQ
1. 1 2. 4 3. 4 4. 4
5. 3 6. 1 7. 3 8. 2
9. 4 10. 1 11. 3 12. 4
13. 2 14. 2 15. 2 16. 1
17. 2 18. 2 19. 4 20. 3
21. 4 22. 3 23. 4 24. 1

25. 1 26. 1 27. 2
MCQ
1. 1,2,3 2. 1,4 3. 1,2
4. 1,3 5. 1,3 6. 1,2
7. 1,3 8. 2,4 9. 1,3,4

10. 1

NT, Rising Star

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

NT, Rising Star

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rising Star Academy

(Ex. Lecturer in Govt. College Bahadurgarh)

7.  4k  1 4k ' 1  4k " 1 8.  4k  3 4k ' 3   4k " 1 9.  4k  1 4k ' 3  4k " 3

(8, 10) = 2 and so 8 and 10 are not co-prime.

2. If a  bq  r then  a, b    b, r  . OR The g.c.d. of a and b is the same as g.c.d. of b and r, where r is

the remainder obtained on dividing a by b.

of the values ax + by where x and y are integers.

 d/a and d/b  d / (ax  by )

and a is any integer then either p divides a or p is co-prime to a

Further, we know that  a, b   a, b   ab

 20. 840  20 x .20 y

l.c.m.  a, b  p1max 1 , 1  p2max  2 , 2  ........ pnmax  n , n 

The following example illustrate this technique :

and 2574  21 . 32 . 50 . 7 0 . 111 . 131

117 = 91.1 + 26 ......(4) (dividing 117 by 91)

But m1/m and m2 /m [ [m1 , m2] = m]

so, we have m1 / a  b and m2 / a  b

i.e. a  b (mod m1) and a  b (mod m2)

(v) 3247 by 17 (vi) 1653 by 7 (vii) 4849 by 7 (viii) 3247 by 25

3. Solution of Linear Congruences

Def. Linear congruence : A congruence of the form

e.g. x = 3 is a solution of the linear congruence 3x  4(mod 5) as 3.3  4 (mod 5).

(iii) Express 1 in the form 1 = au + mv

(v) Now d incongruent solution of (1) are given by

= 2(256  7.36)  7 [ 4 = 256  7.36 by (i)]

5 = 5.7 ( 73) + 5.2 (256)

4. Chinese Remainder Theorem

 x  x0  mk where k is any integer

 x = x0  mk where k is any integer

This gives the formula for all solutions of (1).

Solve these congruences and let x1 , x2 , x3 be their solution respectively.

(v) Then x0 = b1a1 x1  b2 a2 x2  b3a3 x3 gives the required common solution.

Comparing (1) with x  a1 (mod m1 )

we have 18x  0 (mod 3)

Put these values in (1) to obtain ax  (aq1  r1 ) y  aq2  r2

Put x  q1  q2 = z so that (2) becomes az  r1 y  r2

If neither a nor r1 divides r2 , then apply the above process again.

 23t  17 z  1 where y + z = t ...…(3)

Thus x = x0 = 74 and y = y0=  2 is a solution of (1).

where k is any integer.

identically zero and f  m n   f  m  f  n  whenever  m , n   1

5. For n > 2, (n) is even.

Solution : (i) We have n  92   2 2  231  p1k1 p2k2

We know that if n  p1k1 p2k2 ........ prkr

(ii) Here, n  385  5 . 7 . 11  p1k1 . p2k2 . p3k3

7. Fermat, Euler and Wilson Theorem

(a1  a2  ...  an ) p  a1p  a2p  ...  anp (mod p)

3. If p is a prime number and a is any integer, then a p  a (mod p )

i.e., 216  6 (mod 3) i.e., 3/216  6 i.e., 3/210, which is true.

= n(n  1)(n  1)(n 2  1)

[ If a/c, b/c and (a , b) = 1 then ab/c]

Example 2 : Prove that 2 26 !  1  0 mod 29 .

 1 27 !  1  0 mod 29   29  27 ! is divisible by 29 

 1 29  2   26 !  1  0 mod 29

 1 2 26!  1  0 mod 29

 1 29  26! is divisible by 29 

 2  26!  1  0  mod 29

7. If p is an odd prime then show that 1p  2 p  3 p  ..........  ( p  1) p  0(mod p ) .

8. Divisor and sum functions

Def. Number of divisors function : The number-of-divisors function is denoted by d  n   or   n   and is

defined as number of positive divisors of n. Symbolically , we write d  n   1 .

sum of all positive divisors of n. Symbolically, we write   n    d

2.   n   n  1 if and only if n is a prime.